Paper Memoria en Vigotsky y Leontiev
Paper Memoria en Vigotsky y Leontiev
Paper Memoria en Vigotsky y Leontiev
Anton Yasnitsky1 *
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9574-535X
1
Unaffiliated researcher – Toronto, Canada.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a notable Soviet psychologist of the Vygotsky–Luria Circle, Aleksei N.
Leontiev, overviews his contribution to psychological research, and explores the Vygotsky–
Leontiev–Zinchenko strand in psychological studies of human memory and remembering. The
general framework of Vygotskian “Superman science” as a component of the unique Soviet
avant-garde science is also covered in this paper.
RESUMO
Aleksei N. Leontiev (1903–1979) was a Soviet psychologist, whose life and legacy are closely
associated with the names and scholarly legacies of prominent Soviet intellectuals:
neuropsychologist Alexander Luria (1902–1977) and developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky
(1896–1934). The latter is well-known as the third member of the “troika” (the three, or
threesome, in Russian) of Russian intellectuals on the list of “the 100 most eminent
psychologists of the 20thcentury” (occupying the 83rd position and following his
contemporaries Ivan Pavlov [1849–1936], on the 24th place, and Alexander Luria, on the 69th
place on the list), as measured by a study conducted by and among North American scholars in
early 21st century (HAGGBLOOM et al., 2002). It is by virtue of this association with the most eminent
Russian psychologists (which is the first reason to remember his name) that Leontiev is known
today—but definitely not only for that.
The second reason for Leontiev’s historical fame, primarily in the domestic context, is his
prominence in the history of Russian psychology of the Soviet era as a major administrative
and organizational force, in his capacity as founder and first dean of one of the two national
Institutes of Psychology—both officially sanctioned in December 1965 and launched in 1966 in
the Soviet Union. Due to a combination of factors—such as personal charm, charisma, fluency
in French (which suggested a somewhat aristocratic flavor so admired at that time in certain
circles of Russian intelligentsia), and the notorious obscurity of his oral and written
presentations (which created an enigmatic image and hinted at the possession of the
mysterious supreme knowledge of a sage)—, Leontiev became a cult figure for his numerous
admirers and followers in the Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU), institution that
would become a stronghold for the Leontievian clan until the very last days of his life.
Virtually immediately following his death, in 1979, the Leontievian reign at the MSU was
overturned and overtaken by a rival clan of Soviet psychologists from the second most
powerful Institute of Psychology, the one at the Leningrad (renamed St.-Petersburg) State
University—the other institute that opened in 1966. The mastermind of this administrative
coup was Boris Lomov (1927–1989)—a figure with higher-stakes connections than Leontiev’s
in the highest bodies of the Communist Party regime in the Soviet Union—and his numerous
associates and members of his patron-client network. This power overtake triggered a “game
of thrones” of local scale and, after a while, the remnants of the Leontievian clan eventually
regained power at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow State University in 2000 1. Thus, this
university remains, perhaps, the only Russian stronghold of his former students and a key
location of the cult of Aleksei N. Leontiev in the 21st century, but the charms of both the cult
and the legacy of its main figure considerably decreased during this millennium.
Furthermore, there is a third reason why the image of Aleksei N. Leontiev has not faded away
into complete posthumous oblivion, like many intellectuals before or after him: his Marxist—
or quasi-Marxist, as some might say—theorizing and speculations in the field of psychology
and allied fields of knowledge. This aspect of his intellectual legacy brings us into the pre-
history of what is now known as “cultural-historical psychology” and “activity theory” in the
Soviet Union, as they were developed by the members of the so-called Vygotsky–Luria Circle
(YASNITSKY, 2016b)2.
Historically, three names are often associated with the Circle: Vygotsky, Luria, and Leontiev.
The three are often described as a “troika”, which exclusively created the “cultural-historical
theory” in the Soviet Union before World War II. Such a portrayal is definitely erroneous and
does not fit the evidence that we now have. First, the label of “cultural-historical” emerged in
the critical discussions of Vygotsky’s and Luria’s scholarship in the early 1930s, to be
subsequently assimilated by Vygotsky’s followers and broader academic community after
Vygotsky’s death (KEILER, 2019). Second, no such theory was ever created by Vygotsky, Luria or any
of their associates: only a few—often inconsistent and self-contradictory theoretical sketches
—of the psychological system of thought were produced. These sketches might cumulatively
qualify for a claim for several theories in psychology, but definitely not a single finalized one.
Third, the unity of the three key protagonists of the “troika” narrative kept relatively united for
a short period of time, roughly between 1926 and 1930, to be gradually driven apart for
several reasons in the 1930s. Finally, their roles within the Circle differed very much.
Luria was Vygotsky’s long-time partner and collaborator: the duo had a considerable history of
interrelations and productively, and worked on a number of studies and writing projects.
Furthermore, despite Luria’s numerous claims on several occasions, he was not only Vygotsky’s
humble follower and student, but was also instrumental in essentially influencing Vygotsky’s
thought and theorizing in many ways (LAMDAN, 2019). In contrast, Leontiev always played “second
fiddle” in the work of this duo, although he also importantly contributed to the work of the
Circle during the reductionist and mechanicist period of the so-called “instrumental
psychology”. And yet, Leontiev may be adequately understood as arguably Vygotsky’s best
student ever.
Vygotsky’s distinct and uniquely idiosyncratic project in human sciences, as it was presented
on numerous occasions in his oral reports, private writings, and published works throughout
the last decade of his life, was the quest for a “new psychology” that he also formulated as a
“science of Superman” or a “peak psychology”—that aimed (a) at the heights (as opposed to
Freudian “depths” or “surface-level” of everyday behaviors of interest to behaviorists of
various kinds) of the (b) potential supreme human being (as opposed to the actual existing
average human type). This aspect of the core of Vygotsky’s unique proposal as a perfect
instance of the bold and radical “revolutionary experiments” in human sciences—such as the
scientific quest for life extension and even immortality ( KREMENTSOV, 2013)—and distinctly Soviet
“avant-garde science”3 in psychological research has largely remained ignored and was
brought to light most recently (YASNITSKY, 2019).
Vygotsky proposed writing a book on “psychological materialism”, but never wrote such a
book. In fact, in retrospect, neither of Vygotsky’s two major proposals—the truly scientific
“new psychology” of the Superman and the “psychological materialism”—was ever
materialized during his lifetime. Yet, the last phrase of Vygotsky’s obituary, that Leontiev
published in 1934, unambiguously states: “What L. S. Vygotsky has done in science will not die,
since it constitutes the first stage of the movement toward the truly scientific, Marxist
psychology” (LEONTIEV, 1934). Thus, Leontiev may well be considered Vygotsky’s best student due to
being the only scholar of the time who made an effort for the theoretical development of
Vygotsky’s general and overarching Marxist psychological theory. Nevertheless, the material
outcome of this effort—manuscripts and publications—did not appear until after Vygotsky’s
death.
During his lifetime, Leontiev made quite a few publications: the most updated list of his
published scholarly works comprises 282 items apart from other, non-academic newspaper
and journal publications, interviews, popular articles, etc. (the bibliography is available online
at http://www.anleontiev.smysl.ru/sp_publ.htm ). It appears that Leontiev did not produce
very many books.
Table 1 Aleksei N Leontiev’s monographs and major books.
Year of
Book title in Book title in
Publisher first Pages Genre
English Russian
publication
Razvitie pamiati.
Eksperimental’noe
Memory
razvitie vysshikh Uchpedgiz 1931 280 Monograph
Development
psikhologicheskikh
funktsii
Vosstanovlenie
dvizheniia.
Rehabilitation Monograph (in
Issledovanie
of Hand Sovetskaia nauka 1945 231 collaboration with A V
vosstanovleniia
Function4 Zaporozhets)
funktsii ruki posle
raneniia
Voennyi
Outline of the
Ocherk razvitiia pedagogicheskii
Psyche 1947 120 Monograph/Brochure
psikhiki institut Sovetskoi
Development
Armii
Activity.
Deiatel’nost’.
Consciousness. Politizdat 1975 304 Collected papers
Soznanie. Lichnost’
Personality
Curiously enough, only three items on the list may qualify as the author’s major monographs,
that is, books that Leontiev wrote fully (or relatively) independently as single purpose
specialized projects. Even so, one of the three—the Rehabilitation of Hand Function, from 1945
(item 29 on the list)—was co-authored with his former student Aleksandr Zaporozhets (1905–
1981). Another book is a 120 page-long extended brochure, titled the Outline of the Psyche
Development [Ocherk razvitiia psikhiki], from 1947 (item 39 on the list), a shortened version of
Leontiev’s doctoral dissertation, written under the supervision of Ivan Pavlov’s administrative
and “intellectual heir”, physiologist and academician Leon Orbeli (1882–1958), and defended
in Leningrad in 1940 (the manuscript was lost during the World War II). The rest is scholarly
articles, encyclopedia entries, brochures, edited books, and book compilations of the author’s
previously published texts, such as the two well-known books The Problems of Psyche
Development [Problemy razvitiia psikhiki] (whose first edition dates from 1959) and Activity.
Consciousness. Personality [Deiatel’nost’. Soznanie. Lichnost’] (whose first edition dates from
1975)—the book that was published in two editions within just four years before the author’s
death and is often positioned and discussed as Leontiev’s major theoretical work, that
summarized all his intellectual legacy up to the end of his life. However, one needs to keep in
mind that Activity. Consciousness. Personality (1975; 2nd ed. 1977) was not a whole new and
original monograph, but a collection of journal articles that he had published on different
occasions, from 1947 to 1974.
First publication
Chapter
Chapter title Original title
number
Source Year
Marksizm i
Karl Marks i Voprosy pilkhologii, no.
I psikhologicheskaia 1968
psikhologicheskaia nauka 5, p. 3-16
nauka
Problemy psikhologii
Psikhologicheskie voprosy
Appendix Prilozhenie ponimaniia. Izvestiia APN 1947
soznatel’nosti ucheniia
RSFSR, vyp. 7; p. 3-40
All this explains our subjective interest in and the objective importance of Leontiev’s first book,
Development of Memory, from 1931, written exclusively in the spirit of Vygotsky’s
“instrumental psychology” of the 1920s.
Apart from being Leontiev’s first major book, the research behind Development of Memory,
from 1931, is of considerable interest, because it truly stands out as the only major published
work that ever came out as a solid—theoretically and empirically grounded—monument and,
in a sense, manifesto of Vygotsky’s “instrumental” research program during his reductionist
and mechanicist period of the 1920s. Indeed, despite the publication of a series of other works
under the name of either Vygotsky or Luria or both, none qualifies as genuinely innovative or
original contributions to the “new psychology” advocated by Vygotsky. These publications
were either teaching materials for poorly trained (i. e., lacking proper gymnasium education)
undergraduate students from the democratic masses of the post-revolutionary time (such
as Paedology of the school age, from 1928, or Paedology of the adolescent, published in three
volumes, between 1929 and 1931), or popular scientific works for general readers (such
as Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Essays in the History of Behaviour or Imagination and
Creativity in Childhood, both from 1930). In fact, these volumes from 1930 to 1931—along with
the considerably delayed Psychological Dictionary, from 1931, that Vygotsky co-authored with
his younger associate Boris Varshava (1900–1927)—were the last books with Vygotsky’s name
on their cover that their author saw published 4. Besides these works, there was the bulk of
Luria’s independent research projects done in parallel with his involvement in Vygotsky’s
research and quite distant from his scientific agenda. An example of the latter is Luria’s well-
known and influential book The Nature of Human Conflicts, which was published in English, in
the United States, in 1932.
The main idea is the development of a mastery of the subject’s own behavior and
performance: in this particular study, this meant the mastery of the psychological processes of
memory and attention in its subjects. In the manner characteristic of this period of thought,
the researchers, as designers of the study, never questioned the subjects’ interest or
eagerness to master their psychological performance, as it was—quite unfortunately—
assumed as self-evident. Then, from the theoretical standpoint, the researchers postulated
that two types of psychological functions existed: the “lower”, “natural” ones and the “higher”
“cultural” functions. These theorists never bothered to clearly define what these “lower”
psychological functions were and what exactly would distinguish them from purely
physiological processes. Instead, though, they articulated what they saw as the main
difference between the undefined “lower” and the advanced “higher” functions. The
distinction was the origin of the latter: the “higher” functions were believed to emerge as a
result of instrumental use of some “cultural tools”, artificially created by humankind in the
cultural development process of the human species. Then, from this rather general assumption
about the history of cultural development of Homo sapiens, the researchers made quite a
dramatic leap to ontogenesis (i. e., individual development of children, who, in fact, were the
most important group of participants in the study).
In order to demonstrate the correctness of their theoretical claims and assumptions, the
researchers presented their subjects with what they thought to be totally meaningless
“cultural tools”, the “signs” that would help the participants of the experiment to master their
psychological processes of remembering and attention, by virtue of association of these signs
with the objects to be remembered or to be attended to. The specific experimental procedures
and the main findings of this study are well-known and were generously described and
discussed elsewhere. The discussion of the method of “double simulation” ( YASNITSKY, 2018, p. 37-
40), Vygotskian “instrumental psychology” (YASNITSKY, 2018, p. 65-69) and the “unexpected
discoveries” of word meaning, dialogue, and inner speech ( YASNITSKY, 2018, p. 69-73) can be found in
Yasnitsky’s most recent book, Vygotsky: An Intellectual Biography (YASNITSKY, 2018). According to the
book review, it brought its author the flattering reputation of the “new world leader in doing
careful analytic work on Vygotsky’s heritage” 5.Suffice it to say that, in his first book, from 1931,
Leontiev triumphantly reported the empirically achieved demonstration, in experimental
settings, of such processes. Thus, he was able to defend the discovery of what they believed to
be the development of “cultural psychological functions” of logical memory and voluntary
attention with the help of “mediation” of meaningless signs as “cultural tools”. That explains
why, in this book, these “higher functions” were also referred to as “mediated functions.’
However, the triumph almost immediately turned into a disaster. Due to a combination of
personal and social factors, the researchers of the Vygotsky–Luria Circle very soon (and even
before the publication of the book) realized numerous, almost fatal problems with their
theoretical assumptions, the study design, and the analytic procedures, as well as with key
findings and interpretations. The first attempt to somehow rectify the situation was made in
the very introduction to Leontiev’s book: the introduction was authored by Vygotsky.
Apparently, that was not enough. Then, this was followed by another text, published
separately as a small brochure and signed by the names of Vygotsky and Leontiev—their only
co-authored publication. This brochure came out in 1932 and was distributed along with the
book as its appendix with even further clarifications, self-criticisms, and more philosophically
grounded attempts at correcting theoretical flaws of the book ( VYGOTSKII; LEONTIEV, 1932). A remark is in
place: a Lusophone reader might be delighted to know that this text is being introduced, for
the first time, as a translation into Portuguese in this very special issue of Cadernos CEDES.
These numerous flaws, though, could not be corrected other than in another experimental
study, which would not be launched until Leontiev had established a major research center in
Kharkiv6, at the time capital of Soviet Ukraine, to where he (along with Luria) relocated in
1931. There, Leontiev quickly recruited a new research team, which carefully investigated the
pitfalls of Vygotskian “instrumentalism”, and launched research under the supervision of
Leontiev. Said research comprised three main strands: first, a revisionist study on memory,
conducted primarily by Leontiev’s student Piotr Zinchenko (1903–1969) 7; second, a groundbreaking
project on the origin of sensation that provided Leontiev with experimental data for his own
doctoral study; and, third, after Leontiev’s departure from Kharkiv, in 1934, a large-scale study
on perception [vospriiatie], conducted by Leontiev’s former student, administrative successor
in Kharkiv and the future collaborator on Leontiev’s second book, Aleksandr Zaporozhets. This
major study by the Zaporozhets’ team can be seen as the direct and enriched continuation of
early Vygotsky’s work on “psychology of art”, and a contribution to the development of the
“new man”, or Superman, in Vygotsky’s parlance. To our great regret, the final manuscript of
Zaporozhets’ doctoral dissertation perished during World War II, in a heavily bombed and
largely destroyed Kharkiv, several times occupied and retaken by the Nazi and the Soviet Red
Army forces. The detailed discussion of the Zaporozhets’ team’s research remains beyond the
scope of this paper. Fortunately, these studies were sufficiently well presented and discussed
in a series of publications on the so-called “Kharkov School of Psychology” ( YASNITSKY; FERRARI,
2008a 2008b
, ).
Apparently, Aleksei N. Leontiev learned the lesson well from his experience with his first book
and its multiple flaws. Indeed, Piotr Zinchenko’s study, under the guidance of Leontiev,
perfectly demonstrated clear understanding of the Vygotsky’s “instrumentalism” main
weaknesses, which Vygotsky most critically scrutinized in his “revisionist” writings, such as the
aforementioned work (VYGOTSKII; LEONTIEV, 1932), as well as in his numerous private notes and public
presentations of roughly 1930 to 1932. Following the “revisionist Vygotsky” himself and a few
of his contemporaries—such as the founder of Soviet Marxist psychology, Sergei Rubinstein
(1889–1960) (YASNITSKY, 2020)—, Zinchenko generously and very correctly criticized the radical
distinction between the “natural’ lower and the “cultural” higher functions. Furthermore, he
hinted at his familiarity with Vygotsky’s self-criticism of isolated psychological functions in
favor of a system of such functions: in his research, Zinchenko investigated not an isolated and
fairly abstract “memory-function,” as if such a “function” in fact existed. Moreover, he astutely
avoided an implied bias of a unified “memory,” as presumably a tripartite cognitive capacity
for “information storage, preservation, and retrieval,” derived from computer and cognitive
sciences parlance that would come to prominence in psychology under the intellectual
influence and domination of North American thought-style after WWII. Instead, Zinchenko
focused on a concrete, real-world process of remembering. The design of his study was slightly
reminiscent of the “instrumental method” of “double stimulation;” yet, instead of
meaningless signs (as theoretical notions that help to explain the process of “mediation” and
“internalization”), Zinchenko reconceptualized the “psychological tools” as having their
objective meaning and subjective sense—the distinction and the interplay between the two
(and the multiple derivatives of “sense” and “consciousness”) are absolutely essential ( YASNITSKY;
VAN DER VEER, 2016a
).
Zinchenko and his academic supervisor Leontiev demonstrated that remembering, as a live
and dynamic psychological process in real world settings, is a function of concrete meaningful
activity8 and operations with objects. Unlike Vygotsky’s and early Leontiev studies on the
artificial development of voluntary, logical memory, remembering, in Zinchenko–Leontiev’s
experiments was involuntary, but, by virtue of being a part of personally meaningful activity, in
many instances by its efficiency, it would even surpass voluntary, yet mechanical memorization
in the studies of Vygotsky. Moreover, Zinchenko–Leontiev drew the distinction between
the object and the background of activity in a manner similar to the Gestaltist conceptual pair
of figure and background9. They demonstrated that not only the object of meaningful activity
is remembered involuntarily in agency, but also that even the background objects are
remembered, too, although at a considerably lower rate. One might speculate that
remembering background objects might be partly attributed to the subconscious, subjective,
personal sense these objects have to people; but this is a theoretical proposal that does not
seem to really ever occur to the originators of the study.
The exciting study by Zinchenko–Leontiev belongs to the classics of psychological research and,
in many ways, predated later developments in Western psychology ( CRAIK; LOCKHART, 2008; MACE,
2008 MCCAFFERTY, 2008 MESCHERYAKOV, 2008
; ; ). Yet, the full beauty of Vygotsky’s proposal of an “avant-garde
science” of the Superman psychology unfolds in Leontiev’s team’s daring research on the
emergence and development of sensation, which, by the standards of contemporary post-
positivist science, might qualify as marginally “scientific” and bordering on parapsychology.
Indeed, in his doctoral research, Leontiev assumed that, in experimental settings, sensation
can be developed—not only that which normally exists in human beings, but also sensations
that are not observed under normal circumstances. In this case, Leontiev tested human ability
in order to develop a sensation of light color by the skin of a human hand, which, by all
standards of average, “normal” human behavior, should be regarded as an extra-sensory
ability. In the rigorous experimental settings of psycho-physiological laboratories in Moscow
and Kharkiv, Leontiev conducted his study under the supervision of Ivan Pavlov’s closest
student and intellectual heir, Leon Orbeli. Here, he was able to demonstrate the incredible:
under certain circumstances, the subjects of his experiments were capable of developing
extra-sensory abilities! The avant-garde spirit of Vygotskian over-optimistic research program
reveals itself in the researchers’ belief in the virtually endless plasticity of human nature, the
extreme audacity of research goals, and the radicalism of the study, that would hardly be
conceivable in any intellectual milieu other than that of the Soviet intellectual environment.
Unfortunately, the magnitude and the full potential of this study remain unexplored until this
very day. The study was concluded by 1940. Academician Leon Orbeli, the supervisor and
official leading Soviet physiologist, approved this research. Sergei Rubinstein, the dissertation
examiner, the first ever psychologist soon thereafter to become a corresponding member of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the official leading Soviet Marxist psychologist,
approved it as well. Josef Stalin’s Soviet Union and Adolf Hitler’s Germany were still best
friends. The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union had not as yet started. Leontiev successfully
defended his dissertation in the early years of WWII, at Orbeli’s institute, in “the city of
Lenin”—Leningrad. This was a true triumph of Vygotskian “Superman science,” and the
revolutionary avant-garde research of the unique Soviet style. And yet, despite a few humble
attempts at continuation, after WWII, for instance, of the groundbreaking work of Aleksandr
Zaporozhets and his associate, this line of radical, avant-garde experimentation was never fully
resumed. To tell a story of this avant-garde scientific project would be a truly exciting
undertaking.
Yet, this would be a whole new story of its own, beyond the scope of this paper.
REFERENCES
HAGGBLOOM, S. J. et al. The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Review of
General Psychology, v. 6, n. 2, p. 139-152, 2002. https://doi.org/10.1037//1089-2680.6.2.139
[ Links ]
MACE, J. H. The involuntary/voluntary distinction: Implications for learning and memory and
the contributions of P. I. Zinchenko. Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, v. 46,
n. 6, p. 46-51, 2008. https://doi.org/10.2753/RPO1061-0405460604 [ Links ]
VAN DER VEER, R.; YASNITSKY, A. Vygotsky the published: Who wrote Vygotsky and what
Vygotsky actually wrote. In: YASNITSKY, A.; VAN DER VEER, R. (eds.). Revisionist Revolution in
Vygotsky Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 2016b, p. 73-93. [ Links ]
YASNITSKY, A. The archetype of Soviet psychology: From Stalinism of the 1930s to the “Stalinist
science” of our days. In: YASNITSKY, A.; VAN DER VEER, R. (eds.). Revisionist Revolution in
Vygotsky Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 2016a, p. 3-26. [ Links ]
YASNITSKY, A.; VAN DER VEER, R. “Lost in translation”: talking about sense, meaning, and
consciousness. In: YASNITSKY, A.; VAN DER VEER, R. (Ed.) Revisionist Revolution in Vygotsky
Studies. London & New York: Routledge, 2016a. p. 229–239. [ Links ]
YASNITSKY, A.; VAN DER VEER, R. (Ed.) Revisionist Revolution in Vygotsky Studies. London &
New York: Routledge, 2016b. [ Links ]
YASNITSKY, A.; IVANOVA, E. F. Rethinking the early history of post-Vygotskian psychology: The
case of the Kharkov school. History of Psychology, v. 11, n. 2, p. 101-121, 2008b.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1093-4510.11.2.101 [ Links ]
YASNITSKY, A.; IVANOVA, E. F. Remembering for the future: Grigorii Sereda in the history of
Kharkov school of psychology. Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, v. 49, n. 1,
2011. https://doi.org/10.2753/RPO1061-0405490100 [ Links ]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The organizers of the dossier would like to thank Lucia Reily for the technical revision of the
text in English and for its translation into Portuguese.
Notes
1
On the clans of Soviet psychologists and their “games of thrones”, the idiosyncratic ethos of
Soviet and contemporary Russian psychologists, the “Stalin model of science” and the
“archetype of Soviet psychology”, see Yasnitsky (2016a), also available in Spanish as the first chapter
in Yasnitsky et al. (2016).
2
This text is also available in Spanish, as a book chapter in Yasnitsky et al. (2016).
3
An interesting example of the “avant-garde science” is the case of Russian scholar and
expatriate philologist and linguist, Vygotsky’s contemporary and Luria’s associate, Roman
Jakobson (1896–1982) (TOMAN, 1995).
4
For the most reliable academic bibliography of Vygotsky, see van der Veer and Yasnitsky (2016a). For
a detailed overview of Vygotsky’s publications, see also van der Veer and Yasnitsky (2016b), available
as well in Spanish, as a book chapter in Yasnitsky et al. (2016).
5
From the book endorsement written by Jaan Valsiner (Aalborg University, Denmark) on the
book cover (emphasis added): “This is the first thorough coverage of the life and work of this
Russian-Jewish scholar since my work with René van der Veer over twenty-five years ago
(Understanding Vygotsky, 1991). Vygotsky’s psychological theories, based on his deep feelings on
theatre and literature, continue to fascinate scholars worldwide. Yasnitsky has clearly emerged
as the new world leader in doing careful analytic work on Vygotsky’s heritage.” Along these
lines, the author’s and his associates’ somewhat earlier work (YASNITSKY; VAN DER VEER, 2016b) has
received a high assessment from Brazilian scholar of Cuban origin Fernando Luis González-Rey:
“This book both challenges myths and introduces new beginnings for a contemporary study of
Vygotsky’s classical works.” For a much lengthier discussion of the topic by the same Cuban
author, in Spanish, see Rey (2016).
6
Alias: Kharkov, in traditional Russian spelling of the city.
7
Piotr (Petr, or Peter; Petro in Ukrainian) Zinchenko (not to be confused with Vladimir
Petrovich Zinchenko [1931–2014], his son, also a noted Soviet—then, Russian— psychologist)
has remained a virtually unknown figure to a Lusophone reader. So, the longest and, perhaps,
the best exposition of Zinchenko’s work in Portuguese can be found in doctoral dissertation by
Sandro Henrique Vieira De Almeida, entitled Psicologia Histórico-cultural da Memória, and
defended in 2008 at Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo. At the time of writing this
paper, the full text of the dissertation is available
online: http://livros01.livrosgratis.com.br/cp056390.pdf. For the discussion of Zinchenko’s
study in question, see specifically pages 86 to 102. For apparent reasons, the author of the
present article does not have to agree with each and every statement made in this
dissertation, yet highly recommends the text to the Lusophone readership. In addition, a
couple of Zinchenko’s studies and publications of 1930s are available in English translations
(ZINCHENKO, 1983, 2008). The reader might also benefit from getting acquainted with discussion of
Zinchenko’s and Zinchenko-inspired researches, in its historical development, in Mescheryakov
(2008) Yasnitsky (2008)
, , and Yasnitsky and Ivanova (2011).
8
Expression “meaningful/cognized activity” [osmyslennaia deiatel’nost’] was overtaken by
“object-related activity” [predmetnaia deiatel’nost’] in Leontiev’s later, speculative quasi-
Marxist works.
9
For the multiple interconnections between Soviet psychologists of the Vygotsky–Luria Circle
and the German-American Gestalt psychologists, see Yasnitsky and van der Veer, 2016b.
This article draws a point of view that can be better understood in the body of the author’s
work. For this, we refer to some of his texts, which can be found
at http://individual.utoronto.ca/yasnitsky/
Dossier organized by: Gisele Toassa and Ana Luiza Bustamante Smolka
Cedes Editorial Committee/Coordination of this issue: Silvia Cordeiro Nassif and Maria Silvia
Pinto de Moura Librandi da Rocha
Anton Yasnitsky 1 * http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9574-535X
1
Investigador no afiliado - Toronto, Canadá.
RESUMEN
Este artículo presenta a un notable psicólogo soviético del Círculo Vygotsky-Luria, Aleksei N.
Leontiev, analiza su contribución a la investigación psicológica y explora la línea Vygotsky-
Leontiev-Zinchenko en los estudios psicológicos de la memoria y el recuerdo humanos. El
marco general de la “ciencia de Superman” vygotskiana como un componente de la ciencia
única de vanguardia soviética también se trata en este artículo.
RESUMO
Este artigo apresenta um reconhecido psicólogo soviético do Círculo Vigotski – Luria, Aleksei N.
Leontiev, traz uma visão general de sus contribuciones contribuições para una pesquisa em
psicologia y explora a vertente Vigotski – Leontiev – Zinchenko dos estudos psicológicos sobre
una memoria humana e recordação. O quadro geral da “ciência do super-homem” vigotskiana
como componente da singular ciência soviética de vanguarda também é abordado neste
artigo.
Aleksei N. Leontiev (1903-1979) fue un psicólogo soviético, cuya vida y legado están
estrechamente asociados con los nombres y legados académicos de destacados intelectuales
soviéticos: el neuropsicólogo Alexander Luria (1902-1977) y el psicólogo del desarrollo Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934) . Este último es conocido como el tercer miembro de la " troika " (los
tres, o trío, en ruso) de intelectuales rusos en la lista de "los 100 psicólogos más eminentes del
siglo XX" (ocupando la posición 83 y siguiendo su contemporáneos Ivan Pavlov [1849-1936], en
el puesto 24, y Alexander Luria, en el puesto 69 de la lista), según lo medido por un estudio
realizado por y entre académicos norteamericanos a principios del siglo XXI ( HAGGBLOOM et al.,
2002
). Es en virtud de esta asociación con los psicólogos rusos más eminentes (que es la primera
razón para recordar su nombre) que Leontiev es conocido hoy, pero definitivamente no solo
por eso.
La segunda razón de la fama histórica de Leontiev, principalmente en el contexto doméstico,
es su prominencia en la historia de la psicología rusa de la era soviética como una fuerza
administrativa y organizativa importante, en su calidad de fundador y primer decano de uno de
los dos institutos nacionales. de Psicología, ambos aprobados oficialmente en diciembre de
1965 y lanzados en 1966 en la Unión Soviética. Debido a una combinación de factores, como el
encanto personal, el carisma, la fluidez en francés (que sugería un sabor algo aristocrático tan
admirado en ese momento en ciertos círculos de la intelectualidad rusa), y la notoria oscuridad
de sus presentaciones orales y escritas (que creó una imagen enigmática e insinuaba la
posesión del misterioso conocimiento supremo de un sabio) -,
Además, hay una tercera razón por la que la imagen de Aleksei N. Leontiev no se ha
desvanecido en un completo olvido póstumo, como muchos intelectuales antes o después de
él: sus teorizaciones y especulaciones marxistas —o casi marxistas, como algunos dirían— en el
campo de la psicología y campos afines del conocimiento. Este aspecto de su legado intelectual
nos lleva a la prehistoria de lo que ahora se conoce como "psicología histórico-cultural" y
"teoría de la actividad" en la Unión Soviética, tal como fueron desarrolladas por los miembros
de la llamada Vygotsky-Luria. Círculo ( YASNITSKY, 2016 b) 2 .
Luria fue socia y colaboradora de Vygotsky durante mucho tiempo: el dúo tenía una historia
considerable de interrelaciones y de forma productiva, y trabajó en una serie de estudios y
proyectos de escritura. Además, a pesar de las numerosas afirmaciones de Luria en varias
ocasiones, no solo fue el humilde seguidor y alumno de Vygotsky, sino que también fue
fundamental para influir esencialmente en el pensamiento y la teorización de Vygotsky de
muchas maneras ( LAMDAN, 2019 ). Por el contrario, Leontiev siempre jugó "un papel secundario" en
la obra de este dúo, aunque también contribuyó de manera importante a la obra del Círculo
durante el período reduccionista y mecanicista de la llamada "psicología instrumental". Y, sin
embargo, se puede entender adecuadamente a Leontiev como posiblemente el mejor alumno
de Vygotsky.
Vygotsky propuso escribir un libro sobre "materialismo psicológico", pero nunca escribió un
libro así. De hecho, en retrospectiva, ninguna de las dos propuestas principales de Vygotsky —
la “nueva psicología” verdaderamente científica del Superhombre y el “materialismo
psicológico” - se materializó durante su vida. Sin embargo, la última frase del obituario de
Vygotsky, que Leontiev publicó en 1934, afirma sin ambigüedad: “Lo que LS Vygotsky ha hecho
en ciencia no morirá, ya que constituye la primera etapa del movimiento hacia la psicología
marxista verdaderamente científica” ( LEONTIEV, 1934). Por lo tanto, Leontiev bien puede ser
considerado el mejor alumno de Vygotsky debido a que fue el único estudioso de la época que
hizo un esfuerzo por el desarrollo teórico de la teoría psicológica marxista general y global de
Vygotsky. Sin embargo, el resultado material de este esfuerzo —manuscritos y publicaciones—
no apareció hasta después de la muerte de Vygotsky.
Durante su vida, Leontiev realizó bastantes publicaciones: la lista más actualizada de sus
trabajos académicos publicados comprende 282 artículos además de otras publicaciones de
periódicos y revistas no académicas, entrevistas, artículos populares, etc. (la bibliografía está
disponible en línea en http : //www.anleontiev.smysl.ru/sp_publ.htm ). Parece que Leontiev
no produjo muchos libros.
Año de la
Título del libro en primera Págin
Título del libro en inglés Editor Género
ruso publicaci as
ón
Razvitie
pamiati. Eksperimenta
Monografí
Desarrollo de la memoria l'noe razvitie vysshikh Uchpedgiz 1931 280
a
psikhologicheskikh
funktsii
Monografí
Vosstanovlenie
a (en
dvizheniia. Issledovani
Rehabilitación de la función Sovetskaia colaboraci
e vosstanovleniia 1945 231
de la mano4 nauka ón con AV
funktsii ruki posle
Zaporozhe
raneniia
ts)
Voennyi
pedagogiches
Esquema del desarrollo de la Ocherk razvitiia Monografí
kii institut 1947 120
psique psikhiki a / Folleto
Sovetskoi
Armii
APN RSFSR
(1ª ed.); Mysl
'(2ª
Papeles
Los problemas del desarrollo Problemy razvitiia ed.); Izdatel's
1959 496 recolectad
de la psique psikhiki tvo
os
Moskovskogo
Universiteta
(3.a y 4.a ed.)
recolectad
alidad '. Soznanie. Lichnost '
os
Curiosamente, solo tres elementos de la lista pueden calificar como las principales
monografías del autor, es decir, libros que Leontiev escribió de manera completa (o
relativamente) independiente como proyectos especializados de un solo propósito. Aun así,
uno de los tres, la rehabilitación de la función de la mano , de 1945 (elemento 29 de la lista),
fue coautor con su ex alumno Aleksandr Zaporozhets (1905-1981). Otro libro es un folleto
extendido de 120 páginas, titulado Esquema del desarrollo de la psique.[Ocherk razvitiia
psikhiki], de 1947 (elemento 39 de la lista), una versión abreviada de la tesis doctoral de
Leontiev, escrita bajo la supervisión del "heredero intelectual" administrativo y administrativo
de Ivan Pavlov, el fisiólogo y académico Leon Orbeli (1882-1958), y defendido en Leningrado
en 1940 (el manuscrito se perdió durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial). El resto son artículos
académicos, entradas de enciclopedias, folletos, libros editados y compilaciones de libros de
los textos publicados anteriormente por el autor, como los dos conocidos libros The Problems
of Psyche Development [Problemy razvitiia psikhiki] (cuya primera edición data de 1959).
y Actividad. Conciencia. Personalidad[Deiatel'nost '. Soznanie. Lichnost '] (cuya primera edición
data de 1975): el libro que se publicó en dos ediciones en tan solo cuatro años antes de la
muerte del autor y que a menudo se posiciona y discute como la obra teórica más importante
de Leontiev, que resumió todo su legado intelectual hasta el final. de su vida. Sin embargo, es
necesario tener en cuenta que Activity. Conciencia. Personality (1975; 2nd ed. 1977) no era
una monografía completamente nueva y original, sino una colección de artículos de revistas
que había publicado en diferentes ocasiones, desde 1947 hasta 1974.
Marksizm i
Karl Marks i Voprosy pilkhologii, no. 5,
yo psikhologicheskaia 1968
psikhologicheskaia nauka pág. 3-16
nauka
Chuvstvennyi obraz i
Psikhicheskoe Voprosy pilkhologii, no. 2,
II modelo 'v svete leninskoi 1970
otrazhenie pág. 34-45
teorii otrazheniia
psikhologii
Problemy psikhologii
Psikhologicheskie voprosy
Apéndice Prilozhenie ponimaniia. Izvestiia APN 1947
soznatel'nosti ucheniia
RSFSR, vyp. 7; pags. 3-40
Todo esto explica nuestro interés subjetivo y la importancia objetiva del primer libro de
Leontiev, Development of Memory, de 1931, escrito exclusivamente en el espíritu de la
“psicología instrumental” de Vygotsky de los años veinte.
Sin embargo, estos numerosos defectos no podrían corregirse más que en otro estudio
experimental, que no se lanzaría hasta que Leontiev hubiera establecido un importante centro
de investigación en Járkov 6 , en ese momento capital de la Ucrania soviética, donde él (junto
con Luria) reubicado en 1931. Allí, Leontiev reclutó rápidamente un nuevo equipo de
investigación, que investigó cuidadosamente las trampas del "instrumentalismo" vygotskiano,
y puso en marcha una investigación bajo la supervisión de Leontiev. Dicha investigación
comprendía tres líneas principales: primero, un estudio revisionista sobre la memoria,
realizado principalmente por el estudiante de Leontiev, Piotr Zinchenko (1903-1969) 7.; en segundo lugar,
un proyecto pionero sobre el origen de la sensación que proporcionó a Leontiev datos
experimentales para su propio estudio de doctorado; y, tercero, después de la partida de
Leontiev de Kharkiv, en 1934, un estudio a gran escala sobre la percepción [ vospriiatie],
dirigida por el ex alumno de Leontiev, sucesor administrativo en Kharkiv y futuro colaborador
del segundo libro de Leontiev, Aleksandr Zaporozhets. Este importante estudio del equipo de
Zaporozhets puede verse como la continuación directa y enriquecida del trabajo de los
primeros Vygotsky sobre la "psicología del arte", y una contribución al desarrollo del "hombre
nuevo", o Superman, en el lenguaje de Vygotsky. Para nuestro gran pesar, el manuscrito final
de la tesis doctoral de Zaporozhets pereció durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, en una Járkov
fuertemente bombardeada y en gran parte destruida, varias veces ocupada y retomada por las
fuerzas nazis y del Ejército Rojo soviético. La discusión detallada de la investigación del equipo
de Zaporozhets queda fuera del alcance de este artículo. Por suerte,YASNITSKY; FERRARI, 2008a , 2008b ).
Sin embargo, esta sería una historia completamente nueva, más allá del alcance de este
documento.