Classification of magnetic materials

By the application of magnetic field, some materials will not show any effect
that are called nonmagnetic materials and those which show some effects are
called magnetic materials. All magnetic materials magnetizes in an applied
external magnetic field. Depending on the direction and magnitude of
magnetization and also the effect of temperature on magnetic properties, all
magnetic materials are classified into
(i)Diamagnetic, (ii) Paramagnetic, and (iii) Ferromagnetic materials.
Two more classes of materials have structure very close to ferromagnetic
materials, but possess quite different magnetic properties. They are anti-
ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials. The properties of these materials are
described below.
Diamagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials are repelled by the applied magnetic fields and they
magnetize to a small extent in the opposite direction to that of an applied
external magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility is small and negative for
these materials. Magnetic susceptibility represents the ease of
magnetization of a substance and is equal to the ratio of magnetization of a
material to the applied magnetic field. The relative permeability (µr ) is less
than 1 for these materials. Examples are gold, copper, silver, bismuth, lead, zinc
and noble gases. 1
Paramagnetic materials
These materials are feebly attracted by external magnetic fields and they
magnetize in the direction of the applied magnetic field. The magnetic
susceptibility is small and positive. The relative permeability is greater than 1 for
these materials. Paramagnetism is due to the spin and orbital, motion of
the electrons. Examples are aluminium, platinum, manganese chloride, salts of
iron, nickel, tungsten and nitrogen.
Ferromagnetic materials
These materials are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and they magnetize in
the direction of the applied external magnetic field. The magnetic susceptibility is
positive and large. The relative permeability is greater than 1 for these materials.
The atoms or molecules of ferromagnetic materials have magnetic dipole moment
due to the spin of the electrons. The permanent magnetic dipoles are all shown in
Fig. 1a. Examples are iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys, Gadolinium and
Dysprosium.

Fig. 1. Magnetic dipole

moments for adjacent
atoms of (a) Ferro;
(b) Antiferro and (c)
Ferrimagnetic substances 2
Anti-ferromagnetic materials
Antiferromagnetic materials show very little magnetism. Magnetic susceptibility
of these materials is positive and small. The atoms or molecules of anti-
ferromagnetic materials possess magnetic dipole moment due to the spin of
electrons. The magnetic dipole moments of adjacent atoms are anti-parallel as
shown in Fig. 1(b). Due to the anti-parallel magnetic dipole moments, the
magnetic effect of an anti-ferromagnetic material is zero, but possess magnetism
due to temperature-dependent disruption of the magnetic moment alignment.
Examples are copper chloride, oxides of manganese, cobalt and nickel.
Ferrimagnetic materials [Ferrites]
The magnetization of ferrimagnetic materials is intermediate to that of
ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials. The magnetic susceptibility is
large and positive. The magnetic dipole moments of adjacent atoms or molecules
of ferrimagnetic materials are anti-parallel and unequal in magnitude as shown in
Fig. 1(c). This unequal magnetic dipole moments of adjacent atoms result in a net
magnetization in the material. Examples are all ferrites have a general formula
MOFe2O3, in which M stands for any divalent ion, for example copper, zinc,
cadmium, iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.

3
Magnetic Field Vectors
Before discussing the origin of magnetic moments in solid materials, we
describe magnetic behavior in terms of several field vectors. The externally
applied magnetic field, sometimes called the magnetic field strength, is
designated by H. If the magnetic field is generated by means of a cylindrical
coil (or solenoid) consisting of N closely spaced turns, having a length l, and
carrying a current of magnitude I, then

The units of H are ampere-turns per meter, or just amperes per meter.

Figure A (a) The magnetic field H as generated by a

cylindrical coil is dependent on the current I, the number of
turns N, and the coil length l, according to Equation . The
magnetic flux density in the presence of a vacuum is equal to
where is the permeability of a vacuum, H/m. (b) The magnetic
flux density B within a solid material is equal to where is the
permeability of the solid material.

4
The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density, denoted by B, represents the
magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance that is subjected to an
H field. The unit for B is tesla [or webers per square meter] Both B
and H are field vectors, being characterized not only by magnitude, but also by
direction in space.

The magnetic field strength and flux density are related according to

The parameter  is called the permeability, which is a property of the specific

medium through which the H field passes and in which B is measured, as
illustrated in Figure A. The permeability has dimensions of webers per ampere-
meter (Wb/A-m) or henries per meter (H/m). In a vacuum,

where 0 is the permeability of a vacuum, a universal constant, which has a value

of 410-7 H/m. The parameter B0 represents the flux density
within a vacuum as demonstrated in Figure A(a).
5
Several parameters may be used to describe the magnetic properties of solids.
One of these is the ratio of the permeability in a material to the permeability in
a vacuum, or,

where r is called the relative permeability, which is unitless. The

permeability or relative permeability of a material is a measure of the degree to
which the material can be magnetized, or the ease with which a B field can be
induced in the presence of an external H field.

Another field quantity, M, called the magnetization of the solid, is defined by

the expression

In the presence of an H field, the magnetic moments within a material tend to

become aligned with the field and to reinforce it by virtue of their magnetic
fields; the term 0M is a measure of this contribution.
The magnitude of M is proportional to the applied field as follows:

and m is called the magnetic susceptibility, which is unitless. The magnetic

susceptibility and the relative permeability are related as follows:
6
7
 Types of Magnetism
B  (1  )oH permeability of a vacuum:
(1.26 x 10-6 Henries/m)
Magnetic induction
B (tesla)
(3) ferromagnetic e.g. Fe3O4, NiFe2O4
ferrimagnetic e.g. ferrite(), Co, Ni, Gd
(  as large as 106 !)

(2) paramagnetic (  ~ 10 -4)

e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr
vacuum ( = 0)
(1) diamagnetic (  ~ -10 -5)
e.g., Al 2 O3 , Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

Strength of applied magnetic field (H)

(ampere-turns/m)
8
 Magnetic Moments for various class
No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
none
(1) diamagnetic

random

aligned
(2) paramagnetic
aligned

aligned
(3) ferromagnetic
/ferrimagnetic

9
Origin of magnetic moment
We know that electric current through a conductor develops magnetic field
around it or current through a coil of wire will act as a magnet. This informs that
there is an intimate relation between electric current and magnetic field. Flow of
electrons along a path constitute electric current. In all atoms, electrons are
revolving around the nucleus in different orbits. These revolving electrons
constitute an electrical current in the orbits. These currents form magnetic
dipoles. As electrons in an atom are revolving in different orbits that are
randomly oriented, so the magnetic dipoles due to orbital motion of electrons
are randomly oriented, results in zero magnetic dipole moment. The spin of
orbital electrons and the spin of nucleus also contribute to the magnetic effects
to an atom. Under an external applied magnetic field, these dipoles experience
torque in the direction of the applied field and the atom acquires certain
magnetism. Therefore, the magnetic dipole moment of an atom is due to the
orbital motion of electrons, spin of electrons and spin of nucleus. We will study
these contributions in detail separately.

10
 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM
•The magnetic properties are due entirely to the electrons of the
atom, which have a magnetic moment by virtue of their motion.
•The nucleus also has a small magnetic moment, but it is
insignificant compared to that of the electrons, and it does not affect
the gross magnetic properties.

MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF ELECTRONS

There are two kinds of electron motion, orbital and spin, and each
has a magnetic moment associated with it. The orbital motion of an
electron around the nucleus may be likened to a current in a loop of
wire having no resistance; both are equivalent to a circulation of
charge. The magnetic moment of an electron, due to this motion,
may be calculated by an equation

11
  ev  evr
 (orbit )  r  2

 2r  2
The angular momentum of the electron must be an integral multiple
of h   , where h is Planck’s constant. Therefore,
2

mvr  n
Where m is the mass of the electron. Combining these relations, we
have
eh e
 (orbit )  
4m 2m
for the magnetic moment of the electron in the first (n=1) Bohr orbit.
12
The spin of the electron was postulated in 1925 in order to explain
certain features of the optical spectra of hot gases, particularly gases
subjected to a magnetic field (Zeeman effect), and it later found
theoretical confirmation in wave mechanics. Spin is a universal
property of electrons in all states of matter at all temperatures. The
electron behaves as if it were in some sense spinning about its own
axis, and associated with this spin are definite amounts of magnetic
moment and angular momentum. It is found experimentally and
theoretically that the magnetic moment due to electron spin is equal
to

13
Magnetic moment due to nuclear spin

Similar to electrons, the protons present in nucleus possess spin; the vector sum
of all the protons spins is equal to the nuclear spin. The magnetic moment of a
nucleus is expressed as nuclear magneton (n ) given as:

where, mp is the mass of proton.

The value of µn =is equal to 5.05 × 10-27 A-m2. Since mass of a proton is nearly
2000 times heavier than an electron, so µn is very small compared to µB and it
can be neglected. Therefore, the total magnetic moment of an atom will be
mainly the vector sum of the orbital and spin magnetic moments of electrons.

14
MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF ATOMS
Atoms contain many electrons, each spinning about its own axis and
moving in its own orbit. The magnetic moment of the atom is the
vector sum of all its electronic moments, and two possibilities arise:

1.The magnetic moments of all the electrons are so oriented that they
cancel one another out, and the atom as a whole has no net magnetic
moment. This condition leads to diamagnetism.

2. The cancellation of electronic moments is only partial and the

atom is left with a net magnetic moment. Such an atom is often
referred to as a magnetic atom. Substances composed of atoms of this
kind are para-, ferro-, antiferro-, or ferrimagnetic.

15
 Domain theory of ferromagnetism
In 1907, Weiss proposed domain theory to explain ferromagnetism. According to
this theory, a single crystal of ferromagnetic solid compresses a large number of
small regions, and each region is spontaneously magnetized to saturation extent
called a domain as shown in Fig. 2. The domain size may vary from 10-6 m to the
entire volume of the crystal. The spin magnetic moments of all the atoms in a
domain are oriented in a particular direction. The magnetization directions of
different domains of the specimen are random so that the resultant magnetization
of the material is zero in the absence of an external magnetic field. These domains
arise because the energy is not minimum when a large specimen has a uniform
magnetization. A ferromagnetic material magnetizes when an external magnetic
field is applied. The individual domains contribute to the total magnetization, M,
of the specimen. Becker suggested two independent processes by which
magnetization of the specimen takes place. 16
They are: (i) the domains that are parallel or nearly parallel to the direction of
applied magnetic field will grow in size at the cost of other domains and (ii) the
magnetic moments of the domains can rotate in the direction of applied field.

Fig. 2. Ferromagnetic domains

A symbolic representation of the response of the domains to the magnetic field is

shown in Fig. 3. By the applied magnetic field, either domain wall moments or
rotation of domains magnetic moments or both depending on the strength of the
applied magnetic field takes place. If weak magnetic field is applied on a
ferromagnetic material, then the domains of the material
whose magnetic moments are parallel or nearly parallel to the direction of
applied field will expand in size whereas the domains in which magnetic 17
moments are unfavourably oriented to the applied field will diminish in size
as shown in Fig. 3(b). This change produces large magnetization for the bulk
material.

Fig. 3. (a) Domain orientation in the absence of magnetic field; (b) Domain enhancement
shrikage due to weak fields; (c) Domain rotation due to strong fields; (d) Saturation due
to very high fields.

Application of higher magnetic fields rotates [twists] partially the domain’s

magnetic moments in the direction of the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 3(c).
This results in further increase in the magnetization of the bulk material.
Application of very strong magnetic fields on a ferromagnetic material results
in required amount of rotation of magnetic moments so as to align parallel to
the applied field as shown in Fig. 3(d). This is the highest magnetization of
the material called saturated magnetization.
18
 Origin of [Ferromagnetic] domains
In free state, all physical systems attain minimum energy and that is the condition
for stability. On this basis, one can conclude that domains exist in ferromagnetic
materials to minimize the total energy of the substance. The total energy of a
ferromagnetic solid consists of (i) exchange energy, (ii) magnetic field energy,
(iii) anisotropy energy, (iv) domain wall energy and (v) magnetostrictive
energy. These energies are described below:

(a)  Exchange energy
This is represented as , where Jc is total angular momentum
quantum number of an electron, Si and Sj are the spin quantum number of ith and
jth electrons. This energy is minimum when the spins are parallel.

(b)  Magnetic field energy
The magnetic poles formed at the ends of the magnetized specimen produces an
external magnetic field. If H is the intensity of magnetic field in a small volume
dv, then the magnetic field energy in that volume is 19
Around the specimen, the intensity of field will be different at different regions. The
complete field energy is represented by integration as

(c)  Anisotropy energy
It was experimentally found that much higher fields (H) are required to produce
saturation magnetization (Ms) along certain directions than some other directions in
ferromagnetic crystals. They are called hard and easy directions of magnetizations (M)
in the crystal. The excess of magnetic field energy required to produce Ms in a
direction over that of an easy direction of M is called anisotropy energy in that
direction of M. For example, in Fe, much higher H are required to twist the domains
to produce Ms along [111] than that of [100]. So, [100] is the easy direction and that
of [111] is the hard direction of M in BCC iron. The anisotropy energy is of the order
of 105 erg/cm3. In Ni, [111] is the easy and [100] is the hard direction of M. The
anisotropy energy is of 104 erg/cm3. In Co, hexagonal crystal axis is the easy direction
and [100] is the hard direction of M, and its anisotropy energy is 106 erg/cm3.
20
(d)  Domain wall [or Bloch wall] energy
We know that different domains of a ferromagnetic material magnetizes in
different directions. As we go from one domain to its neighbouring domain, the
spin [or magnetization] direction does not change abruptly but changes gradually
over many atomic planes as shown in Fig. 4. So, the spin exchange energy is
lower than when a change occurs abruptly to the same extent. Usually, the domain
wall thickness varies from 200 to 300 lattice constants.
(e)  Magnetostrictive energy
The change in dimensions of a material on magnetization is called
magetostriction. The work done by the magnetic field to produce
magnetostriction is stored as energy in the material called energy of
magnetostriction or magnetoelastic energy. If the lattice is not strained, then this
energy will be zero.

Fig. 4. Shows the change in spin magnetic moment in the domain wall between two domains.

21
Explanation for origin of domains
Explanation for the origin of domains is given based on minimization of all the
energies. Suppose the material is magnetized in an easy direction of magnetization
so that the anisotropic energy is minimum and let the spin magnetic moments of
atoms are parallel so that the exchange energy is minimum and the material
compresses as a single domain shown in Fig. 5 (a). Magnetic poles will be
developed at the free ends of the specimen and produce external magnetic fields so
that magnetic field energy will be high. To reduce this field energy, let the domain
will be sub-divided into two equal domains such that opposite poles at the same end
as shown in Fig. 5(b), so that field is confined only to a small region near the
sample end and magnetic field energy would be reduced to one-half of its previous
value. This configuration is at lower energy state than the previous one as shown in
Fig. 5(c). This process of division leads to lowering of field energy. When the sub-
division increases, then the domain wall area and hence the domain wall energy
increases. The process of sub-division will be continued [up to n-domains so that
the magnetic field energy is reduced to 1/nth of its initial value] up to a stage at
which the decreases in magnetic field energy are equal to the increase in domain
wall energy. This is the minimum energy state. With further sub-division, the
increase in domain wall energy exceeds the decrease in magnetic field energy. This
will not happen because this violates minimum energy configuration. Although the
magnetic field energy is reduced considerably by the sub-division, but it is not
22
equal to zero.
Fig. 5. Shows the origin of magnetic domains.

23
There is an arrangement shown in Fig. 5(d) for which the magnetic field energy is
zero. In this configuration, the magnetization is continuous inside the material so
that no free poles are formed anywhere in the material. There is no external
magnetic field associated with the magnetization and the magnetic field energy is
zero in this case. During the formation of this configuration, the dimensions of the
material are changed and this is associated with magnetostrictive strain energy.
For example, iron on magnetization, expands in the direction of magnetization
and contracts laterally so that the volume remains constant. The magnetostrictive
strain energy can be reduced by reducing the size of strain-producing horizontal
domains as shown in Fig. 5(e). In this configuration, the number of vertical
domains increases and also sub-division will be continued until the decrease in
magnetostrictive strain energy is compensated by the increase in domain wall
energy.
24
Hysteresis curve
Hysteresis means retardation or lagging of an effect behind the cause of the effect.
In magnetism, hysteresis has been used between the applied magnetic field (H )
and magnetization (M ) of a magnetic material. Here, the effect is magnetization
of a material and the cause of magnetization is the applied magnetic field.
Usually, in magnetic materials, the magnetization of a material lags behind the
applied magnetic field. This can be explained in detail, in the following way:
We start with an unmagnetized (M = 0) ferromagnetic specimen. With an
increasing applied magnetic field on it, the magnetization of the specimen
increases from zero to high values. The increase is non-linear. With small applied
fields, the domains pointing approximately in the field direction increase at the
expense of those that are not. In other words, their boundaries move so as to
expand the favourable domains. This gives rise to a small magnetization
corresponding to the initial portion of the hysteresis curve shown in Fig. 6. With
somewhat higher fields, the magnetization increases rapidly with H. At these field
strengths, the boundary moments are often large and irreversible. i.e., the
boundaries do not go back into their original position on reducing H. Application
of still higher fields, rotates (twists) the magnetization vectors in to the field
direction. i.e., all the domains point in the direction of H, then the specimen is
said to be attained saturation magnetization (M=Ms). The Ms is represented as
point ‘P’ in Fig. 6. 25
Fig. 6. Hysteresis curve.

26
If the field is decreased, then the magnetization decreases below the value
Ms, but this decrease of M does not occur along the same path (curve 1),
because the domains do not easily return to the original random
arrangement. As H is reduced to zero, M does not decrease in phase but lags
behind H. The value of M that remains in the material when H is reduced to
zero is called residual magnetization or remanence magnetism (Mr).

To remove the residual magnetism in the material, magnetic field is applied

in the opposite direction and gradually increased from zero. The
magnetization in the material becomes zero for an applied magnetic field of
-Hc, called coercive field for the material. Further increase of the applied
magnetic field in the opposite direction results in the material magnetization
in the opposite direction. Again decreasing the magnetic field in the opposite
direction to zero results in the residual magnetism in opposite direction.
Again increasing magnetic field in the forward direction, we will get a curve
that completes a closed loop called hysteresis loop. This loop includes some
area. This area indicates the amount of energy wasted in one cycle of
operation.

27
 B-H curve of Ferro- & Ferri-Magnetic Materials
• As the applied field (H) increases...
--the magnetic moment aligns with H.

B sat
H
H
induction (B)

H • “Domains” with
Magnetic

aligned magnetic
H moment grow at
expense of poorly
aligned ones!
H
0 Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0
28
Significance of MH or BH loops
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The size and shape of the hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials is of considerable practical importance. The area within a loop
represents a magnetic energy loss per unit volume of material per
magnetization–demagnetization cycle; this energy loss is manifested as heat
that is generated within the magnetic specimen and is capable of raising its
temperature.

Both ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are classified as either soft or

hard on the basis of their hysteresis characteristics. Soft magnetic materials
are used in devices that are subjected to alternating magnetic fields and in
which energy losses must be low; one familiar example consists of transformer
cores. For this reason the relative area within the hysteresis loop must be small;
it is characteristically thin and narrow. Consequently, a soft magnetic material
must have a high initial permeability and a low coercivity. A material
possessing these properties may reach its saturation magnetization with a
relatively low applied field (i.e., is easily magnetized and demagnetized) and
still has low hysteresis energy losses.
29
Figure 8. Schematic magnetization curves for soft and hard magnetic materials.

30
31
Another property consideration for soft magnetic materials is electrical
resistivity. In addition to the hysteresis energy losses described above, energy
losses may result from electrical currents that are induced in a magnetic material
by a magnetic field that varies in magnitude and direction with time; these are
called eddy currents. It is most desirable to minimize these energy losses in soft
magnetic materials by increasing the electrical resistivity. This is accomplished in
ferromagnetic materials by forming solid solution alloys; iron–silicon and iron–
nickel alloys are examples. The ceramic ferrites are commonly used for
applications requiring soft magnetic materials because they are intrinsically
electrical insulators. Their applicability is somewhat limited, however, inasmuch
as they have relatively small susceptibilities.

The hysteresis characteristics of soft magnetic materials may be enhanced for

some applications by an appropriate heat treatment in the presence of a magnetic
field. Using such a technique, a square hysteresis loop may be produced, which
is desirable in some magnetic amplifier and pulse transformer applications. In
addition, soft magnetic materials are used in generators, motors, dynamos, and
switching circuits.

32
HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Hard magnetic materials are utilized in permanent magnets, which must have a
high resistance to demagnetization. In terms of hysteresis behavior, a hard
magnetic material has a high remanence, coercivity, and saturation flux density,
as well as a low initial permeability, and high hysteresis energy losses. The
hysteresis characteristics for hard and soft magnetic materials are compared in
Figure 8. The two most important characteristics relative to applications for these
materials are the coercivity and what is termed the “energy product,” designated
as This corresponds to the area of the largest B-H rectangle that can be
constructed within the second quadrant of the hysteresis curve, Figure 9; its units
are kJ/m3 (MGOe). The value of the energy product is representative of the
energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet; that is, the larger the harder
is the material in terms of its magnetic characteristics.

Again, hysteresis behavior is related to the ease with which the magnetic domain
boundaries move; by impeding domain wall motion, the coercivity and
susceptibility are enhanced, such that a large external field is required for
demagnetization. Furthermore, these characteristics are interrelated to the
microstructure of the material.
33
34
Comparison between soft and hard magnetic materials

35
Figure 9. Schematic magnetization curve that displays hysteresis. Within the second
quadrant are drawn two B–H energy product rectangles; the area of that rectangle labeled
(BH)max is the largest possible, which is greater than the area defined by Bd–Hd.

36
 Applications of ferrites
The various applications are described below:
(1)Ferrites are used in thermal sensing switches used in refrigerators, air
conditioners, electronic ovens, etc.
(2)The magnetostrictive property of ferrites is utilized in producing ultrasonic
waves from a ferrite rod by the application of an alternating magnetic field.
(3)The insulating property of ferrites finds their use in electric motors; they are
also used as flat rings for loud speakers, wind screen wiper motors and correction
magnets for TV.
(4)Some ferrites possess high rectangular hysteresis loop, so they are useful in
the construction of computer memory system for rapid storage and retrieval of
digital information.
(5)Mixed ferrites possess high resistivity and good magnetic properties, so they
can be used to prepare cores used in inductors and transformers.
(6)Mn-Zn ferrites are used in television deflection yokes, cores for television line
output transformers and standard power supplies. These materials are used in
induction cores, antennas for medium and long wave broadcasting, transductors
[variable inductors], automatic control systems, frequency modulation,
switching, filters, etc.

37
(7) Ni-Zn ferrites are useful in wide band transformers, antennas for medium
and long wave broadcasting, power transformer cores, inductor cores and
antennas for short wave broadcasting.
(8) Oxides of γ-Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and CrO2 are used in magnetic recording of
audio, visual and digital information because of their high remanence
magnetization. The most widely used material is cobalt modified γ-Fe2O3 and
CrO2.
(9) The non-reciprocity of some ferrites, such as garnets, are used in a variety
of devices like isolators, calculators, switches, etc. An isolator is a device in
which the incident electromagnetic wave can propagate forward, so that there
is no reverse wave.

38