Inversion with negative adverbials – adding emphasis

 
In formal English we can place a negative or restrictive adverb at the beginning of a sentence to make the
sentence more emphatic or dramatic. When we do this, the adverb is then followed by an inversion: auxiliary
verb + subject (+ verb). See the example below:
 I could find my keys nowhere. ⇒ Nowhere could I find my keys. 
When there is no auxiliary verb, we use do/does (present) or did (past) as auxiliary.
 I understand the true meaning only now. ⇒ Only now do I understand the true meaning. 
 I didn’t say anything until she arrived. ⇒ Not until she arrived did I say anything. 
 

Common adverbs used with this structure

 
We normally use hardly … when, barely … when, scarcely … when, and no sooner … than in
narratives with past perfect in the inversion.
We use no sooner … than (NOT that, or when)
Your examples:

Adverbial + clause + inversion

Note that after some adverbials, such as only if and only when we use a subordinate clause (subject +
verb), and that the inversion is never in the subordinate clause, but in the main verb of the sentence
like in the following sentence:
 Only when I sleep can I forget about the accident. (NOT: Only when do I sleep I can…)
### The same happens with other adverbials, such as not since and not until.
Your examples:

We use a subordinate clause (subject + verb) with these adverbials and the inversion is never in the
subordinate clause, but in the main verb of the sentence like in the following sentence:
 Not since I was child have I had such a great time. (NOTE: Not since was I child I’ve had …)
Have a look to the following sentences without the negative adverbial at the beginning to be crystal clear.
 I can forget about the accident only when I sleep.
 I haven’t had such a great time since I was a child.
The main subject and verb are at the beginning of the sentence, and this is the element that
must be in the inversion.
We must always use not followed by another element before the inversion.
 Not often can we see such great expressions of art. (NOTE: Not can we see such great
expressions of art often.)
Your examples:

Your examples:
We can also use inversion after the negative or restrictive adverbs of frequency, such as seldom, rarely,
or never.
We often use never to talk about experiences. In that case, we normally use present perfect or past
perfect.
Your examples:

 Exercise 1
Choose the correct option to complete the sentences below.
1. He can speak French but __________ it in public, and almost never when on diplomatic duty.
a. not once does he use
b. seldom does he use
c. rarely he uses

2. __________ those words __________ all the newspapers published them.

a As soon as had he uttered a. than
b No sooner he had uttered b. that
c No sooner had he uttered c. as

3. __________ the stress she was under.

a. Only now do I realize
b. Now only do I realize
c. Only now I realize

4. __________the world gets rid of all nuclear weapons __________ truly safe.
a. Under no circumstances a. can us feel
b. Hardly b. we can feel
c. Not until c. can we feel
5. __________such dedicated and honest leaders.
a. Nowhere have I encounter
b. Nowhere have I have encountered
c. Nowhere have I ever encountered.

6. __________ what was in store for him after he landed here.

a. Little did he know
b. No sooner did he know
c. Never before did he know.

7. __________ the votes been counted __________ they started breaking promises.
a. Hardly did a. when
b. Hardly have b. that
c. Hardly do c. then

8. __________we are able to reinvent ourselves __________ to succeed in business and life.
a. Only if a. will be able
b. Never before b. will we be able
c. No sooner c. we will be able

9. __________ ever said anything to damage his reputation.

a. Never I have
b. In no way have I
c. Little have I

10. __________ the South Americans lose their ice-cold concentration, and __________ fail to control
the ball.
a. Never have a. rarely have they
b. Never did b. rarely did they
c. Never c. rarely did

11. __________ started the discussion __________ a group of hooligans arrived and started shouting
slogans.
a. Barely had they / when
b. No sooner had they / when
c. Barely they had / when
d. No sooner had they / that

12. __________we take specific actions immediately __________ hope to stop climate change in some
way.
a. Rarely when / can we
b. If only / can we
c. Only if / can we
d. Only / we can

13. __________ break the law, __________ put themselves and others in unnecessary danger.
a. Not only they / but they also
b. Not only have they / but they also have
c. Not only did they / but did they also
d. Not only did they / but they also

14. __________allow such terrible actions to happen again.

a. Never again we will
b. No way will
c. Under no circumstances will we
d. Little will we

15. We all need to be on sensible alert, but __________allow fear to dictate the course of our lives.
a. never we must
b. on no account should we
c. no way we should
d. under no circumstances we should

Exercise 2
Rewrite the sentences using inversion. Use the words in brackets when provided. Do NOT use
contractions.
1. I had hardly arrived home when my phone rang.
______________________________ home when my phone rang.

2. They had barely won the match when the coach had a heart attack.
______________________________ the match when the coach had a heart attack.
3. The company had no sooner launched a new product than it went bankrupt.
______________________________a new product than it went bankrupt.

4. She didn't really understand what the conversation was about. (Little...)
______________________________ what the conversation was about.

5. You are not allowed to disturb the pilots under any circumstances.
______________________________ to disturb the pilots.

6. We have never faced such a challenge!

______________________________ such a challenge!

7. You can solve this puzzle only by guessing.

______________________________ this puzzle.

8. I would accept this position only if everybody agreed.

______________________________ this position.

9. The Queen has rarely cried in front of a camera.

______________________________ in front of a camera.

10. He mentioned the financial crisis zero times. (Not once)

______________________________ the financial crisis.
 Modal verbs of speculation and deduction
must
We use must + infinitive for obligation and strong recommendation, but also to say that we are quite sure
that something is true.
 They are almost identical. They must be sisters.
 But I answered all the questions correctly. There must be a mistake. 
We use must be + –ing with dynamic verbs to say that we are quite sure that something is happening
now.
 What you are saying is not possible. You must be kidding.  
 Can you hear the shouting? Our neighbours must be arguing again. 
We use must have + past participle or must have been + -ing to say that we are quite sure that
something was true or happened in the past.
 I can’t find my wallet! I must have dropped it in the taxi.
 You must have had a real scare when you saw the crocodile. 
 He was the only victim. He must have been sleeping when the fire started.
Your examples: 

can’t
We can use can’t + infinitive to say that we are quite sure that something is NOT true.
 He can’t be that famous. I’ve never heard his name before. 
 She can’t be married. I have never seen a ring on her finger. 
We use can’t be + –ing to say that we are quite sure that something is NOT happening now.
 They can’t be travelling by bus. There is no bus service on Sundays. 
We use can’t/couldn’t have + past participle or can’t have been + -ing to say that we are quite sure
that something did NOT happen or was NOT true in the past.
 You can’t/couldn’t have seen John last night. He was in hospital. 
 She can’t/couldn’t have passed the test. She didn’t even open the books.  
### Note that we use can’t and NOT mustn’t for negative deduction
 He can’t be that famous. (NOT He mustn’t be that famous.)
Your examples:
could/might/may
We can use could/might/may + infinitive to say that it’s possible that something is true (but we are
not sure).
 I can’t get hold of him on the phone. He could/might/may be away. 
 We didn’t do anything when we could and now it could/might/may be too late.
We use could/might/may be + –ing to say that we are quite it’s possible that something is happening
now (but we are not sure).
 Tom isn’t at the office. He might/may be working from home today.  
 ‘Why isn’t she picking up her phone.’ ‘She might/may be driving.’
We can use could/might/may have + past participle or might/may have been + -ing to say that it’s
possible that something was true or happened in the past.
 It’s been three days. They could/might/may have finished painting the house by now. 
 If they left at 9, they could/might/may have already arrived.
 She was home last night, but didn’t answer the door. She might/may have been having a shower.
We can use could have + past participle to say that something was possible in the past but did not
happen.
 He could have played in the first division, but he had a terrible injury.
 He could have had better jobs if he had spoken English.   
### Note that we use might not or may not (NOT could not) to talk about a negative possibility.
 He seems too calm. He might/may not be aware of the risks.
 She might/may not have heard us. Knock again.
Your examples:

should/ought to
We use should/ought to + infinitive to talk about a situation that we expect to happen (present or
future).
 He should/ought to be home by now. He is always home before 7. 
 They should/ought to arrive before midnight.
We use should have/ought to have + past participle to talk about a situation expected to happen in
the past. We can also use this form to express criticism.
 He should/ought to have received the parcel yesterday. I sent it two days ago. 
 He should/ought to have studied more. Nobody fails if they study. 
 Your examples:
 Expressions for speculation
bound/sure
Bound and sure are adjectives that are used to say that we are quite sure that something will be true or
happen. We use them in the structure be bound/sure + to infinitive.
 The Jamaican is bound/sure to win the final.
 There are bound/sure to be some discrepancies during the meeting, so be prepared.
 Your examples:

likely/unlikely
Likely and unlikely are adjectives. If something is likely to happen it means that it will probably happen or
that it is expected to happen. If something is unlikely to happen it means that it probably won’t happen. We
can use these two adjectives in two ways.
It is likely/unlikely that + clause
 It’s likely that just in a few years we will change our economic model.
 It’s unlikely that the police had anything to do about it. 
Subject + be likely/unlikely + to + infinitive
 He is likely to win this game. 
 They are unlikely to reach an agreement. 
 Your examples:

definitely/probably
Definitely and probably go before the main verb and after the auxiliary verb (if there is one) in (+)
sentences.
 You’ll definitely get the job. Nobody’s got your qualifications and experience. 
 He’s definitely our best player. 
And they go before the auxiliary verb in (-) sentences.
 They definitely won’t find any evidence. 
 She definitely isn’t seeing anyone right now. 
Your examples:
Exercise 1
Choose the correct modal verb or expression for speculation and deduction to complete the
sentences below.
1. Yesterday I fell running and I think I __________my ankle.
a. might sprain
b. might have sprained
c. ‘m likely to sprain

2. He __________the competition. He's the best by far.

a. ‘s bound to win
b. must win
c. will win definitely

3. The light in Scot's room is on. He __________computer games.

a. must play
b. must be playing
c. must have played

4. He __________German very well. He's only lived in Germany for one month.
a. isn’t bound to speak
b. can’t have spoken
c. can’t speak

5. A: 'The burglar broke into our home in daylight.' B: 'Then some of your neighbours
__________him.'
a. might have seen
b. will definitely see
c. might see

6. I __________a lot as an accounting manager, but the job was just too boring.
a. have definitely earned
b. could have earned
c. might earn

7. This song __________the next big hit.

a. is sure to be
b. definitely will be
c. must have been

8. He __________to prison for the theft because he has no previous criminal record.
a. is unlikely to go
b. must not go
c. will unlikely

9. A: 'Have you seen the cat? I can't find him.' B: 'Have you checked under the bed?
He __________there.'
a. could have been
b. may be hiding
c. might hide

10. You __________a copy on the contract at the email address you provided the day after you
signed.
a. must be bound to receive
b. should receive
c. should have received
Exercise 2
Choose the correct options. For each question, choose TWO correct options.

1. The supporters were in shock. They __________ their team to lose.

a. definitely didn't expect
b. definitely won't expect
c. can't have expected
d. must not have expected

2. Your parents __________ fly into a rage when they see the scratch on their car. You took it without their
permission!
a. are bound to
b. are likely
c. probably will
d. will definitely

3Experts say that they __________ their first final ever.

a. bound to win
b. sure to win
c. are likely to win
d. might win

4. Rafting down the river in May __________really exciting.

a. must be
b. is bound to be
c. probably will be
d. is probably be

5. They __________home before 6. Their train arrives at 5.30, and they live just opposite the station.
a. will probably be
b. should be
c. can't be
d. are unlikely to be

6. They __________ straight to the hotel after the restaurant. I was in the room next door and I didn't hear
anything.
a. didn't definitely go
b. definitely didn't go
c. can't go
d. couldn't have gone
7. Guests __________ love the views from the terrace.
a. might likely
b. are bound to
c. probably will
d. will definitely
8. According to the police, the escaped prisoner __________ be hiding in the town any more.
a. might not
b. must not
 c. won't definitely
d. is unlikely to
9. He __________his illness with better eating habits. But now it's too late.
a. must not have prevented
b. might have prevented
c. can have prevented
d. could have prevented
10. They __________the battle; they had more soldiers and better equipment, but they lost.
a. are sure to win
b. should have won
c. were bound to win
d. can't have won

Exercise 3
Rewrite the sentences using the word in brackets.
1. Perhaps he took piano lessons when he was a child. (might)
He ________________________________________piano lessons when he was a child.

2. When she sees this mess, she will definitely be disappointed. (sure)
When she sees this mess, she ________________________________________.

3. I'm sure he saw me. (must)

He ________________________________________ me.

4. Maybe he is not working today. (may)

He ________________________________________ today.

5. The economy won't probably contract again this year. (unlikely)

It ________________________________________ again this year.

6. This app will definitely help you improve your productivity. (bound)
This app ________________________________________ you improve your productivity.
7. They didn't have their car, so I'm sure they didn't get very far. (cannot)
They didn't have their car, so they ________________________________________very far.

8. They are likely to vote for him in the election. (probably)

They ________________________________________ for him in the election.

9. They were supposed to call before 9. Maybe something's happened to them. (should)
They ________________________________________ before 9. Maybe something's happened
to them.

10. They'll probably promote him after the good results. (likely)
They ________________________________________him after the good results.
 have as a main verb
 
When we use have as a main verb, it works as any other verb. We need an auxiliary verb, e.g. do, to make
questions and negatives and we don’t normally use its contracted form.
 
have meaning ‘possess’ or ‘suffer’ (from pain, illness, etc.)
 
We use have  to talk about possession. We need the verb do to make questions and negatives. The past form
is had and it’s a stative verb, so it CANNOT be used in progressive forms.
 Do you have time?
 I’ve had this watch since I was a child. 
 I have a terrible headache. 
 
have to for obligation
 
Have to is used to express obligation; usually to talk about obligation coming from others: rules, regulations,
etc. In this case, have is also a stative verb.
 We have to wear a uniform at school. 
 Remember you have to return the book before next month. 
We need do or another  auxiliary verb to make questions and negatives.
 You won’t have to show me your credential, it won’t be necessary. 
 I didn’t have to say anything, because they already knew. 
The negative form of have to is used to talk about lack of necessity (NOT about prohibition)
 I don’t have to get up too early tomorrow. (=I don’t need to)
 
have something done
 
When we have something done, it means that we ’employ someone to do something for us’.
 I have my house cleaned every Thursday. (=I employ someone to clean my house.)
We can also use have something done when something bad happens to us.
 He had his wallet stolen in Piccadilly. 
 They had their house destroyed by the fire. 
Have here is a dynamic verb, so it can be used in progressive forms.
 We are having the house redecorated. 
In informal speech, the it’s common to use get instead of have.
 Where did you get your car serviced?
 
have meaning ‘take’ (a shower, a drink, etc.), ‘give’ (a party), etc.
 
Have can have different meanings depending on the words that come after it. It can mean:
 ‘Take’ (a meal, a drink, a shower, a bath, a massage, a lesson, etc.)
o I’m going to have a massage tomorrow.  
o How many lessons do you have every week? 
 ‘Give’ (a party)
o We are having a party next week; do you want to come?
 ‘Encounter’ (trouble, difficulties)
o  Did you have any trouble finding the place?
 ‘Experience’, ‘enjoy’ (day, weather, time, etc.)
o We had so much fun!
o We had a wonderful weekend in Los Angeles. 
In all these cases have is a dynamic verb, so it can be used in continuous forms.
 I’m having a lot of problems with my new computer. 
 We are having fantastic weather. 
In all these cases have is a main verb, and we need do or did or another auxiliary to make questions and
negatives.
 Do you have a shower in the mornings?
 You won’t have any trouble. 
 
have as an auxiliary verb
 
When have is used as an auxiliary verb, it normally has negative and interrogative forms and it can be
contracted.
 
have got used for possession
 
In informal English, it is common to use have got instead of have to talk about possession. When expressing
possession, the verb have is not an auxiliary verb when used on its own, but it is an auxiliary verb in have got.
 I haven’t got any brothers or sisters = I don’t have any brothers or sisters. 
 How many computers have you got? = How many computers do you have?
The verb have got only exists in the present tense.
 We didn’t have an umbrella and got wet. (NOT hadn’t got an umbrella).
 
haven’t for possession
 
In negative sentences sometimes we leave out got to express possession.
 I haven’t time to do what I want. 
  I haven’t a clue.
 I haven’t the slightest idea. 
 
have got to for obligation
 
In informal English we can also use have got to express the idea of obligation. It is normally used to talk about
specific obligations rather than general obligations.
 I’ve got to call my boss after lunch. (=specific obligation)  
 I have to wear a tie at work. (=general obligation)
 
simple and continuous and past perfect simple and continuous
 
We use have in the present perfect simple and continuous. These are verb tenses that we often use to express
the idea of duration.
 I’ve been writing all morning. 
 We’ve been married for ten years.
We also use have in the past perfect simple and continuous.
 She told me she hadn’t been there before. 
 I could see in her eyes that she had been crying. 
 
Future perfect simple and continuous
 
We use have in the future perfect simple for actions that will be completed at a certain time in the future.
 In 2030 we will have found the cure for cancer. 
We also use have in the future perfect simple to express the duration of a situation until certain time in the
future.
 In 2020 we will have been married for 25 years. 
We use the present perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to express the duration of a situation until certain
time in the future.
 By the end of January I will have been working on this project for two years. 
 
Perfect or past infinitive: to have done
 
We use the verb have in the perfect infinitive to talk about things that happened in the past.
 I’m glad to have met you. (=to meet you in the past)
 He pretended to have lost my phone number. (=to lose my phone number earlier in the past)
 
Perfect modal verbs: must have done, can’t have done, etc.
 
We use the verb have to form the past modal verbs of deduction.
 You can’t have seen Tom. He is in Chicago. 
 I may have made a mistake. 

Clauses of contrast
 
although, even though
 
We can use although/even though at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence followed by a clause
(subject + verb). We NEVER use a comma after although or event though.
 Although/Even though we had a bad game, we won. 
 We won, although/even though we had a bad game.
 
however
 
We use however to connect two different sentences. We normally use however at the beginning of the
second sentence after a full stop (.) or a semi-colon (;). However is ALWAYS followed by a comma.
 We didn’t like the hotel. However, we had a fantastic time. 
 We went to the beach; however, the weather wasn’t perfect. 
We can also use however at the end of the sentence.
 We didn’t like the hotel. We had a fantastic time, however. 
 
despite/in spite of
 
Despite and in spite of are normally followed by a noun or a –ing verb. They can go at the beginning or in
the middle of the sentence.
 Despite/In spite of the rain, we went to the concert.
 They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early. 
We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that.
 We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining. 
 
Clauses of purpose
 
to + infinitive
 
The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive.
  The student worked hard to pass the test. 
 
in order to/so as to + infinitive
 
In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in writing. The negative
forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive.
 We were asked to stay in order to finish the project. 
 He left home early in order not to be late.
 Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage. 
 They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children. 
 
so that + clause
 
We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use a modal verb with this
connector, e.g. could, can, would, etc.
 We left early so that we could park near the centre. 
 He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember the instructions. 
 
for + noun
 
We can also use for + noun to express purpose.
 We went to the bar for a drink.
 Would you like to go the the park for a run?
We can use for + –ing verb (instead of to + infinitive) to talk about the purpose of an object or action when we
use the verb used or when we imply it.
 This knife is (used) for cutting plastic.
 Schools are for educating, not for entertaining.
 
in case + clause
 
To express purpose, we can also use in case + subject + verb. We use this form to talk about precautions, when
we do something because something not wanted might happen.
 Take the umbrella in case it rains. (=take the umbrella so that you won’t get wet if it rains)
 I won’t tell Ann in case she tells everyone else. 
 
Clauses of reason
 
When we want to explain the reason why something happened or why someone did something, we use a clause
of reason introduced by a conjunction (as, since, because) or a noun phrase introduced by because of, due
to, owing to, or on account of.
 
because
 
We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence (at
the end is more common). A comma is used when the clause of reason is at the beginning of the sentence.
 We didn’t go because it was raining heavily. 
 Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits. 
 
as/since
 
We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by subject + verb and can be used at
the beginning or at the end of a sentence. However, as and since are more formal expressions, and more
common in written than in spoken English.
 The government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for the entire weekend.
 As/Since the roads were blocked, the victims had to be rescued by helicopter. 
 
because of
 
We use because of before a noun.
 The concert was postponed because of the heavy rain. 
 
due to/owing to/on account of
 
We can also use due to/owing to/on account of before a noun. They mean ‘because of’ but are more formal.
 The event was cancelled due to/owing to/on account of lack of interest. 
 I couldn’t enjoy the meal due to/owing to/on account oftheir constant arguing. 
 
Clauses of result
 
We use clauses of result to talk about the result of an action or situation.
 
so
 
We can use so + subject + verb at the end of a sentence to mean ‘this is why’.
 We didn’t have anything to do, so we decided to rent a film. 
 I worked very hard today, so I’m exhausted. 
 
for this reason
 
We normally use for this reason at the beginning of a sentence. We use a comma after it.
 Rent is very expensive in Boston. For this reason, we decided to move to Ohio. 
 He threatened to commit suicide. For this reason, kept him under surveillance. 
 
as a result/consequently/therefore
 
As a result, consequently and therefore are more formal and more common in written language. They are
normally used at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma.
 The flight was delayed due to the storm. As a result, many passengers complained.  
 Animals were his only and true passion. Therefore/Consequently, he decided to study biology. 
We can also use consequently and therefore in mid position (before the verb, after be as main verb, or after
the first auxiliary verb).
 You have been a real asset to the company. We have therefore/consequently decided to promote
you. 

Generic pronouns – common-gender pronouns 

 
one, you, we
 
Meaning
 
We can use one, you or we to talk about people in general, including the speaker and hearer, and not one
person in particular.
 One can never know what to expect from politicians. (Or also You/We can never know.)
 In these situations, you must never lose your hope. 
 We are human, and will always make mistakes. 
 
Register
 
One is more formal than we or you, and is rarely used in spoken English. However, the possessive
determiner one’s is a little more common.
 Education always changes one’s life for the better. (Or also your/our life.)
 Poverty eats up one’s dignity.
 
Subject, object, etc.
 
One, you, we can be used as subject or object, or and they are often used in their reflexive form (oneself,
yourself, ourselves).
 Sometimes the government treats you/us as if you/we were a child. 
 There is the tendency to just lie down and let life treat one as it deems fit.
 Success and failure always teaches you/us something about yourself/ourselves. 
 Helping others helps oneself.
 
Consistency
 
We can normally choose one pronoun or the other for generic reference, but what is important is that we keep
consistency throughout the text.
 You never know what your future will bring you. 
 We never know what our future will bring us. 
 NOT: You never know what our future will ...
 
they
 
A group of people
 
In English we often use they to refer to people in general or a more specific group of people that does not
include the speaker or hearer, such as people in a country, city, place, or authorities, police, etc.
 They don’t like strangers in this village.
 They are going to raise our taxes this year.
  They are going to open a new pub opposite my house. 
 
Singular reference (= he or she)
 
In informal English, we use they, them or their to refer to one generic person who could be male or female.
This use is considered incorrect by many grammarians, but it is very common, even in written language.
 A good journalist should never reveal where they get their information. 
 Before the class, every student said their name aloud. 
The use of they, them, their for generic singular reference is often preceded by an indefinite singular
pronoun.
 Someone has left their suitcase in the taxi. 
 Everyone accepted, didn’t they?
 Nobody wanted to give us their phone number.  
 Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns 
 
Reflexive pronouns
 
The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves. There is also a reflexive generic pronoun: oneself.
 
Same subject and object
 
The reflexive pronouns are normally used when the subject and the object are the same person.
 She cut herself chopping the onions. 
 We really enjoyed ourselves at the party. 
 Talking to oneself is not necessarily a sign of madness. 
 
After preposition
 
We can use reflexive pronouns after most prepositions if they refer back to the subject.
 He should be really proud of himself. 
 With the 3-D printer and this scanner you can print a small version of yourself. 
 
NOT after prepositions of place
 
We don’t use reflexive pronouns after prepositions of place; we use object pronouns instead.
 She told her husband to sit in the chair in front of her. (NOT of herself)
 They put their luggage behind them. 
And we don’t use reflexive pronouns after with when it means ‘accompanied by’.
 He took his son with him.
 
To emphasise who did the action
 
We also use a reflexive pronoun to emphasise that the subject does the action, and nobody else. In this sense,
we can use the reflexive at the end of the sentence or after the subject.
 I will talk to Anna myself. 
 I think you should do it yourself, instead of having it done. 
 Paul himself designed the everything. 
 
by oneself
 
We can say by myself, by yourself, etc. to mean ‘alone, without anybody else’, or also to mean ‘without
anybody’s help’.
 My son doesn’t like to be by himself, he always wants us around. 
 She raised her four children by herself. 
We can also say on my own, on your own, etc.
 I was on my own, all morning.
 She did it on her own.
 
Verbs with NO reflexive pronoun
 
Students of English often make mistakes when they use some verbs which are used reflexively in their language
but not in English. Some of these verbs are dress, shave, wash, relax, hurry, or open.
 The first thing I do is wash, shave, and dress. (NOT wash/shave/dress myself)
 When I arrive home I only want to relax on the sofa. 
 Please, hurry or we’ll be late. 
 The door opened and everybody got in. 
 
Reciprocal pronouns
 
We use each other or one another when person A does something to person B, and person B does
something to person A.
 When the twins found each other, they had been living apart for more than 10 years. 
 You should try to understand one another. 
 
We also can use the possessive forms each other’s and one another’s.
 The lovers were found in each other’s arms. 
 The couple enjoyed one another’s company so much that they soon decided to move in together. 

There and it – preparatory subjects 

 
there + be + noun
 
Use and meaning
 
We use there as some kind of preparatory subject to say that something exists somewhere. We put the real
subject after the verb be.
  There are lots of people in the waiting room.  
 There used to be a fancy restaurant in this street. 
 
Different tenses
 
We can use there + be with be in any verb tense, in active or passive voice, and with or without modal verbs.
 There will be a storm on Saturday. 
 There has been some tension between the participants. 
 There must be something wrong here.
 There’s going to be conflict between the two parties. 
 
Different structures
 
We can also use the structures there seem(s) to be, there tend(s) to be or we can use there + be before
expressions of probability such as sure, likely, bound, etc.
 There seem to be no consequences for his actions.
 Unfortunately, there seems to be no possible solution for the problem.
 In nature, there tends to be an evolutionary arms race between predator and prey
 There is sure to be a full house and a great vibe at the festival, so buy your tickets today. 
 There are likely to be some side effects, but the new drug looks promising. 
We can also use there + used to.
 There used to be a library at the end of this street.
Note that the negative form is there didn’t use to be.
 There didn’t use to be any bars in our neighbourhood.
 
there is no use (in), there is no point (in), there is no need
 
We often use the expression there is no use/point (in) + -ing and there is no need + to infinitive.
 There is no point in hating those that hate you. 
 There is no use in trying to make him understand. He doesn’t want to understand. 
 Yes, we made a mistake, but there is no need to panic; we’ll find how to fix this. 
 There is no need for you to worry. Everything’s OK.
 
it as preparatory subject
 
Time, weather, temperature, distance
 
  It’s 5 o’clock.
 It’s Saturday tomorrow. 
 It’s snowing.
 It’s very hot today; it’s 35 degrees. 
 It’s only 2 miles to the hotel. 
 
Something already mentioned
 
We use it to refer to something that we have already mentioned.
 ‘What is that?’ ‘It seems like an old piece of metal.’ (it= that)
 I read a good book last week. It was my second book this month. (it= the book)
 
it + be + adjective + to + infinitive
 
We use it + be/seem as a preparatory subject before adjectives + to-infinitive. The infinitive clause is the real
subject of the sentence, but we put it at the end because it’s long.
 It seems impossible to get out of here unharmed. 
 It’s has been quite hard to go through all the difficulties we have encountered. 
 It’s nice to hear from you again. 
Note that we also often use it + be + noun + to infinitive.
 It would be a pleasure to have you in my house.
 
it + be + adjective + that clause
 
We also use it as preparatory subject when the real subject of the sentence is a that clause.
 It’s unlikely that they will ever agree. 
 It’s surprising that the paramedics could save that woman’s life.
 It’s just wonderful that we can all be here today. 
Note that we also often use it + be + noun + that clause.
 It’s a shame that you can’t come.
 
it takes … to + infinitive
 
We use this structure to talk about the time we need to do something.
 It takes me 20 minutes to get to work every day. 
 How long did it take you to write your essay?
 
Cleft sentences
 
We can use it at the beginning of cleft sentences, to emphasise one element of the sentence.
 It was Peter who took your car. 
 It’s my laptop that doesn’t work. 
 It’s in the evening that they arrived. 
 
there and it
 
it’s no use/there’s no use
 
With the word use we can use either there or it as preparatory subjects.
 It’s no use arguing with your brother. It’s not really his fault. 
 There’s no use (in) arguing with your brother. It’s not really his fault. 

Narrative tenses, used to, would 

 
Past simple
 
We use the past simple to talk about past events in chronological order; i.e. the main events of a story.
 When she opened the door, she pretended that we weren’t there and she went to her room. 
 He called me and asked me to pick him up, but when I arrived he wasn’t there. 
We also use the past simple to talk about past habits or past states.
 We often went to the bar for a drink before dinner.
 He really liked sport, and was very fit.
 
Past continuous
 
We use the past continuous the set the scene in a story.
 Last night I was walking home and listening to my ipod when …
 The sun was shinning and lots of tourists were lying on the beach. Suddenly …
We use the past continuous for actions in progress in the past or longer actions interrupted by shorter
actions in past simple.
 After dinner I went into the living room and saw that she was crying. 
 When she opened the door, we were talking about her. 
 
 Past perfect simple
 
We use the past perfect simple to talk about an earlier past: events which happened before the main event.
 
Earlier single events
 
We use the past perfect simple to talk about earlier events and experiences, or single actions completed earlier
in the past.
 When she opened the door, he had already left.  
 I realised that I had been there before. 
 When I met her, I had never been in a serious relationship. 
 He noticed I had cleaned the car. It was smooth and shiny. 
We also use the past perfect simple (and not continuous) to say how much or how many we had done of
something earlier in the past.
 We had driven 500 miles and we needed some rest. 
 How many hours had he slept when you woke him up?
 
Duration from earlier in the past (stative verbs)
 
We use the past perfect simple with stative verbs to talk about states or situations that had started earlier in the
past. We often use how long, for or since, always, etc.
 The day Anne died, they had been married for 48 years. 
 The day I left, I had been in England for exactly 4 years. 
 She told me she had always hated her sister. 
 
Past perfect continuous
 
Duration from earlier in the past (dynamic verbs)
 
We use the past perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to talk about longer continuous actions that
started earlier in the past than the main events of the story.
 I was very angry. I had been waiting for him in the cold, and he didn’t call to say he’d be late. 
 We had been driving for less than an hour when the car broke down. 
 
Repeated actions from earlier in the past (dynamic verbs)
 
We use the past perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to talk about repeated actions from earlier in the
past.
 I couldn’t believe it. She had been writing a letter every day for over a year. 
 
Used to + infinitive
 
Repeated actions in the past
 
We can use used to + infinitive to talk about things that we did repeatedly in the past.
 When I was a child, I used to go skiing every winter. 
 From the age of 12 till I was 16, I used to dance at weekends. 
 I didn’t use to smoke before I got this job. 
 
Situations or states that are no longer true
 
We can use used to + infinitive to talk about situations or states (stative verbs) which were true in the past,
but they are no longer true.
 As a child I used to be blond. 
 I used to live with my mum when I was a child.
 
Would + infinitive
 
Repeated actions in the past
 
We can use would + infinitive to talk about things that we did repeatedly in the past.
 Every Saturday we would go to the shopping centre with my parents. 
 My 5th grade teacher would tell me to shut up at the beginning of every class.
 
Situations or states that are no longer true
 
We cannot use would to talk about situations or states (stative verbs) which are not longer true.
 I used to be blond as a child. (NOT I would be blond as a child.)
 

Get – different meanings 

 
 
get + direct object= obtain, receive, bring, buy, bring, catch
 
Obtain
 
 He always gets everything he wants. 
 He got his driving license last week. 
 
Receive
 
 I got a letter from John yesterday. 
 She gets lots of presents from her fans.
 
Buy
 
 We need to get a new computer. The old one is broken. 
 Can you go to the shop to get some milk?
 
Bring
 
 Can you get me a couple of glasses from the kitchen?
 Can I get you a drink?
 
Catch
 
 Do you think we’ll have time to get the 7.40 train?
 I need to get the first flight to Seattle. 
 
get to + place = arrive, reach
 
 He always gets home very late. 
 We got to London in the 8 o’clock train. 
 How long does it take you to get to work?
 
get + adjective/past participle= become
 
get + adjective
 
 I’m getting old.
  He gets angry very easily. 
 You should go. It’s getting dark. 
 
get + past participle
 
 It’s very late and they are nor here. I’m getting worried. 
 He gets very tired after every concert. 
 We got married last year. 
 
get in passive voice= be
 
 I got caught by the police after jumping a red light. (=was caught)
 She almost got killed by a drunk driver. (=was killed)
 His articles are always getting criticised by the press. (=being criticised)
 
get something done= have something done
 
 We are getting the house painted next week. 
 You should get your tyres changed. 
 
get someone to do something= make, ask, persuade someone to do something
 
 How can parents get their children to read more?
 I don’t know how to get my partner to do more things around the house. 

Discourse markers – linking words 

 
Discourse markers
 
Discourse markers are very important to structure text or speech, to connect sentences in a meaningful and
logical way. They are used to express contrast, reason, purpose, result, etc. Here you can find some very
common discourse markers, their meaning and some examples.
 
by the way / incidentally
 
Used to change the subject, to say something that you have just thought and that doesn’t have to be connected
to what was being said before.
 Well, it has been a very productive meeting, don’t you think? By the way/Incidentally, what time is
it?
 I’ll try to fix my car this afternoon. By the way/Incidentally, do you still have that screwdriver that I
lent you?
 
actually / in fact / as a matter of fact
 
Used to introduce information that might be in some way surprising or unexpected.
 I don’t really like chicken. Actually/In fact/As a matter of fact I have only eaten chicken once in my
life. 
 Everybody thinks he has a very bad temper, but actually/in fact/as a matter of fact he is very kind.
 
anyway / in any case
 
Used to return to an earlier subject after a digression, or to get to the most interesting point.
 It’s not so strange to lose documents. It happens to lots of people all the time. Anyway/In any case,
we finally found the passports in …
Used to give a more important reason for something you are saying.
 I’m too tired to go and it’s too late, and anyway/in any case it’s too expensive.
 
as I was saying
 
Used to return to an earlier subject in the conversation after an interruption or digression.
 As I was saying, we could get up early and spend the whole day there. 
 
after all
 
Used to introduce an additional point that supports or explains what you have just said.
 I might understand her better than you; after all, she is my wife. 
 Don’t be too hard on him. After all, he is just a kid. 
Used to say that something is true despite what is believed or said.
 He is not such a bad professional after all.
 
at least
 
Used to introduce positive information when talking about something negative.
  Lots of people got injured in the accident, but at least nobody died. 
 I finished last in the race, but at least I finished. 
Used to reduce the effect of something we have said, or to make something less certain or definite.
 He knows the president, or at least that’s what he says.  
 
all in all
 
= Taking into consideration all the parts of a situation.
 There were some mistakes, but all in all you did a pretty good job. 
 Both TVs are great, but all in all I think this one is better for you. 
 
on the whole
 
= Generally
 On the whole, men tend to avoid talking about feelings.
 There has been some criticism, but on the whole, customers like what we offer.
 
besides
 
Used to add additional information (informal)
 I think it’s a wonderful place; besides, it’s very cheap.
 
furthermore
 
Used to add additional (an often more important) information (formal)
 Electric cars are becoming more powerful and energy-efficient. Furthermore, they are much cheaper
than a few years ago. 
 
what’s more
 
We use what’s more to add something interesting to what we have just said. It’s similar to furthermore but
more informal.
 Scientists have found a big body of water under the surface of the planet. What’s more, they think it’s
not the only body of water they are going to find. 
 He said that the new season is going to be premiered this September and, what’s more, he confirmed
that it’s not going to be the last. 
 
obviously
 
Used to introduce a fact that is easy to see or understand.
 Obviously, without qualifications it’s harder to get a good job. 
 
basically
 
Used to introduce the most important point or characteristic of something.
 Basically, what we do here is produce the plastic parts of the phone. 
 
in other words
 
Used to say what has been said in simpler words.
 She said we should take a break and have time to ourselves; in other words, she dumped me.
 
that is to say
 
Used to explain or be more precise about something we have said. Similar to in other words.
 The best thing about music is the repeatability; that is to say, you can listen to the same songs again
and again and never get bored.  
 
otherwise
 
Used after an order or suggestion to say what will happen if that order or suggestion is not followed.
 Be here at 8 o’clock; otherwise you will miss your turn. 
 
regarding … / as regards … / as far as … in concerned
 
= About. Used to introduce a topic of conversation.
 Regarding/As regards the new player, we’ll have to decide if or when to sell him. 
 As far as the new player is concerned, …
 
on the other hand
 
Used to introduce a contrasting fact.
 Cycling is good for your health, and it’s a sport that is gentle with your muscles and joints. But on the
other hand, there are many fatal accidents among cyclists. 
It can be preceded by on the one hand: 
 On the one hand, cycling is good for your health, and it’s a sport that is gentle with your muscles and
joints. But on the other hand, there are many fatal accidents among cyclists. 
 
whereas
We use whereas to compare and contrast two things or ideas. It means ‘while’ when it is used to express
contrast.
 The north is cold whereas the south is very hot. 
 Whereas people used to aspire to have a big house, kids, dog etc., nowadays preferences are tending
more towards apartments.

Speculation and deduction – modal verbs and expressions 

 
Modal verbs of speculation and deduction
 
must
 
We use must + infinitive for obligation and strong recommendation, but also to say that we are quite sure
that something is true.
 They are almost identical. They must be sisters.
 But I answered all the questions correctly. There must be a mistake. 
We use must be + –ing with dynamic verbs to say that we are quite sure that something is happening
now.
 What you are saying is not possible. You must be kidding.  
 Can you hear the shouting? Our neighbours must be arguing again. 
We use must have + past participle or must have been + -ing to say that we are quite sure that
something was true or happened in the past.
 I can’t find my wallet! I must have dropped it in the taxi.
 You must have had a real scare when you saw the crocodile. 
 He was the only victim. He must have been sleeping when the fire started.
 
can’t
 
We can use can’t + infinitive to say that we are quite sure that something is NOT true.
 He can’t be that famous. I’ve never heard his name before. 
 She can’t be married. I have never seen a ring on her finger. 
We use can’t be + –ing to say that we are quite sure that something is NOT happening now.
 They can’t be travelling by bus. There is no bus service on Sundays. 
We use can’t/couldn’t have + past participle  or can’t have been + -ing to say that we are quite sure
that something did NOT happen or was NOT true in the past.
 You can’t/couldn’t have seen John last night. He was in hospital. 
 She can’t/couldn’t have passed the test. She didn’t even open the books. 
Note that for negative deduction we use can’t and NOT mustn’t
 He can’t be that famous. (NOT He mustn’t be that famous.)
 
could/might/may
 
We can use could/might/may + infinitive to say that it’s possible that something is true (but we are
not sure).
 I can’t get hold of him on the phone. He could/might/may be away. 
 We didn’t do anything when we could and now it could/might/may be too late.
We use could/might/may be + –ing to say that we are quite it’s possible that something is happening
now (but we are not sure).
 Tom isn’t at the office. He might/may be working from home today.  
 ‘Why isn’t she picking up her phone.’ ‘She might/may be driving.’
We can use could/might/may have + past participle or might/may have been + -ing to say that it’s
possible that something was true or happened in the past.
 It’s been three days. They could/might/may have finished painting the house by now. 
 If they left at 9, they could/might/may have already arrived.
 She was home last night, but didn’t answer the door. She might/may have been having a shower.
We can use could have + past participle to say that something was possible in the past but did not happen.
 He could have played in the first division, but he had a terrible injury.
 He could have had better jobs if he had spoken English.   
Note that we use might not or may not (NOT could not) to talk about a negative possibility.
 He seems too calm. He might/may not be aware of the risks. 
 She might/may not have heard us. Knock again. 
 
should/ought to
 
We use should/ought to + infinitive to talk about a situation that we expect to happen (present or future).
 He should/ought to be home by now. He is always home before 7. 
 They should/ought to arrive before midnight.
We use should have/ought to have + past participle to talk about a situation expected to happen in the
past. We can also use this form to express criticism.
 He should/ought to have received the parcel yesterday. I sent it two days ago. 
 He should/ought to have studied more. Nobody fails if they study. 
 
Expressions for speculation
 
bound/sure
 
Bound and sure are adjectives that are used to say that we are quite sure that something will be true or
happen. We use them in the structure be bound/sure + to infinitive.
 The Jamaican is bound/sure to win the final.
 There are bound/sure to be some discrepancies during the meeting, so be prepared.
 
likely/unlikely
 
Likely and unlikely are adjectives. If something is likely to happen it means that it will probably happen or
that it is expected to happen. If something is is unlikely to happen it means that it probably won’t happen.
We can use these two adjectives in two ways.
It is likely/unlikely that + clause
 It’s likely that just in a few years we will change our economic model.
 It’s unlikely that the police had anything to do about it. 
Subject + be likely/unlikely + to + infinitive
 He is likely to win this game. 
 They are unlikely to reach an agreement. 
 
definitely/probably
 
Definitely and probably go before the main verb and after the auxiliary verb (if there is one) in (+)
sentences.
 You’ll definitely get the job. Nobody’s got your qualifications and experience. 
 He’s definitely our best player. 
And they go before the auxiliary verb in (-) sentences.
 They definitely won’t find any evidence. 
 She definitely isn’t seeing anyone right now. 
 Distancing – expressions and passive of reporting verbs 
 
Passive voice with reporting verbs
 

 
In news reports and formal writing, it is common to use the passive forms of reporting verbs (verbs of saying or
believing). Using this resource allows us to give information when we don’t know for sure whether it is true or
not. We distance ourselves from the information.
Reporting verbs are verbs such
as agree, announce, believe, claim, consider, expect, hope, know, report, say, suggest, think, und
erstand, etc. And we can use their passive form for distancing in two different ways.
 
it is said that …
 
It+ passive reporting verb + that + clause (subject + verb)
 It is believed that the murderer is no longer in the country. 
 It has been announced that they are going to cancel the tour.
 It has been suggested that the team can’t be trusted defensively.
 It was thought that the building could collapse.
 
they are said to be
 
Subject + passive reporting verb + to + infinitive …
 He is thought to be a close associate of the terrorist. 
 The terrorist is believed to have fled to the mountains.
When we use this pattern, we use the simple infinitive or the continuous infinitive when the reported
action is simultaneous to the reporting.
 He is said to be an art collector. 
 They were believed to be secretly in love. 
 They are thought to be living under strict protection.
We can also use the simple infinitive to refer to the future.
 She is expected to become a super star. 
We use the perfect infinitive or the perfect continuous infinitive when the reported action
is previous to the reporting (earlier in the past).
 She was thought to have left the previous week. 
 He is claimed to have hit another student.
 He is known to have been hiding somewhere in Panama since he escaped.  
 
there are said to be
 
We can also use the same structure with the pronoun there.
 There are said to be new leads on the case. 
 There is believed to be a new donor who is partially financing the campaign.
 
seem / appear
 
We can also use the verbs seem and appear for distancing ourselves from the information we are giving.
 
it seems/appears that + clause
 
 It seems/appears that the new series will begin shooting in about two months.
 
it would seem/appear that
 
It means the same as it seems that, but it more formal.
 It would seem/appear that the situation is finally under control.
 
Subject + seem/appear + to infinitive
 
 The new secretary seems/appears to be very concerned about climate. (simple infinitive)
 They seem/appear to be having some difficulties. (continuous infinitive)
 Their leaders seem/appear to have suffered some setbacks. (perfect infinitive)
 The company seems/appears to have been doing very well over the last year (perfect continuous
infinitive)
 
there seem(s) to be/to have been
 
 There seem to be two options for kids. 
 There seems to have been a great response in social media. 
 
apparently, allegedly, according to
There are expressions that we can also use for distancing.
 
apparently
 
 Apparently, the new primer minister isn’t going to visit Cuba until the end of May. 
 
allegedly
 
We use allegedly to give information when something wrong appears to been done, but there is no proof.
 He allegedly took a knife and stabbed the victim in the stomach. 
 
according to
 
 According to witnesses, she abandoned the place well after midnight. 
 
might / may
 
We can also use might or may to speculate and say that something is possible, but that maybe it isn’t true.
 They might have fled the scene leaving the victim bleeding on the floor. 
 They may be spending their Christmas holiday together. 
 Wish, rather, if only, it’s time – unreal uses of past tenses 
 
I wish/If only
 
I wish I did
 
We can use wish + past simple to talk about things that we would like to be different in
the present or future (but which are very unlikely or impossible).
 I wish things were different, but this is the way they are.  
 We wish we had enough money to help you.
 I wish I could be there for you tomorrow.  
 
I wish I had done
 
We can use wish + past perfect to talk about things that happened in the past and that we regret (we would
have wanted them to be different).
 I wish I hadn’t quit my job two years ago. 
 I wish we hadn’t wasted all that money. 
 
I wish you would do
 
We can use wish + person/thing + would + infinitive when we talk about situations that annoy us and we
would like them to change, or to stop.
 I wish you would stop biting your nails. I hate it when you do it.
 I wish it would stop raining. It’s been three days!
We CANNOT use this structure to wish about ourselves (do NOT use I wish I would).
 
if only
 
We can use if only instead of I wish to mean the same. The only difference is that if only is more emphatic.
 If only I was/were a bit taller!*
 If only you had followed my advice. 
 If only you would make a bit of an effort. You are wasting your life! 
Note that we can use were instead of was with I/he/she after I wish/if only.
 
would rather/would sooner
 
would rather (than)/would sooner (than)
 
We use would rather or would sooner + infinitive to talk about preference. We can use them with than in
affirmative sentences or with or in questions.
 I’d rather/sooner have tea, please. 
 I’d rather/sooner have tea than coffee. 
 Would you rather/sooner have tea or coffee?
 
would rather/would sooner + subject + past simple
 
When we use a different subject after would rather or would sooner, we use past simple to refer to the
present or future.
 We’d rather/sooner she was/were with us now.*
 She’d rather/sooner I picked her up after lunch. 
 Would you rather/sooner we went by bus or by train?
Note that we can use were instead of was with I/he/she after would rather or would sooner.
 
would rather/would sooner + subject + past perfect
 
When we use a different subject after would rather or would sooner, we use past perfect to refer to the
past.
 I’d rather/sooner you hadn’t spoken to her like that.
 I’d rather/sooner you had called me before.
 
it’s time
 
it’s (high) time + subject + past simple
 
We can use it’s time or it’s high time followed by subject and past simple to say that something should be
done now or in the future.
 It’s time you went to the doctor. 
 I really think it’s high time you took a decision. We can’t go on like this any longer. 
We can also use the alternatives it’s time + to infinitive or it’s time for someone + to infinitive.
 It’s time for you to go to the doctor. 
 It’s time to take a decision. 
 
Other expressions
 
suppose/supposing/imagine/what if
 
Suppose, supposing, imagine, and what if can be used like we use if in conditionals. So after these words,
we use the present tense for real situations (first conditional), and the past simple or past perfect for unreal
situations (second and third conditionals).
 Imagine you meet him in the street, what are you going to tell him? (=First conditional: If you
meet him in the street, what are you going to tell him?)
 What if you found a suitcase full of money. What would you do? (=Second conditional: If you
found a suitcase full of money, what would you do?)
 Supposing she hadn’t told you anything, you would have acted differently. (=Third conditional: If
she hadn’t told you anything, you would have acted differently.)

Verb + object + infinitive/gerund – verb patterns 

 
Verb + object + to + infinitive
 
After certain verbs
 
We can use the following verbs + object + to + infinitive: advise, allow, ask, beg, cause, convince,
enable, encourage, expect, force, get (see get uses), help, intend, invite, mean, order, persuade,
recommend, remind, take (time), teach, tell, warn. (See table with examples below)
 
want, need, would like, would hate, would prefer
 
We can also use want, need, would like, would hate, would prefer + object + to + infinitive.
 I need you to do something for me.
 She wants me to go to the doctor with her.
 They would like me to be available at all times. 
 I would hate you to think I didn’t appreciate what you did for me. 
 I would prefer you to be quiet
 
Verbs also used in other ways
 
advise, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn
We can also use advise, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn + object + (that) clause.
  Our mentor has advised us that we should start working on the project as soon as possible.
 The president persuaded them that the situation was critical. 
 I called him to remind him he had to take all the necessary equipment. 
 They taught me things aren’t always as they seem. 
 Danny told me that he is going to be appointed director of overseas operations. 
 He warned us that temperatures would drop dramatically the following week.
recommend
We can also use recommend + that clause (without object).
 I recommended him to stay.
 I recommended that he stay .(more formal)
 I recommended that he stays .(less formal)
advise, allow, recommend
We can use advise, allow, recommend  + object + to + infinitive. But if they are followed by the verb
(without the object), this verb must take the -ing form.
 He advised me to go, but He advised going.
 They don’t allow us to drink anything, but They don’t allow drinking. 
 He recommended me to take the course, but He recommended taking the course.  
 
Verb + for someone + to + infinitive
 
arrange, ask, plan, wait
We say arrange, ask, plan or wait + for someone + to + infinitive.
 I will arrange for you to have a meeting with him next week. 
 I asked for somebody to repair my air conditioner.
 They are planning for him to turn his ideas into action. 
 We waited for them to arrive. 
Adjectives
We can use certain adjectives + for someone + to + infinitive.
 It’s essential for us to be ready when we are needed. 
 It would be nice for you to be there the day of the rehearsal. 
 It’s difficult for Sarah to make ends meet now that she’s working part time. 
Nouns
We can use certain nouns such as advantage, disadvantage, demand, disaster, idea, mistake,
etc. + for someone + to + infinitive.
 It was a mistake for you to lend him the money.
 It would be a disaster for the company to reduce the number of staff.
  I think it’s a good idea for him to go to the interview.
 An extra room is an advantage for families to use it as a play area.
too/enough
We can also use too or enough + for someone + to infinitive.
 The book was too great for me to forget.
 It was warm enough for us sit in the open.
Infinitive of purpose
We can also use the same structure after an infinitive of purpose.
 The purpose of this activity is for the students to practice their listening skills.
 The goal is for the dog to relax when wearing a leash.
 
Verb + object + infinitive without to
 
let, make, help
 
We can use the verbs let, make, and help followed by object + infinitive without to.
 She drives me to work and never lets me pay for the petrol. 
 The teacher made us write a very long essay. 
 Can I help you fix the fence?  (But help somebody to do is also correct)
be made to do
We say make + someone + infinitive (without to), but we say someone + be made + to + infinitive.
 They made the staff wear their uniform every day.
 The staff were made to wear their uniform every day.
 
hear, listen, notice, see
 
We can use  hear, listen, notice, see + object + infinitive without to talk about a short or complete action
 I saw them kiss (I saw the action from start to end. It was probably a short kiss.)
 I heard someone shout your name. (I heard the shouting from star to end.)
But we use hear, listen, notice, see, watch + object + -ing to talk about an action in progress; and action
that is longer, and incomplete.
 I saw them kissing in the park. (The action was in progress. I didn’t see it finish)
 
Verb + object + gerund
 
In this kind of construction, the object of the main verb is the subject of the verb in the gerund form. The
following verbs can be used before object + gerund: dislike, hate, imagine, involve, keep, mind,
prevent, not like, remember, resent, risk, stop (See table with examples below)
 
Tables with example sentences
 

 
unless, even if, provided, as long as, etc. – Other expressions in
conditionals 
 
Other expressions in conditionals – grammar chart

ALTERNATIVES TO IF IN CONDITIONALS

 
unless (= if not)
 
We can use unless in conditional sentences to mean ‘if … (not)’.
 I won’t go on holiday unless I save some money.
 = I won’t go on holiday if I don’t save some money.
 
in case
 
We use in case to talk about things that we do to be prepared for something that might happen or might be
needed in the future.
 I’ll take my umbrella in case it rains. (=because it might rain)
 
as long as / provided (that) / providing (that) / on condition (that) / only if
 
We can use the expressions as long as, provided/providing (that), on condition (that), or only
if instead of if when we want to emphasise the condition that needs to be present so that something can
happen or be done.
 I’ll tell you what really happened as long as you keep the secret.
 I’ll lend you the money provided (that) you pay me back next month.
 They will speak to the press on condition (that) they remain anonymous sources.
 We will invest the money, but only if you can prove that it’s a safe investment. 
 
whether or not
 
We use whether or not when there are two alternatives and we want to say that something will happen or
will be true in any of those two alternatives. Compare:
 I’ll help him if he needs me. (=I will help him only if he needs me.)
 I’ll help him whether or not he needs me. (I will help him if he needs me, and I will help him if he
doesn’t need me, too.)
 
even if
 
We also use even if with a similar meaning to ‘whether or not’. It is used to emphasize that something will still
be true or will happen if another thing happens.
 Even if you apologise, he’ll never forgive you. (=Whether or not you apologise, he’ll never forgive you.)
 
suppose / supposing
 
We normally use suppose or supposing at the beginning of a sentence to make someone imagine a situation.
It means ‘what would happen if’, or simply ‘if’ (imagining a situation).
 Supposing I got a job, I wouldn’t be able to travel with you next summer.
 Suppose she doesn’t believe you, what would you do then?
 All conditionals – mixed conditionals, alternatives to if,
inversion 
Zero, first, second, third and mixed conditionals
 

 
You can see a full explanation of type 0, type 1, type 2 and type 3 conditional with examples.
 
Mixed conditionals
 
We use mixed conditionals if we want to mix talking about the present and the past in the same sentence. The
mixed conditional is a combination of the second and the third conditional:

➪ We can use past simple or continuous in the if-clause (to refer to the present or future),
and would/should/might have + past participle in the main clause (to refer to the past).

➪ We can also use past perfect in the if-clause (to refer to the past),
and would/should/might + infinitive (to refer to the present).
 If I didn’t have (second conditional) so much work, I would have gone (third conditional) to the
party last night.
 If I spoke (second conditional) German, I would have understood (third conditional) them.
 If I had won (third conditional) the lottery, I would be (second conditional) rich.
 If I hadn’t dropped (third conditional) school, I could have (second conditional) a better job now.
 
Alternatives to if in conditional sentences
 
as long as / provided (that) / providing (that) / on condition (that) / only if
 
We can use the expressions as long as, provided/providing (that), on condition (that), or only
if instead of if when we want to emphasize the condition that needs to be present so that something
can happen or be done.
 I’ll tell you what really happened as long as you keep the secret.
 I’ll lend you the money provided (that) you pay me back next month.
 They will speak to the press on condition (that) they remain anonymous sources.
 We will invest the money, but only if you can prove that it’s a safe investment. 
 
whether or not
 
We use whether or not when there are two alternatives and we want to say that something will happen or
will be true in any of those two alternatives. Compare:
 I’ll help him if he needs me. (=I will help him only if he needs me.)
 I’ll help him whether or not he needs me. (I will help him if he needs me, and I will help him if he
doesn’t need me, too.)
 
even if
 
We also use even if with a similar meaning to ‘whether or not’. It is used to emphasize that something will still
be true or will happen if another thing happens.
  Even if you apologise, he’ll never forgive you. (=Whether or not you apologise, he’ll never forgive you.)
 
suppose / supposing
 
We normally use suppose or supposing at the beginning of a sentence to make someone imagine a situation.
It means ‘what would happen if’, or simply ‘if’ (imagining a situation).
 Supposing I got a job, I wouldn’t be able to travel with you next summer.
 Suppose she doesn’t believe you, what would you do then?
 
Inversion in conditional sentences
 
should you find
 
In first conditional sentences it’s possible to use should at the beginning of the sentence instead of if. This
form is formal and it’s quite common with an imperative form in the main clause.
 Should you find the answer, please let me know as soon as possible. (=If you find the answer)
 Should you change your mind, you know where to contact us. (=If you change your mind)
 
had we arrived
 
In third conditional sentences, we can invert the auxiliary verb had and leave if out. Had we arrived = If we
had arrived.
 Had we arrived earlier, we could have prevented the incident. 
 Had they looked further into the data, they might have realised there was a mistake. 
 
were we to announce
 
We can also find cases of inversion with this structure: were + subject + to. + infinitive. It is used to talk about
future improbable events (like the second conditional).
 Were we to announce the truth, we would receive a lot of criticism. (=If we announced …)
 Were they to buy a new house, they would need to sell the old one first. (=If they bought …)
 
Negative forms: should I not, had we not, were we not
 
When should, had or were are negative, contracted forms are not possible, and  not is used after the subject.
 Should you not wish to retake the test, you must let us know before the end of June. (NOT Shouldn’t
you wish)
 Had you not refused my invitation, we would have had the most incredible time in our lives.
(NOT Hadn’t you refused)
  Were you not my brother, I would call the police. (NOT Weren’t you)
  

Mixed conditionals
 
Mixed conditionals are a combination of two types of conditional patterns, usually second and third
conditionals. We can have a third conditional in the if clause and a second conditional in the main clause or a
second conditional in the if clause and a third conditional in the main clause.
 
Grammar chart
 

 
Second and third conditionals
 
In a second conditional we use past in the if clause and would/might/could + infinitive in the main clause.
It is used to talk about hypothetical situations happening in the present or future.
 If I were rich, I‘d buy that house. 
In a third conditional we use past perfect in the if clause and would/might/could + have + past
participle in the main clause. It is used to talk about hypothetical situations happening in the past.
 If you had studied more, you would have passed the exam. 
A mixed conditional is a combination of second and third conditionals.
 
Mixed third/second conditional
 
We use this combination to talk about a hypothetical condition happening in the past (third conditional) with a
present result (second conditional). We use past perfect in the if clause and would/could/might +
infinitive in the main clause.
 If I had been elected, I would be the president now. 
 If I had won the lottery, I would be rich.
 I might have a better job now if I hadn’t dropped out of school.
 
Mixed second/third conditional
 
We use this combination to talk about a hypothetical condition happening in the present (second conditional)
with a past result (third conditional). We use past in the if clause and would/could/might + have + past
participle in the main clause.
 If I were a man, they would have given me the job.  
 If I didn’t have so much work, I would have gone to the party last night.
 I would have understood them if I spoke German.
Note that in this type of combination, the present condition also existed in the past, when the result in the
main clause took place. Let’s take a look, for example, at the first sentence:
If I were a man now would mean that I would also have been a man in the past, when I was not given the job.
As I’m not a man now (which implies that I wasn’t a man when I applied for the job either), I didn’t get the job.

Modal verbs – permission, obligation, prohibition, necessity 

 
Permission
 
can, could, may, might
 
The most common modal verbs to talk about permission are can, could, may and might.
 Can I sit here. (informal; asking for permission)
 You can/can’t sit here.
 Could I use this chair? (more polite)
 You may use this chair. (formal; giving permission)
 Might/May I use this chair. (more formal; asking for permission)
 Sorry, you can’t use this chair. (informal; refusing permission)
 Sorry, you may not use this chair. (formal; refusing permission)
 
was/were allowed to, couldn’t
 
To talk about the past, we use the forms was/were allowed to or couldn’t.
 He wasn’t allowed to sit down during the lesson.
 He couldn’t sit down during the lesson. 
 He was allowed to receive visits. (NOT could)
 
Obligation
 
must / have to
 
Must and have to are used to express obligation. When we use must this usually means that the obligations
comes from the speaker, it’s like a personal obligation, whereas have to normally means that the obligation is
external.
 I must give up smoking. (I need to, I say so)
 I have to give up smoking. (I’m obliged. My doctor says so)
In informal English can also use ‘ve got to to express obligation  (⇒ See Have – auxiliary or main verb).
 I’ve got to be there before ten. 
In the past, we use had to in every instance.
 I had to give up smoking. (because I needed to, or because my doctor forced me to).
 
mustn’t / don’t have to
 
The negative forms mustn’t and don’t have to are completely different. Mustn’t is used to express
prohibition (an obligation not to do something), whereas don’t have to is used to express an absence of
obligation. (⇒ See Have to, must, should – obligation, prohibition, necessity, advice)
 You mustn’t reveal where you get the information. (=you have the obligation not to do it)
 You don’t have to arrive before 7. (=you can do it, but it’s not necessary, there’s no obligation)
 
Necessity
 
need to, have to, don’t need to, don’t have to
 
We use need to/have to or don’t need to/don’t have to + infinitive to say that something is or is not
necessary.
 We need to/have to confirm our reservations before Friday. 
 You don’t need to/don’t have to believe in God to be a good person. 
 
don’t need to / needn’t
 
We can use both don’t need to or needn’t + infinitive to say that it is unnecessary to do something.
However, when we are talking about a general necessity (in general, not on one specific occasion), we
normally use don’t need to, and we can use both don’t need to or needn’t + infinitive when we are
talking about a specific necessity (on one specific occasion).
 The doctor said I don’t need to wear glasses. (in general, all the time)
 Tell him he doesn’t need to/needn’t wash the dishes. I’ll do it later. (on one specific occasion)
 
didn’t need to / needn’t have
 
When something was not necessary but we did it, we can use both didn’t need to + infinitive and needn’t
have + past participle.
 Thanks, it’s very beautiful, but you didn’t need to buy/needn’t have bought anything. (=you did it)
However, when something was not necessary and we did not do it, we can only use didn’t need to.
 I didn’t buy any groceries because Sarah told me I didn’t need to buy anything. (NOT needn’t have
bought)
 
be able to, be allowed to, be permitted to, be supposed/meant to, had better
 
be able to / be allowed to
 
We can use person + be able to / be allowed to instead of can to express permission or possibility. (⇒
See Can, could, be able to – ability and possibility)
 We were allowed to eat all that we wanted. 
 You won’t be able to finish before the deadline. 
We do NOT use it + be able to/be allowed to.
 You are not allowed to use your mobile phones. (NOT It isn’t allowed to use …)
 
it is (not) permitted to
 
We can use it + be (not) permitted to +infinitive to express permission or prohibition in formal or official
situations, to say what the rules or laws are.
 It is not permitted to take photos of the archive documents. 
 Picnics are not permitted in the park. 
 
be supposed to / be meant to
 
We can also use be supposed/meant to + infinitive to express obligation or permission, to say what
we should or shouldn’t do.
 We are supposed/meant to check in one hour before take-off.  
 What are you doing? You aren’t supposed/meant to be here.
 
had better, had better not
 
We use had better + infinitive (without to) to talk about actions we think someone should or shouldn’t do.
There is often a negative result if the action is carried out. We normally use the shortened form ‘d better,
and the negative form is never contracted: ‘d better not. 
 We’d better hurry up/meant to check in or we’ll miss our train.  
 You’d better not tell her you broke the vase –she’ll get very mad.

Verbs of the senses 

 
Stative or dynamic uses of sense verbs
 

Stative uses of feel, hear, see, smell, taste

 
When we use the verbs feel, hear, see, smell, or taste to talk about the impressions that we receive through
our five senses (touch, hearing, sight, smell, taste), they are all non-action verbs and cannot be used in
progressive forms.
 You smell nice. (NOT you are smelling)
 This soup tastes fantastic. What did you put in it? (NOT is tasting) 
 
can/can’t (feel, hear, see, smell, taste)
 
We normally use can or can’t with these verbs (and NOT present continuous) to talk about something that is
happening at the moment.
 I can see a beautiful woman next to your sister. (NOT I am seeing)
 Sorry, can you speak up? I can’t hear you. (NOT I’m not hearing)
 I can smell petrol. Have you just filled up the tank? (NOT I am smelling)
 I’ve burned my tongue and now I can’t taste the flavour in the dish. (NOT I am not tasting)
 I can feel your heartbeat. It is very fast. (NOT I’m feeling)
 
look and sound
 
Look and sound are also stative (or non-action) verbs when they mean ‘seem’ or ‘appear’.
 She looks old.
 You sound very happy.
 
Dynamic uses of feel, hear, look, see, smell, taste
 
The verbs feel, look, smell, and taste can be used in continuous forms when they are voluntary actions.
 Why are you smelling the milk? Isn’t it good? (=Put your nose near something to see how it smells)
 He’s tasting the food to see if it needs more salt. (=Put something into your mouth to see how it tastes)
 I’m feeling the fabric to see if it’s soft or not. (=Touch something to see how it feels)
 Why are you looking in that direction? (=direct your eyes in order to see)
We can also use feel in progressive tenses to talk about how we feel physically or emotionally.
 ‘How are you feeling?’ ‘I’m not feeling very well.’
 I was feeling very weak after the operation. 
The verbs hear and smell can also be used as action verbs with a different meaning.
 I’m seeing Jerry for lunch. (=Meet someone)
 We’ve been seeing each other for months. (=Date someone)
 I’ve been hearing really strange things about him recently. (=receive information)
 
Sense verbs + infinitive or gerund?
 
After feel, hear, listen, notice, see, watch we can use a gerund to express an incomplete action, an action
in progress, or a repeated action:
 I saw them kissing in the park. (=The action was in progress. I didn’t see it finish.)
 They watched the man hitting a police officer. (=The action was in progress; the man hit the police
officer repeatedly.)
After feel, hear, listen, notice, see, watch we can use an infinitive to talk about an action we heard or saw
from beginning to end; usually a short action, and not a repeated action.
 I saw them kiss in the park. (=I saw the action from start to end. It was probably a short kiss)
 They watched the man hit a police officer. (=They saw the action from start to end; the man hit the
police officer once)
 
Sense verbs + adjective, noun or clause (linking verbs)
 

 
look, smell, taste, sound, feel + adjective
 
We can use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel before an adjective to talk about how something feels, tastes,
etc.
 When you use that cream, your skin feels really smooth.
 When he talked to us sounded nervous.
 
look, smell, taste, sound, feel + like + noun
 
We can also use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel + like before a noun.
 You sound like your mother. 
 This tastes like chicken.
Note that we say smell/taste of when the smell or flavour are of the real thing and we say smell/taste
like when it’s a smell or flavour similar to the real thing. Compare:
 The soup smells of cheese. (=There is cheese in it.)
 The soup smells like cheese. (=The smell is similar to the smell of cheese.)
 
look, smell, taste, sound, feel + as if/as though + clause
 
  You sound as if you had a long party last night.
 You look as though you’ve just seen a ghost.
Note that in informal English we often use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel + like + clause.
 You sound like you had a long party last night.
 You look like you’ve just seen a ghost.
 
seem, appear and look
 
seem + adjective, seem like + noun, seem as if/though + clause
 
 You seem tired.
 He seems clever. 
 The final five minutes seemed like five hours. 
 It seems as if they aren’t going to help us.
Note that in informal English we also use like before a clause.
 It seems like we’ll never find out the truth.
 
seem, appear + to + infinitive
 
After seem and appear we often use to + infinitive (present events), or a to + have + past participle (past
events).
 She appears to be in very good shape. 
 It seems to be some kind of insect. 
 He seems to have lost his moral compass. 
 
it seems/appears + that + clause
 
We can also use It seems/appears + that clause.
 It appears that he might be telling the truth after all. 
 It seems that they have improved a lot since the end of the season. 
 
seem vs look
 
When we use seem and look as non-action verbs, there is some difference in meaning.
 You look tired. (=I get the impression from seeing your face)
 You seem tired. (=I get the impression from the way you behave –your voice, movements, etc.)
Sometimes we can use one verb but not the other and vice versa.
  She looks beautiful. (NOT seems, because I get the impression from looking at her physique)
 She seemsnice. (NOT looks, because I get the impression by her behaviour)
 
Sense verbs, followed by adjective or adverb?
 
When the verbs of senses are used as non-action verbs, they are copular verbs, and copular verbs (like be) are
followed by adjectives, and not by adverbs.
 You look tired. (NOT tiredly)
 She felt bad after saying that. (NOT badly)

Gerunds and infinitives – complex forms 

 
All forms of gerunds and infinitives
You can see all the gerund and infinitive forms in the table below. Some forms are not included in the table
because they don’t exist or are very rarely used.

 
Simple, continuous and perfect infinitives and gerunds
 
We use the perfect infinitive or the perfect gerund to emphasize that the action is complete or in the past.
 
Simple gerund vs perfect gerund
 
There is usually no difference between using the simple gerund or the perfect gerund, because the context
usually makes it clear when the action happened.
 He denied stealing the money. (=It’s clear the money was stolen before denying it)
 He denied having stolen the money.
 She regretted marrying too early. (=It’s clear she married before regretting it)
 She regretted having married too early.
But sometimes there is a difference in meaning between using the simple gerund or the perfect gerund.
 He denied being married. (=he denied that he was married ‘now’, at the time of the denial)
 He denied having been married. (=he denied that he had been married before, in the past)
 
Simple infinitive vs perfect infinitive
 
As it happens with the gerund, sometimes there’s no difference between using the simple or the perfect forms
of the infinitive.
 It was stupid of me to say anything on Twitter. 
 It was stupid of me to have said anything on Twitter. 
However, there is usually a difference in meaning between using the simple or the perfect infinitive forms, and
we need to use the perfect forms to make clear that the action expressed by the infinitive was previous to the
action described by the main verb.
 I’m very glad to work here. (=now)
 I’m very glad to have worked here. (=in the past)
 
Continuous infinitive
 
We use the continuous infinitive the express that the action is in progress around the time expressed by the
main verb.
 I’m glad to be spending this weekend with you. 
 You shouldn’t be doing this right now, should you?
 
Perfect continuous infinitive
 
We use the perfect continuous infinitive to express duration from earlier in the past towards the time expressed
by the main verb.
 I’m glad to have been sharing my life with you. 
 They are thought to have been hiding in the mountains. 
 
Perfect infinitive after passive reporting verbs
 
After passive reporting verbs, we use the simple or continuous infinitive to refer to the present or future, and
the perfect infinitives to refer to the past. (⇒ See B1+ Grammar » The passive with reporting verbs)
 They are believed to be lovers. (=now)
 They are believed to have been lovers. (=in the past)
  She is thought to be living in Brussels. (=now)
 She is thought to have been living in Brussels (=from the past till now)
 
Perfect infinitive after would like, would hate, would rather, would prefer
 
We always use the perfect infinitive after would like, would hate, would rather, would prefer to refer to
an earlier action or event. Compare:
 I would like to see you once more. (=in the future)
 I would like to have seen you once more. (=in the past)
 She would rather be with you. (=now)
 She would rather have been with you. (=in the past)
 
Passive infinitives and gerunds
 
We use passive infinitives or passive gerunds to describe actions which are done to the subject. (⇒ See B1+
Grammar » The passive voice – all tenses)
 He is too young to be allowed to be here.
 This place needs to be taken care of.
 I don’t mind being told what to do.
 He denied having been offered money to kill the senator. 
 
When to use gerund or infinitive
 
In the table below, you can see when to use gerund or infinitive.
 Future forms – expressing future time 
 
Future arrangements
 
Present continuous
 
We often use the present continuous to talk about future events that are already planned and decided, when
a date and/or a place have been chosen.
 I’m seeing the dentist at 6.
 We are getting married next week.
 I’m flying to New York tomorrow morning.
 
be going to
 
We can also use be going to for future arrangements.
 I’m going to play tennis with Elisabeth today. 
 
Present continuous vs be going to
 
We can normally use both present continuous and going to to talk about future plans, but the present
continuous emphasises the fact that we have already decided a place and/or time, whereas be going
to emphasises our intention to do something.
 I’m going to have a drink after work. (=it’s my intention)
 I’m having a drink with some colleagues after work. (=it has been arranged)
 
Future continuous
 
We can also use the future continuous instead of the present continuous for future events that have
already been planned or decided.
 We’ll be coming next weekend.
 We’ll be leaving at 8 a.m. tomorrow.
We often use the future continuous to ask politely about future arrangements.
 Will you be going home this summer?
And of course, we use the future continuous for situations or actions that will be in progress at a certain
time in the future.
 This time next week, we’ll be travelling to Paris. 
 Tomorrow at 10, you’ll be doing your exam. 
 
Present simple
 
We use the present simple for future events that are scheduled or timetabled.
 The train leaves at 4.
 Shops close at 6.
 I have my yoga class tomorrow at 10.
 
Predictions
 
will
 
We use will to talk about something we think that will happen:
 I think he’ll win the election.
 He will be a good doctor.
 
be going to
 
We use be going to to talk about something that is very near to happen or that we see is going to
happen (there is present evidence)
 Don’t drive like a crazy man. We’re going to have an accident!
 The doctor said I’m going to have a girl.
  
 
Future perfect
 
Future perfect simple
 
We use the future perfect simple for actions that will be finished before certain time in the future.
 By 2050, researchers will have found a cure for cancer.
 By this time next year, I’ll have graduated.
We can also use the future perfect simple to talk about the duration of a situation until a certain time in the
future (with stative verbs).
 By the time I leave, I will have been in England for 6 months.
 In 2 years, we will have been married for 20 years.
 
Future perfect continuous
 
We use the future perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to talk about the duration of a situation until a
certain time in the future.
  By the end of the year, she will have been working on the publication for over 10 years.
 When he steps into the boxing ring on Saturday he will have been training for about 18 months.
 
Future time clauses (when, as soon as, until, before, after)
 
Use present simple to talk about the future in sentences with when, as soon as, until, before, after
 I’ll retire when I’m 70. (NOT: when I’ll be)
 I won’t call you until I arrive (NOT: will arrive.)
 
 
Other uses of will
 
Instant decisions
 
We use will for decisions that we take at the moment of speaking (instant decisions).
 ‘Oh, we don’t have sugar.’ ‘Don’t worry, I’ll buy some.’
 
Promises and refusals
 
 I will help you whenever you need me.   
 I won’t lend him my car. 
 
Future facts
 
 The president will visit the Vatican next November.
 
Offers
 
When we offer to do something for somebody, we use I will in statements or shall I in questions.
 I’ll carry that bag for you.
 Shall I organise the meeting?
 
Suggestions
 
We use shall we to make suggestions.
 Shall we eat out today?
 
Requests
 
 Will you open the door, please?

Other ways to express future 

 
Other ways to express future – grammar chart
 

 
be about to, be on the brink/verge/point of
 
be about to
 
We often use be about to + infinitive to say that something will happen in a very near future.
 Some apps are about to disappear from the market.
 Scientists say they are about to find a vaccine.
be on the brink/verge/point of
 
We can also use be on the brink of, be on the verge of or be on the point of to say that something will
happen very soon.
 Our country’s economy is on the brink of collapse. 
 This historical museum is on the brink of losing half its masterpieces.
 They are on the verge of becoming the team to win more finals in history.
 The two historical enemies are on the point of reaching an agreement. 
 
be due to
 
We use be due to + infinitive to talk about things that are planned or expected to happen.
 Greece is due to repay around £6 billion to its creditors next semester.
 The secretary is due to arrive in Montreal tomorrow morning. 
 
be to
 
We can use be to + infinitive in different situations.
 
Official arrangements
 
Be to + infinitive is often used in news reports to talk about official arrangements and about events that are
planned or expected to happen. The meaning is usually something like ‘it is expected’.
 Prince William is to visit Paris for the first time since his mother died. (=It is expected that Prince
William will…)
 Nine care homes for the elderly are to close by the end of March.
 
Formal instructions and orders
 
We can also use be to + infinitive to talk about official instructions and orders. When used in the
negative form, it expresses prohibition.
 All employees are to attend a health and safety orientation at the end of the week. 
 You are not to leave this room until I say so. 
 
if clauses
 
We often use be to + infinitive in a if-clause. In these cases, we say what should be done (main clause) to
achieve the desired result (if-clause).
 We need to be open to everybody’s opinion if we are to avoid repeating the mistakes of the past. 
 If he is to succeed, he will need to learn to represent the interests of all Americans. 
 
Be bound to, be likely to (probability)
 
be bound to
 
We use be bound to + infinitive to say that something is certain or very likely to happen.
 They are bound to like him. He is such a sweet guy. 
 His new film is bound to win the heart of of every romantic out there. 
 
be likely to
 
We use be likely to + infinitive to say that something will probably happen. We can also use It + be likely
that + clause.
 The government is likely to pass new regulations very soon. 
 It’s likely that the company will have to pay for the damages. 
We use be unlikely + infinitive to say that something will probably not happen. We can also use It + be
unlikely that + clause.
 He is unlikely to win this match. 
 It’s unlikely that the weather will change over the next days.

Relative clauses – defining relative clauses

Do you know how to define who or what you are talking about using relative clauses?

Look at these examples to see how defining relative clauses are used.

Are you the one who sent me the email?

The phone which has the most features is also the most expensive.
This is the video that I wanted to show you.
The person they spoke to was really helpful.
 Relative clauses give us information about the person or thing mentioned.

Defining relative clauses give us essential information – information that tells us who or
what we are talking about.

The woman who lives next door works in a bank.

These are the flights that have been cancelled.
We usually use a relative pronoun or adverb to start a defining relative clause: who, which,
that, when, where or whose.

who/that
We can use who or that to talk about people. that is more common and a bit more informal.

She's the woman who cuts my hair.

He's the man that I met at the conference.

which/that
We can use which or that to talk about things. that is more common and a bit more informal.

There was a one-year guarantee which came with the TV.

The laptop that I bought last week has started making a strange noise!

Other pronouns:
when can refer to a time.

Summer is the season when I'm happiest.

where can refer to a place.

That's the stadium where Real Madrid play.

whose refers to the person that something belongs to.

He's a musician whose albums have sold millions.

Omitting the relative pronoun

Sometimes we can leave out the relative pronoun. For example, we can usually leave out who, which or that if it
is followed by a subject.

The assistant [that] we met was really kind.

(we = subject, can omit that)
We can't usually leave it out if it is followed by a verb.

The assistant that helped us was really kind.

(helped = verb, can't omit that)

Non-defining relative clauses

Do you know how to give extra information about someone or something using relative clauses?

Look at these examples to see how non-defining relative clauses are used.

Jack, who's retired now, spends a lot of time with his grandchildren.
We want to see the new Tom Carter film, which was released on Friday.
My sister, whose dog I'm looking after, is visiting a friend in Australia.

 Relative clauses give us information about the person or thing mentioned.

Non-defining relative clauses give us extra information about someone or something. It isn't
essential for understanding who or what we are talking about.

My grandfather, who's 87, goes swimming every day.

The house, which was built in 1883, has just been opened to the public.
The award was given to Sara, whose short story impressed the judges.

We always use a relative pronoun or adverb to start a non-defining relative clause: who, which, whose, when or
where (but not that). We also use commas to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence.

who, which and whose

We can use who to talk about people, which to talk about things and whose to refer to the person or thing that
something belongs to.

Yesterday I met my new boss, who was very nice.

The house, which is very big, is also very cold!
My next-door neighbour, whose children go to school with ours, has just bought a new car.
After the port there is a row of fishermen's houses, whose lights can be seen from across the bay.
Places and times
We can use which with a preposition to talk about places and times. In these cases, it's more common to use
where or when instead of which and the preposition.

City Park, which we used to go to, has been closed down.

City Park, where we used to go, has been closed down.
December, which Christmas is celebrated in, is a summer month for the southern hemisphere.
December, when Christmas is celebrated, is a summer month for the southern hemisphere.

However, when we use which without a preposition, we can't use where or when.

Centre Park, which we love, is always really busy on Saturdays.

February, which is my favourite month, lasts 29 days this year.

Narrative Writing
What Is Narrative Writing?
Narrative writing is, essentially, story writing. A narrative can be fiction or nonfiction, and it can also occupy
the space between these as a semi-autobiographical story, historical fiction, or a dramatized retelling of actual
events. As long as a piece tells a story through a narrative structure, it’s narrative writing.

Types of narrative writing

There are multiple ways to write a narrative. The right kind of narrative for your story or essay depends on your
goals for the piece you’re writing.

Linear narrative
With a linear narrative, a story’s events are told in chronological order. Most books, movies, TV shows, and
other pieces of media are linear narratives. With a linear narrative, each scene is followed by the next logical
scene. There can be gaps between scenes, such as a book’s third chapter taking place two years after its second
chapter’s events.

One specific type of linear narrative you may be familiar with is the quest narrative. This kind of narrative tells
the story of a character’s quest to reach a goal. Often, this quest involves traveling to a far-off location and
overcoming obstacles to achieve the goal. Shrek is an example of a quest narrative. In addition to following the
standard quest narrative structure, Shrek also satirizes many of the tropes associated with this kind of story,
like a princess locked in a tower guarded by a dragon.
Another specific type of linear narrative you may have encountered is the historical narrative. A historical
narrative follows a linear timeline to tell the story of an actual event or series of events.

Nonlinear narrative
In contrast to a linear narrative, a nonlinear narrative presents its story’s events in nonchronological order. A
well-known example of a nonlinear narrative is House of Leaves, a novel told through first-person narration,
recovered documents, and footnotes throughout the book.

By choosing a nonlinear narrative for your writing, you can emphasize your characters’ emotions and
perspectives on the events in the story. You can also highlight key events and include scenes that provide
necessary details that wouldn’t fit into your story’s timeline otherwise.

Viewpoint narrative
A viewpoint narrative focuses on the narrator’s perspective of the story’s events. Generally, these kinds of
stories are more character driven than plot driven. The Catcher in the Rye is one of the most popular examples
of a viewpoint narrative. By putting the reader in protagonist Holden Caulfield’s head, author J. D. Salinger
created a unique perspective that allows the reader to experience Holden’s romp through New York City
firsthand and feel what he feels as the narrative unfolds. Imagine if the novel was a linear narrative told
through a third-person point of view—reading it would be a very different experience, wouldn’t it?

Through a narrative viewpoint, you can explore facets of your protagonist’s personality and expose your
readers to their thoughts. This kind of narrative is an effective choice for personal essays and stories with
perspective and personal growth themes.

Descriptive narrative
In a descriptive narrative, the focus is on how the story’s setting, characters, and objects look and feel. The goal
here is total immersion in the world of the story; this is different from how a viewpoint narrative strives to
create immersion in a character’s inner world, a limited perspective on the world of the story. A well-known
example of a descriptive narrative is Edgar Allan Poe’s short story The Tell-Tale Heart. After murdering a
victim and hiding his heart beneath a floorboard, the narrator hears a heartbeat-like thumping, which gets
louder and louder until they confess to their crime. The narrative is structured like a conversation between the
reader and the narrator, with the narrator’s distressed mental state and strong emotions expressed through
Poe’s word choice, sentence structure, and manner of addressing the reader.

If you’re assigned to write a descriptive essay, you’ll use descriptive narrative techniques to discuss the topic
you’re covering. These include using vivid imagery to introduce specific objects and ideas, personification, and
similes.

Characteristics of narrative writing

Each type of writing has its own unique characteristics, and narrative writing is no different. Here are key
characteristics you’ll find in most narratives:
Descriptive language: This type of language evokes feelings rather than directly stating facts. Descriptive
language techniques include metaphors, similes, personification, and onomatopoeia.
Characters: A story might have just one character, or it can have a huge cast of characters. In some stories,
the narrator is the only character present. The narrator is the figure from whose point of view the story is being
told, and they might (or might not) interact with the other characters.
Among the characters, nearly every narrative needs to have a protagonist. The protagonist, also known as the
main character, is the character whose story is being told as they work toward a goal or face a challenge.
Another character found in nearly every narrative is the antagonist. The antagonist isn’t necessarily the “bad
guy”; they are simply the character or force imposing obstacles for the protagonist to overcome. In many
narratives, the antagonist is a person, a force of nature, the protagonist’s society, or even an aspect of the
protagonist’s personality.
Plot: The plot is the series of events that happen in your narrative. A plot can be simple, with only one or two
events, or it can be complex and multi-layered.
Narrative structure: Every narrative, even nonlinear narratives, is organized in some way. This is how the
main character pursues their goal or faces the challenge presented to them. No matter how you structure your
narrative, it has three distinct parts:
The beginning: This is where the reader meets your writing. Hooking their attention at the beginning is
crucial.
The middle: The middle of your story or essay is where the action happens. This is where your protagonist
faces one or more conflicts and reaches the climax, the point where the narrative pivots to the falling action
after the protagonist either meets or fails to meet their goal.
The end: After the narrative’s climax, the ending wraps up loose story threads, satisfies readers’ remaining
curiosities, and positions the protagonist for life after the story’s events.

Tips for awesome narrative writing

Use your narrative to build characters
When you’re writing in the first-person point of view, your story’s narrator is one of the characters in the story.
Use this role as an opportunity to shape their character through their word choice, perspective, and reactions to
the events in the story. Your narrator doesn’t have to be omniscient, nor do they necessarily have to be
trustworthy or even the story’s only narrator—experiment with things like an unreliable narrator, a limited
point of view, or alternating narrators (which gives the reader a taste of each character’s perspective).

Listen to how people tell stories

Next time your friend tells you about their day, pay as much attention to how they tell the story as you do to the
story itself. Listen for the jumps forward and back, asides, tangents, and how your friend’s volume and
animation level change at different parts of the story. You’ll notice that certain parts get “fast-forwarded” while
others split from the logical, linear narrative and involve more abstract, descriptive language.

When you sit down to write your next narrative piece, keep these storytelling ebbs and flows in mind. Think
about where your friend slowed down to build suspense and where their tone changed to communicate how
they felt at different points in the story. You can create these effects in your writing through thoughtful word
choice and pacing.
Mix and match narrative styles
Writing a linear narrative doesn’t mean you can’t incorporate elements of a descriptive or viewpoint narrative.
If your nonlinear essay about the five best summers of your life calls for a passage that shows the reader
everything you saw, smelled, and swatted away one year at camp, write that passage.
Linkers

On this page
Form
Reasons and results
Contrast
Comparing
Adding points
One sentence or two?
Linking with prepositions
Other ways of linking and other relationships
Quizzes for linkers
Resource index for linkers

Form
clause + conjunction + clause
It was raining so I stayed at home.

conjunction + clause + clause

Although it was raining, I went for a walk.

preposition + noun (phrase) + clause

Despite the rain, I went for a walk.

sentence + adverbial + sentence

It was a cold winter afternoon and the sky threatened rain. Nevertheless, we decided to go for a walk.

Reasons and results

Linkers are words or phrases that we use to link (i.e. connect or join) ideas.

It was raining. I stayed at home.

In this example, we can see that the first idea, 'It was raining.' is the reason for the second idea, 'I stayed at
home.' Or, 'I stayed at home' is a result of 'It was raining.' We can use linkers such as so or therefore to make
the relationship between the two ideas clear.

It was raining, so I stayed at home.

It was raining. Therefore, I stayed at home.

We could also change the order and put the result before the reason and use a linker such as because.

I stayed at home because it was raining.

The linkers so, because and therefore show a relationship of reason and result, orcause and effect.

Contrast
Let’s look at another example:

It was raining. I went for a walk.

This time there is a different relationship between the two ideas. People don't usually go for a walk if it is
raining. The second idea doesn't normally follow from the first one. It is unexpected. This relationship, where
the ideas are different or opposing, is called contrast.

We can use linkers such as but, although and however to show contrast and make the relationship between the
ideas clear.

It was raining, but I went for a walk.

Although it was raining, I went for a walk.
It was raining. However, I went for a walk.

Comparing
Sometimes we want to compare two things that are different:

I always go to bed early.

My sister goes to bed very late.

This is also a kind of contrast and we can make the relationship clear using linkers such as while, whereas, but,
however or on the other hand.

I always go to bed early, whereas my sister goes to bed very late.

I always go to bed early. My sister, on the other hand, goes to bed very late.

Adding points
One other common relationship between ideas is addition, when we want to add ideas. These can be very
simple:

I like seafood.
I like spicy food.

We could add these ideas with linkers such as and, also and too:

I like seafood and spicy food.

I like seafood. I also like spicy food.
I like seafood. I like spicy food too.

In written English, we sometimes want to add ideas such as points in an argument. This is common when
writing essays and reports:

The cost of relocation would be very high.

There are no suitable premises currently available.
A move would be unpopular with staff.

In formal writing we can join ideas like these with linkers such as furthermore, moreover, what is more, in
addition and besides
.
The cost of relocation would be very high. Furthermore, there are no suitable premises currently available and
a move would be unpopular with staff.
Note that simple linkers like and, too and also are often used in formal writing along with the more formal
ones. But linkers such as moreover and furthermore are mostly used for more formal writing and would sound
strange in simple conversation:

I like seafood. What is more, I like spicy food.

One sentence or two?

You will notice that we can link two ideas in one sentence or two. Your choice will usually depend on how
complicated each idea is and whether you are speaking or writing. Simple ideas in spoken English are often
joined with simple linkers like and, but, because and so:

I felt tired, so I went to bed early.

More complex ideas in written English are often joined in two sentences:

The disadvantages of relocating to a new site on the coast are considerable. Therefore we recommend retaining
the existing premises in London for the time being.

When we link ideas in one sentence, each idea usually has a clause and the linker is usually a conjunction
:
The linkers and, but, so, while, whereas, and although are conjunctions and join ideas as clauses in one
sentence.

The linkers however, on the other hand, therefore, furthermore etc. are adverbs and link ideas in two
sentences.

Linking with prepositions

Some linkers are prepositions. They can link the same kinds of ideas as conjunction and adverbs, but the
grammar is different. They don’t link clauses or sentences. They show a link between a word or phrase, usually
a noun or noun phrase, and the whole sentence.

Contrast
We can use the preposition despite and the phrase in spite of (which works in the same way) to show contrast:

I went for a walk despite the rain.

In spite of her heavy cold, she managed to give a brilliant presentation.

Note that the ideas following despite (the rain) and in spite of (her heavy cold) are not clauses, they are nouns
or noun phrases.
Reason and result
We can use due to and because of (not because) in the same way:

Due to the terrible weather we have cancelled the picnic.

Note that the idea following due to (the terrible weather) is a noun phrase.

Addition.
Besides can be used as a preposition to add ideas (it can also be used as an adverb).

Besides the problem with transport, we also had to deal with a difficult financial situation.

Note how the idea following besides (the problem with transport) is a noun phrase.

Other ways of linking and other relationships

Be aware that there are other ways of linking ideas in English. These are just some of the more common ones.

There are also other relationships between ideas, not just those mentioned here.