COURSE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

(GRE 322)

TOPIC: ELEMENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT

A. PRELIMINARY PAGES (Title, Acknowledgements, Table of Contents, List of Tables and

List of Figures

The title of a report needs to be detailed so there is no question as to what the

report is about. The title appears on the title page, which would also include
the author‟s name and the date of the report. This should be closely followed by
the acknowledgements (though optional). Then there should be a table of
contents followed by a list of tables and list of figures. The page numbers where
each of these tables and figures are located in the report should be shown.

B. ABSTRACT/SUMMARY

The summary/abstract is a descriptive or informative summary or brief

overview of the report. It clearly states motive/problem statement,
approach/method, results/findings and conclusions/significance. It should
only be a few sentences long. Most abstracts are between 250 – 300 words
long. An abstract is usually a paragraph and single spaced.

C. INTRODUCTION

The introduction should capture the following: The background to the study,
the statement of the problem, the aim and objectives of the study, the
purpose/significance of the study, and scope and limitations of the study
(optional).

Background to the study: This is a compilation of sufficient information that

helps the reader understand the purpose of the study. It provides a general
overview of the topic of study in the first paragraph to introduce the main
ideas. The second paragraph includes clear, focused, accurate and detailed
information to understand the science investigated during the study. The third
and fourth paragraphs narrows down the broad ideas to what specifically you
want to do in the work. The writer must research the background information
and cite all sources used. Remember not to use “I, our, we”. Please use: „The
project” or the “the work” or “the study” or “the experiment” or the review” not
“My work” and so on.

Statement of the problem: It is one sentence of several paragraphs stating

the problem, i.e. the problem that needs close attention or a statement of an
existing method that seems no longer to be working. It includes persuasive
arguments why the problem is important enough to study. After writing this
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section, make sure you can identify the single sentence that is the problem
statement. An example of a problem statement is: „The frequency of job layoffs
is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in middle management
workers‟‟. Or „The continuous loss of copyright by movie producers due to the
increase in piracy’’

Aim and objectives of the study:

Aims are broad statements of desired outcomes or the general intentions of the
research, which 'paint the picture' of your research proposal – They emphasize
what is to be accomplished, not how it is to be accomplished. Aims are typically
not numbered in a research. Strong research projects set out only two to three
aims. Each aim may have several objectives associated with it. Once aims have
been established, the next task is to formulate the objectives.

A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides

the steps you are going to take to achieve the aims of your research. It may
also be described as a specific list of tasks needed to accomplish the aims of
the project. They include a list of practical steps and tasks you're going to take
to meet your aims. Objectives are typically numbered, so each one stands
alone.

The objectives should be clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying

exactly what the researcher is going to do, where, & for what purpose.
Objectives are usually headed by infinitive verbs such as: To identify, To
establish, To describe, To determine, To estimate, To develop, To compare, To
analyze, To collect, to establish, to verify.

Remember: Use strong positive statements which use strong verbs. Avoid
weaker verbs. Examples of weak verbs include: appreciate, consider,
enquire, learn, know, understand, be aware of, appreciate, listen, perceive

How many aims or objectives should there be?

 There should always be an aim with no fixed number of objectives.

Characteristics of Research Objectives

Research objectives should be S.M.A.R.T.:
 Specific – be precise about what you are going to do
 Measureable –you will know when you have reached your goal
 Achievable – Don‟t attempt too much. A less ambitious but completed
objective is better than an over-ambitious one that you cannot possible
achieve.
 Realistic – do you have the necessary resources to achieve the objective?
For example: time, money, skills, etc?
 Time bound – An objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved
within the expected time frame and with the available resources.
Therefore, in a research work, we need to determine when each stage is
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 to be completed. Is there time in your schedule to allow for unexpected
delays?

Tips for ensuring that your objectives are smart:

 Specific
Objectives should clearly state what you are expected to achieve, using action
verbs to describe what has to be done.
For example:
Not specific: Encourage more people to join the Sports Centre
Specific: Increase membership of the Sports Centre
Not specific: Conduct research
Specific: Formulate plans for research on topic X

 Measurable
Objectives should include a quality and/or quantity reference so that you can
measure whether or not you have achieved them.
For example:
Not measurable: Increase membership of the Sports Centre
Measurable: Increase membership of the Sports Centre by 10%
 Achievable
Objectives should be achievable given the time frame and availability of
resources to the project.

 Realistic
Objectives should be challenging but achievable i.e. they should not be
unrealistic. For example, it might be realistic to plan to lose 10 pounds in
weight but it would be unrealistic to plan to lose 10 pounds in one week.
Objectives should also take account of the skills, knowledge and resources
needed to achieve them. You may need to consider whether you need any
training or development (or other support) in order to achieve the objective.

 Timebound
Objectives should include a time reference, such as a specific deadline.
For example:
Not timebound: Increase membership of the Sports Centre by 10%
Timebound: Increase membership of the Sports Centre by 10% over the next
six months
Not Timebound: Formulate plans for research on topic X and submit grant
application to X Research Council
Timebound: Formulate plans for research on topic X and submit grant
application to X Research Council by 1 June 2009.

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Examples of research aim & objectives

Here is an example of a project aim and subsidiary objectives:

Aim (Main Objective)

 To critically assess the collection and disposal operations for bulky

household waste in order to identify factors which contribute to
performance and technical efficiency.

Objectives

 To critically assess bulky waste operations by local authorities, including

volumes/types of materials arising and current disposal/recovery routes.
 To classify and evaluate the operation of furniture recovery schemes
nationally.
 To make recommendations to improve the operational effectiveness of,
and to maximize recovery opportunities of bulky waste collection.

Example 2

Consider a research on Unemployment in Nigeria and considering the two

research questions posed: (1) What has been the unemployment rate in Nigeria
over the last decade? and (2) Why have the states in the northern part of
Nigeria registered a lower unemployment rate than southern states of Nigeria?

The objectives could be as follow:

1. To compare the unemployment rate among all states of the federation.
2. To analyze the unemployment rate evolution from 1999 to 2015.
3. To identify the factors associated with high unemployment rates.
4. To develop an explanatory theory that associates unemployment rate with
other indicators such as Growth Domestic Product (GDP).

Relevance of research objectives to academics and the industry

The formulation of research objectives will:
1. Help the researcher focus on the study.
2. Help the researcher avoid collecting data which are not necessary for
understanding and solving the problem that he or she has defined.
3. Help the researcher develop the research methodology and will help to orient
the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data.
4. Make the study to be organized in clearly defined parts or phases.

At the conclusion of your project you will need to assess whether or not you
have met your objectives and if not, why not. However, you may not always
meet your aims in full, since your research may reveal that your questions
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were inappropriate, that there are intervening variables you could not account
for or that the circumstances of the study have changed, etc. Whatever the
case, your conclusion will still have to reflect on how well the research design,
which was guided by your objectives, has contributed to addressing your aims.

Significance of a study: This section creates a perspective for looking at the

problem. It points out how the study relates to the larger issues and uses a
persuasive rationale to justify the reason for the study. It makes the purpose
worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the following questions:

Why is your study important? To whom is it important? What benefit(s) will

occur if your study is done?

Scope and Limitations of the study: This section includes the specific
variables of the study, the location of the study, the samples, the respondents
and the weaknesses of the study

D. LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review in research is the process of reading, analyzing, evaluating,

and summarizing scholarly materials about a specified topic or a research field
(question). Therefore, it is a written approach to examining published
information on a particular topic or field of research. Thus, review is a careful
examination of a body of literature pointing toward the answer to author‟s
research question(s). In other words, an author uses this review of
literature to create a foundation and justification for his or her research or to
demonstrate knowledge on the current state of a field. Therefore, literature
reviewed typically includes scholarly journals, scholarly books, authoritative
databases and primary sources. Sometimes it includes newspaper,
magazines, other books, films (documentaries) and audio and video
tapes.

E. MATERIALS AND METHODS

This section describes the materials and methods you require for your work.
List and describe all the materials that was needed to conduct your research
project •include test instruments, surveys/questionnaires, •include recording
devices: video camera, audio tape recorder, •Include test setting: i.e. laboratory,
classroom, outdoors. The procedure involved in the work should also highlight
the following: •Chronicles the sequence of events that took place in your study
•Include the following design information: IV, DV, how you assigned
participants to conditions, experimental design •Be very specific in your
description

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F. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Data presentation

Data obtained from a research can be presented in the following way:

Tables: present information in columns and rows.

Line graphs: shows trends or relationships.

Bar graphs: compares separate items.
Pie charts: shows different values as part of a whole.

Note: Whichever way data is presented, be it in tables, graphs, illustrations,

and charts. All must be labelled; usually they are numbered and captioned.
Anything not a table is called a figure. Place numbers and titles above tables
and below figures. Refer to each table or figure in the text, for example, "see
Figure l," or "see Table 2." Be sure to show the source of your data at the
bottom of the table or figure.

Example:
Table 1.1: Means of transport used by university students
Transport mode Car Tricycle Bicycle Foot
Number of students 21 800 3 970
Source: Okoneyo (2015)

Graphics
Using graphics in a technical document helps the reader understand the
instructions of a technical document. When including graphics, tables or
charts in a technical document make sure, the graphics are appropriate to the
reader, subject matter and purpose. Always discuss graphics in nearby text
preceding the graphic. Orient readers to the graphic; explain its basic meaning.
The graphic should be labeled, include a title and a source if the graphic is not
your own.

G. CONCLUSIONS

The conclusion section is an effective ending to your report. The content

should state whether you have achieved your objective, a brief summary of
important information and findings and highlights the outcomes and results of
your investigation and the significance.

H. RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations are often included in reports that include results of test

experiments, field trials, specific design problems and feasibility reports. The
author may suggest a course of action to the reader, such as if any additional
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information needs to be learned and what the author wants the reader to do
with the information presented.

I. REFERENCES

This is a list of materials used in the course of the research. Examples:

How to reference a text book:

Bourgoyne, A. T., Chenevert, M. E., Millheim, K. K, Young, F. S. (2003). Applied drilling

Engineering. SPE Textbook Series, Volume 2, Richardson, Texas.

How to reference a webpage:

Wikipedia (2010) Semipermeable membrane (4 October 2010 revision),

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?ttitle=Semipermeable_membrane&oldid=388646914
(accessed 20 August 2010).

How to reference a journal article:

Anawe Paul, A.L., Efeovbokhan, V. E., Ayoola, A. A. and Akpanobong O. A. (2014). Investigating
Alternatives to Diesel in Oil Based Drilling Mud Formulations Used in the Oil Industry. Journal
of Environment and Earth Science, Vol. 4, No.14, p. 70-77.

J. REPORT SUPPLEMENTS (glossary, footnotes, appendices, indices)

Information essential to the understanding and defending of the text appears in

the text. Information that needs more understanding such as definitions,
sources, should be included in the document. Each new type of data or
procedure/technique should be found in its own appendix. Anything that
cannot be left out of a report, but is too large for the main part of the report
and would serve to distract or interrupt the flow belongs in the appendixes.

Symbols and Nomenclature

All symbols and nomenclatures that need to be defined should be included in

the material documents. These symbols and nomenclature definitions may be
placed in endnotes or in the glossary at the end of the document.

ARRANGEMENT OF WRITE UP IN A TECHNICAL REPORT

PAGE DESIGN

The page design covers a wide range of reader aids, including white space,
bullets or numbering, indentation, underlining, bold facing, capitalization,
headings, subheadings, and visual aids.

a. White space refers to the amount of blank space between lines or groups of
lines. It can set off an important line or section simply by
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 putting more than the usual space above and below it just as
this guidebook uses space to separate different sections from
one another.

b. Bullets or numbers can be used to emphasize separate points. Bullets and

numbering are especially useful when writing a technical
manual.

c. Indentation also visually separates important points from the rest of the
text.

d. Underlining, either by itself or in combination with other strategies such as

boldfacing, italics and CAPITALIZATION, helps define separate
sections, especially in headings and subheadings.

e. Headings, placed at the beginning of every major segment of your report,

guide your readers to the parts they consider most relevant and
interesting. Headings are an important feature to a technical
report because they help break up long stretches of straight
text. All headings should be consistent in style and format.
The title of the headings should indicate the topic coverage in
the section. Effective headings make it easier for the reader to
access and understand the document. You may have 2 to 3
headings per page with regular text. Do not overdo headings.
There may be first level, second level and third level headings
dependent on the type of technical report (McMurrey, 2011).

a. First-Level Heading

i. Make first-levels all-caps.

ii. Use Roman numerals with first-levels.
iii. Either underline the words but not the Roman numeral, or bold
the entire heading including the Roman numeral.
iv. Make first-levels centered on the page.
v. Start a new page whenever you have a first-level heading.
vi. Begin first-levels on the standard first text line of a page.
vii. Leave 3 blank lines between first-levels and the first line of text.

b. Second-Level Headings

i. Make second-levels headline-style caps.

ii. Underline or use bold on second-levels.
iii. Do not include outlining apparatus such as "A." or "B." or "1."
or "2." with second-levels.

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 iv. Make second-levels flush left.
v. Leave 2 blank lines between previous text and second-levels.
vi. Leave 1 blank line between second-levels and the following text.

c. Third-Level Headings

i. Make third-levels sentence-style caps.

ii. Underline or use bold for third-levels (but don't underline the period).
iii. End third-levels with a period. iv. Do not include outlining apparatus
such as "A." or "B." or "1." or "2." with third-levels.
v. Indent third-levels 5 spaces (or the standard paragraph indentation).
vi. Do not make third-levels a grammatical part of sentences that follow.
vii. Use the standard spacing between paragraphs for paragraphs that
contain third-levels.

f. Subheadings break down long segments into more manageable pieces and
serve as guideposts for the reader.

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