HUMAN EYE

DEFINITION: “The organ of sight is called eye.”

LOCATION: Each eye is located in a small cavity of skull known as orbit or eye socket.
STRUCTURES PRESENT OUTSIDE THE EYEBALL
 Eyelids act as curtains and their function is to
 wipe eyes
 prevent dehydration by spreading tears on eyes
 restrict the entry of excess light into eye
 Tear Glands produce tears which contain substances for fighting against bacterial infections.
 Eye Lashes hairy projections which prevent fine particles from entering eye.
LAYERS OF EYE
Eye is surrounded by three layers.

Layers of Eye

Sclera and Cornea Choroid Retina

(outer layer) (middle layer) (inner layer)

Flow Sheet Showing Layers of Eye

Outer layer
It consists of sclera and cornea.
Sclera
Location: The outermost layer of eye is sclera giving eye most of its white colour.
Structure: It consists of dense connective tissues.
Function: It protects the inner parts of eye and maintains its shape.
Cornea
Location: It is located in front of eyeball.
Origin: In front, sclera forms transparent cornea.
Function: It allows light to the interior of eye and bends light rays so that they can be brought to a focus.
Choroid
The second or middle layer of eye ball is choroid.
Structure: It contains blood vessels.
Function: It gives the inner eye a darker colour which prevents disruptive reflection within eye.
Retina
The third or innermost layer is retina.
Nature: The presence of photosensitive cells and associated neurons make retina sensory in nature.
Structure: It contains
(i) Photosensitive Cells: They are of two types.
Rods contain a pigment rhodopsin. In a human eye their number is 125 lacs.
Function: They are sensitive to dim light. When light falls on rhodopsin, it breaks to
generate a nerve impulse. In the absence of light the breakdown products are again
converted to rhodopsin.
Disorder: Body synthesizes rhodopsin from vitamin A and that is why the deficiency of
vitamin A causes poor night vision. This problem is called night blindness.
Cones contain a pigment iodopsin. There are three main types of cones, each having a specific
iodopsin. In human eye, there are 7 lacs cones.
Function: They are sensitive to bright light and distinguish different colours because
each type of cone recognizes one of three primary colours. i.e.,blue, red and green. For a
pilot, colour vision is essential so that he/ she can recognize aircraft position lights,
light-gun signals, airport beacon, approach-slope indicators, and chart symbols,
especially at night. A pilot must have the ability to perceive these colours necessary for
the safe performance of his/ her duties.
Disorder: If any type of cones is not working well, it becomes difficult to recognize
that colour. Such person is also not able to distinguish different colours. This disease is
called colour blindness and is a genetic problem.
(ii) Fovea Centralis
Location: It is a dip in retina directly opposite to lens.
Structure: It is densely packed with cone cells.
Function: It is largely responsible for coloured vision and sharpness.
(iii) Optic Disc
Location: It is a point on retina where optic nerve enters the eye.
Structure: It contains no rods and cones that is way it is also called blind spot.
IRIS
Location: It is located behind cornea.
Origin: It is formed by the bending of choroid.
Structure: It is a pigmented muscular ring made up of radial and circular muscles. It divides the cavity of eye
into anterior aqueous and posterior vitreous chambers.
Function: (a) Due to presence of pigments, iris imparts colour to eye.
(b) Its muscles adjust the size of pupil because too little incoming light makes the sight difficult
whereas too much light entering the eye damages the retina.
PUPIL
Location: It is a round hole in the centre of iris.
Function: It controls the light entering the eye by changing its size. Its size is adjusted by the muscles of iris
as too little incoming light makes the sight difficult whereas too much light entering the eye damages retina.
INTENSITY OF LIGHT CHANGES IN PUPIL REASON
Circular muscles of iris contract while radial
Bright light Constricts
muscles relax.
Radial muscles of iris contract while circular
Dim light Dilates
muscles relax
LENS
Location: It is present behind iris and attached to ciliary muscles of eye by a ring of suspensory ligaments.
Nature: It is biconvex.
Function: It focuses light rays on retina.
VISION LENS CILIARY MUSCLES
Thin and less convex to see far
Far vision Relax
objects clearly
Thicker, round and more convex
Near vision Contract
to see near objects clearly
CHAMBERS
(a) Anterior chamber
Location: It is present in front of iris i.e. between cornea and iris.
Structure: It contains a clear fluid known as aqueous humour.
Function: It refracts light waves and keeps eyeball firm.
(a) Posterior chamber
Location: It is present between iris and retina.
Structure: It contains a jelly like fluid known as vitreous humour.
Function: It refracts light rays and helps to maintain the shape of eye and suspend the delicate lens.
MECHANISM OF VISION
Light strikes Cornea Aqueous humour Pupil Lens Vitreous humour
nerve
Vision Brain Optic nerve impulse Retina
Light from objects enters eye. After striking cornea, it enters pupil. It is refracted when it passes through cornea,
aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour. Lens also focuses light on retina. As a result, the image falls on retina.
Rods and cones generate nerve impulses in the optic nerve. These impulses are carried to brain, which makes the
sensation of vision.
IMPORTANT POINT
 The shining of eyes of cats and dogs at night is due to the presence of tapetum behind the eye which is a layer
capable of reflecting light.
 Owl is not able to see during day time. The reason for this is the deficiency of cones which receive and sense
the bright light. But the presence of more rods gives it greater power of vision during night. All animals that
search for prey during night have this characteristic.
HUMAN EAR
DEFINITION “The organ of hearing is called ear.”
In addition to this, it also maintains the balance or equilibrium of the body.
PARTS A human ear has three main parts.
Ear

Middle Ear
External Ear Internal Ear
Oval
Middle Ear window
Ossicles
Vestibule Semicircular Cochlea
Pinna Auditory Ear canal
canal drum Malleus Incus Stapes
 Flow Sheet Showing Parts of Ear
External Ear
A human external ear consists of
(i) Pinna
It is a broad external part which is made up of cartilage and covered with skin.
Function: It receives waves and directs them into auditory canal.
(ii) Auditory Canal
It contains hair and special glands in their wall which produce wax.
Function: (a) It directs sound waves to ear drum.
(b) The wax and hair present in their wall protect ear from small insects, germs and dirt. In addition
to this, they also help to maintain temperature and moisture of auditory canal.
(iii) Ear Drum
It is a thin membrane which separates external ear from middle ear.
Function: It sends sound waves to middle ear.
Middle Ear
External ear leads to an air filled chamber called middle ear. It contains three small movable bones in a
sequence called ossicles, namely
 Malleus bone attached to eardrum
 Incus bone next to malleus
 Stapes the smallest bone of our body. It is connected with a membrane called oval window which
separates middle ear from inner ear.
Eustachian Tube
Middle ear communicates with pharynx through Eustachian tube. (Reference: The statement given in book that
middle ear communicates with nasal cavity through Eustachian tube is wrong).
Function: It regulates air pressure on both sides of eardrum.
Inner Ear
It is the last part of ear consisting of
(i) Semicircular Canal: They are three in number and lie posterior to vestibule.
Function: They help to maintain the balance of body and can detect any movement of head.
(ii) Vestibule: It is present in the centre of inner ear i.e. between semicircular canals and cochlea.
Function: It can detect any change in the posture of body.
(iii) Cochlea: It is made of three ducts and wraps itself into a coiled tube. Sound receptor cells i.e organ of
corti are present within the middle duct of cochlea.
Function: It is involved in hearing.
PROCESS OF HEARING
The pinna of external ear focuses and directs sound waves into auditory canal. The sound then strikes ear drum
and produce vibrations in it. From ear drum the vibrations strike middle ear and produce further vibrations in malleus,
incus and then stapes. From stapes, vibrations strike the oval window and then reach the fluid-filled middle duct of
cochlea. The fluid of cochlea is moved and receptor cells are stimulated. The receptor cells generate a nerve impulse,
which travels to brain and is interpreted as sound.
EARS MAINTAIN THE BALANCE OF BODY
Semicircular canals and vestibule help to maintain the balance of body. Semicircular canals contain sensory
nerves which can detect any movement of head. Vestibule can detect any changes in the posture of body. The neurons
coming from these two receptors reach cerebellum through the auditory nerve.
CAUSES OF HEARING PROBLEMS
The defect of ear drum, cochlea, middle ear ossicles, or auditory nerve may cause deafness, a state in which
hearing is not possible. Infection in Eustachian tube may spread to middle ear too. Ear drum may be damaged by an
infection in auditory canal. Excessive noise, strong blows on cheek, pointed objects entering auditory canal and attack
from insects may also affect hearing.
IMPORTANT POINT
A thunderstorm is characterized by the presence of lightening and thunder. The lightening is caused by an
electrical charge due to the movement of water droplets or crystals carried by the wind. The sudden increase in pressure
and temperature from lightening produces rapid expansion of the air. This expansion of air produces a sound of thunder.
The flash of lightening is followed after some seconds by a roar of thunder. This time difference is due to the fact that
sound travels slower than light.