Perform3d User Guide
Perform3d User Guide
USER GUIDE
VERSION 4 AUGUST 2006
COPYRIGHT
The computer program PERFORM-3D and all associated documentation are proprietary and copyrighted products. Worldwide rights of ownership rest with Computers and Structures, Inc. Unlicensed use of the program or reproduction of the documentation in any form, without prior written authorization from Computers and Structures, Inc., is explicitly prohibited. Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained from: Computers and Structures, Inc. 1995 University Avenue Berkeley, California 94704 USA tel: (510) 845-2177 fax: (510) 845-4096 e-mail: [email protected] web: www.csiberkeley.com
Copyright Computers and Structures, Inc., 2006 The CSI Logo is a registered trademark of Computers and Structures, Inc. PERFORM is a registered trademark of Computers and Structures, Inc. Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation
DISCLAIMER
CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE DEVELOPMENT, DOCUMENTATION AND TESTING OF PERFORM-3D. IN USING THE PROGRAM, THE USER ACCEPTS AND UNDERSTANDS THAT NO WARRANTY IS EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED BY THE DEVELOPERS OR THE DISTRIBUTORS ON THE ACCURACY OR THE RELIABILITY OF THE PROGRAM. THE USER MUST EXPLICITLY UNDERSTAND THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE PROGRAM AND MUST INDEPENDENTLY VERIFY THE RESULTS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special recognition is extended to Dr. Graham H. Powell, Professor Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, who conceived and developed the PERFORM series of programs. Professor Powell's research, expertise and originality have resulted in many contributions to our profession, particularly in the modeling of structures for practical nonlinear analysis. We extend thanks to the members of our profession for all of their valuable feedback that has contributed to enhancement of the products produced by CSI. PERFORM-3D uses a node renumbering scheme developed by Professor Marc Hoit (see Hoit, M.I., Stoker, D. and Consolazio, G. "Neural Networks for Equation Renumbering" Journal of Computers and Structures, Vol. 52, No. 5, 1994, pp. 1011-1021). We thank Professor Hoit for allowing us to use his computer code.
Overview 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Screen Layout Structures Phases Modeling Phase Analysis Phase View Direction and Perspective
1-1 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-5 1-8 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-10 1-10 1-10 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 i
1.7 Reports 1.7.1 Printed Reports 1.7.2 Saving Results to a File 1.7.3 ECHO File 1.7.4 Direct Access to Results Files 1.8 1.9 2 Reporting Errors Some Things to Keep in Mind
Structures, Folders and Files 2.1 Saving and Opening a Structure 2.1.1 Program and Structures Folders 2.1.2 Saving a Structure 2.1.3 Opening a Structure 2.2 2.3 Location of ECHO file Moving or Copying a Project or Structure
2.4 Other Folders 2.4.1 USER Folder 2.4.2 RECORDS Folder 2.4.3 RECORDSF Folder 2.4.4 SPECTRA Folder
Nodes 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Methods for Specifying Nodes Zooming Closely Spaced Nodes Supports Masses
3-1 3-1 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-8 4-1 4-1 4-2 4-3 5-1 5-1 5-2 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-4 5-5 5-7 5-7 5-9 5-10 5-10 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-13 5-13
3.6 Slaving Constraints 3.6.1 General 3.6.2 Rigid Floor Constraint 3.6.3 Full Rigid Link Constraint 3.6.4 Eccentric Connection Constraint 3.6.5 Equal Displacement Constraint 4 Frames 4.1 4.2 4.3 5 Plotting of Nodes and Elements Defining a Frame Duplicating a Frame
Component Properties 5.1 Elements and Components 5.2 Procedure for Specifying Components 5.2.1 Scope 5.2.2 Component Types and Names 5.2.3 Materials 5.2.4 Beam and Column Cross Sections 5.2.5 Fiber Cross Sections for Walls 5.2.6 Fiber Cross Sections for Frame Elements 5.2.7 Basic Structural Components 5.2.8 Plot Hysteresis Loops 5.2.9 Strength Sections 5.2.10 Frame Compound Components 5.2.11 Shear Wall Compound Components 5.2.12 General Wall Compound Components 5.2.13 Viscous Bar and BRB Compound Components 5.3 Managing Component Properties 5.3.1 General
ii
Filter Purge Use Cross Section Strengths Save As Copy-Paste Printed Reports
5-13 5-14 5-14 5-14 5-14 5-15 5-15 5-15 5-15 5-16 5-17 5-17 5-18 5-18 5-19 5-20 5-21 5-21 5-21 5-22 5-22 5-23 5-24 5-24 5-26 5-28 5-28 5-29 5-29 5-29 5-30 5-30 5-31 5-32 5-33
5.5 F-D Relationship 5.5.1 Actions and Deformations 5.5.2 Actual Components 5.5.3 PERFORM F-D Relationship 5.5.4 E-P-P and Bilinear Relationships 5.5.5 Additional Parallel Stiffness 5.6 Strength Loss 5.6.1 General 5.6.2 Total Strength Loss at X Point 5.6.3 Strength Loss Interaction 5.7 A Warning on Strength Loss 5.7.1 General 5.7.2 Components in Parallel 5.7.3 Components in Series 5.7.4 Effect on Analysis Method 5.7.5 Hinge Strength Loss in a Compound Component 5.8 Column Ductile Limit Depends on Axial Force 5.8.1 Effect to be Modeled 5.8.2 FEMA 356 Requirements 5.8.3 PERFORM Implementation of Variable Ductile Limit 5.8.4 Procedure 5.9 Deformation and Strength Capacities 5.9.1 General 5.9.2 Demand and Capacity 5.9.3 Deformation Capacities 5.9.4 Drift Capacities 5.9.5 Strength Capacities 5.9.6 Overview of Limit States and Usage Ratios 5.9.7 Note on Maximum Demand-Capacity Ratio
5.10 Beam or Column Shear Strength Depends on Hinge Rotation 5-33 5.10.1 General 5-33 5.10.2 PERFORM Implementation 5-33 iii
5.10.3 5.10.4
Procedure for Strength Section Properties Procedure for Frame Compound Component
5-34 5-35 5-36 5-36 5-37 5-38 5-39 5-39 5-40 5-40 5-41 5-42 5-43 5-43 5-43 5-44 5-45 5-45 5-46 5-46 5-46 5-46 5-48 5-48 5-48 5-49 5-50 5-50 5-50 5-51 5-52 6-1 6-1 6-1 6-1 6-1 6-2
5.11 Cyclic Degradation 5.11.1 Backbone Relationship 5.11.2 Hysteresis Loops 5.11.3 Dynamic Analysis 5.11.4 Procedure for Degradation Factors 5.11.5 Push-Over Analysis 5.12 Control of Hysteresis Loop Shape 5.12.1 Alternative Loops 5.12.2 E-P-P Relationship 5.12.3 Trilinear Relationship After U Point 5.12.4 Procedure for Unloading Stiffness Factor 5.13 Cross Sections 5.13.1 The Role of Cross Sections 5.13.2 Beam and Column Sections 5.13.3 Fiber Cross Sections for Beams and Columns 5.13.4 Fiber Cross Sections for Walls 5.13.5 Other Sections 5.14 Using Cross Section Dimensions 5.14.1 General 5.14.2 Length of Uniform X-Section Segment 5.14.3 Tributary Length for a Curvature Hinge 5.15 "Auto" Components 5.15.1 Auto End Zones for Beams and Columns 5.15.2 Auto Panel Zones in Steel Frames 5.15.3 Panel Zone Limit States 5.16 Upper and Lower Bounds 5.16.1 Overview 5.16.2 Procedure for Specifying Upper/Lower Bounds 5.16.3 Procedure for Using Upper/Lower Bounds 6 Elements 6.1 Element Types 6.1.1 General 6.1.2 Simple Bar Elements 6.1.3 Beam Elements 6.1.4 Column Elements iv
6.1.5 6.1.6 6.1.7 6.1.8 6.1.9 6.1.10 6.1.11 6.1.12 6.1.13 6.1.14 6.1.15
Brace/Other Frame Elements Shear Wall Elements General Wall Elements Infill Panel Elements Connection Panel Zone Elements BRB Elements Viscous Bar Elements Seismic Isolator Elements Slab/Shell Elements Support Spring Elements Deformation Gage Elements
6-3 6-4 6-5 6-5 6-5 6-6 6-6 6-6 6-6 6-7 6-8 6-8 6-8 6-9 6-9 6-10 6-10 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-13 6-13 6-13 6-14 6-17 6-19 6-19 6-20 7-1 7-1 7-2 7-2 7-4 8-1 8-1 v
6.2 Specifying Elements 6.2.1 Element Groups 6.2.2 Steps 6.2.3 Start a New Element Group 6.2.4 Add Elements 6.2.5 Parallel Elements 6.2.6 Delete Elements 6.3 6.4 6.5 Element Orientations Element Properties Moving Elements Between Groups
6.6 P-, P- and Large Displacement Effects 6.6.1 General 6.6.2 P- vs. True Large Displacements 6.6.3 P- Effect 6.6.4 Do You Need To Consider P- Effects? 6.6.5 Axial Shortening Due to Bending 6.6.6 PERFORM Options 7 Load Patterns 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8 Pattern Types and Restrictions Nodal Load Patterns Element Load Patterns Self Weight Load Patterns
Simple Drift Distortion Drift Procedure for Specifying a Drift Reference Drift Deflections
8-1 8-1 8-2 8-2 8-3 9-1 9-1 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-6 9-6 9-6 9-7 10-1 10-1 10-2 10-4 10-4 10-5 10-5 10-5 11-1 11-1 11-1 12-1 12-1 12-2 12-2
Structure Sections 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Concept Specifying Element Cuts Shear Strength for a Wall Section Section Groups and Strength Limit States
9.5 Moment, Shear and D/C Ratio Diagrams 9.5.1 Procedure 9.5.2 Save D/C Values to a File 9.5.3 Signs and Sign Reversal 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 11 11.1 11.2 12 12.1 Limit States and Usage Ratios Limit State Types Deformation Limit States Strength Limit States Drift Limit States Deflection Limit States Structure Section Limit States Limit State Groups Inactive Elements Inactive Elements Procedure Gravity Load Cases Gravity Loads
Number of Load Steps Maximum Number of Events Initial Step to First Event Analysis Limit State
12-2 12-3 12-3 12-4 13-1 13-1 13-1 13-1 13-2 13-3 13-3 13-3 13-5 13-5 13-6 13-7 13-7 13-8 13-8 13-9 13-10 14-1 14-1 14-1 14-1 14-2 14-3 14-4 14-4 14-5 15-1 15-1 15-1 15-1 15-3
13.1 Push-Over Loads 13.1.1 Load Distribution and Magnitude 13.1.2 Choice of Load Distribution 13.1.3 Load Distribution Based on Mode Shapes 13.1.4 Linear Analysis Option 13.2 Procedure 13.2.1 Steps 13.2.2 Reference Drift 13.2.3 Number of Steps 13.2.4 Maximum Number of Events 13.2.5 Initial Step to First Event 13.2.6 Analysis Limit State 13.3 Loads Based on Mode Shapes 13.3.1 Symmetrical Structure 13.3.2 Unsymmetrical Structure or Diagonal Push-Over 13.3.3 Other Key Points 14 14.1 Dynamic Earthquake Load Cases Earthquake Loads
14.2 Procedure 14.2.1 Steps 14.2.2 Total Time 14.2.3 Time Step 14.2.4 Maximum Number of Events 14.2.5 Save Interval 14.2.6 Analysis Limit State 15 Earthquake Records
15.1 Organization 15.1.1 Overall Steps 15.1.2 Organization of Earthquake Records 15.1.3 Copying Earthquake Records
vii
15.2 Setting Up a New Earthquake Record 15.2.1 Text File Format 15.2.2 Adding A New Record 15.3 16 Reviewing Existing Records Dynamic Force Load Cases and Analysis
15-3 15-3 15-4 15-5 16-1 16-1 16-1 16-1 16-2 16-2 16-3 16-3 16-4 16-4 16-4 16-6 16-6 16-6 16-7 16-7 16-7 16-8 16-9 16-10 16-12 16-12 17-1 17-1 17-1 17-1 17-3 17-4 17-6 17-6 17-7
16.1 Purpose and Overall Procedure 16.1.1 Purpose 16.1.2 Overall Procedure 16.2 Organization of Dynamic Force Records 16.2.1 RecordsF Folder 16.2.2 Steps for Setting Up Dynamic Force Records 16.2.3 Copying Dynamic Force Records 16.3 Setting Up a New Dynamic Force Record 16.3.1 Text File Format 16.3.2 Adding a New Record 16.4 Reviewing Existing Records 16.5 Dynamic Force Load Cases 16.5.1 Load Cases 16.6 Multi-Support Earthquake Analysis 16.6.1 Purpose 16.6.2 Analysis Method 16.6.3 Imposed Dynamic Support Displacements 16.6.4 Ground Displacements 16.6.5 Ground Displacement Records 16.6.6 Alpha-M Damping 16.6.7 Results Interpretation 17 Analysis Series
17.1 Analysis Series Concept 17.1.1 Concept 17.1.2 Procedure 17.2 Basic Parameters and Masses 17.2.1 Event Overshoot Factor 17.3 Damping 17.3.1 General 17.3.2 Procedure for Modal Damping viii
17-7 17-7 17-10 18-1 18-1 18-1 18-2 18-3 18-3 18-4 18-6 18-7 18-8 18-8 18-9
18.1 Modal Damping 18.1.1 Damping Matrix 18.1.2 Physical Interpretation 18.2 Rayleigh Damping 18.2.1 Rayleigh Damping Model 18.2.2 Implied Modal Damping Ratio for Linear Analysis 18.2.3 Implied Damping for Nonlinear Analysis 18.2.4 PERFORM Implementation 18.2.5 Procedure for Specifying Rayleigh Damping 18.2.6 Special Assumption for Concrete Fibers 18.2.7 Alternative Procedure for Base Isolation
18.3 A Case Where Modal vs. Rayleigh Damping May Be Substantially Different : Coupled Shear Walls 18-11 18.4 19 19.1 Combined Modal and Rayleigh Damping General Load Sequence Standard and General Load Sequences 18-12 19-1 19-1 19-2 19-2 19-2 19-3 19-4 19-4 19-5 19-5 19-5 20-1 20-1 20-2 21-1 ix
19.2 Points to Note for General Sequence 19.2.1 General Push-Over and Target Displacement Plots 19.2.2 Unload Push-Over Load Case Type 19.2.3 Analysis Limit State 19.2.4 Controlled Drifts 19.2.5 Removing Gravity Loads 19.2.6 Return To Static State After Dynamic Analysis 19.2.7 Graphs That Cover Several Analyses 19.2.8 Inactive Elements 20 20.1 20.2 21 Running Analyses Steps for Running Analyses Adding and Deleting Analyses Mode Shapes
Plotting Mode Shapes Using Mode Shapes for Push-Over Analysis Vertical Masses Response Spectrum Analysis
21-1 21-2 21-2 22-1 22-1 22-1 22-2 22-3 22-3 22-4 22-4 23-1 23-1 23-1 23-2 23-2 23-5 23-5 23-5 23-5 23-6 23-6 23-6 23-6 23-8 24-1 24-1 24-2 24-2 24-3 24-4 24-4 24-5
22.1 Response Spectrum Load Cases 22.1.1 Spectra 22.1.2 Response Spectrum Load Cases 22.2 Response Spectrum Analyses 22.2.1 Run Analysis 22.2.2 Analysis Results 22.2.3 Lateral Load Patterns from Analysis Results 23 Energy Balance
23.1 Types of Energy 23.1.1 Dynamic Analysis 23.1.2 Static Analysis 23.1.3 Calculation of Inelastic and Strain Energies 23.2 Energy Plots 23.2.1 Complete Structure 23.2.2 Inelastic Energies in Element Groups 23.2.3 -K Energies in Element Groups 23.2.4 Energy Error 23.3 Approximate Damping Ratio 23.3.1 Overview 23.3.2 Theory 23.3.3 Procedure 24 24.1 Deflected Shape Plots Deflected Shape
24.2 Procedure 24.2.1 Deflected Shape Only 24.2.2 Deflected Shape with Usage Ratio Coloring 24.2.3 Some Points on Components vs. Entire Element 24.2.4 Other Aspects 24.2.5 Save Usage Ratios to a File
25
25-1 25-1 25-1 25-2 25-2 25-2 25-3 25-3 25-4 25-5 25-6 25-6 25-7 25-7 25-7 26-1 26-1 26-1 26-3 26-3 27-1 27-1 27-1 27-2 27-2 27-2 27-3 27-4 27-5 28-1 28-1 xi
25.1 Plot History for a Single Node 25.1.1 Options 25.1.2 Procedure 25.1.3 Save Plotted History to a File 25.2 Save Histories for Multiple Nodes 25.3 Plot History for a Single Element 25.3.1 Procedure 25.3.2 Save Plotted History to a File 25.4 25.5 25.6 Save Histories for Multiple Elements Drift or Deflection Histories Structure Section Force Histories
25.7 Plot Section Results for Multiple Load Cases 25.7.1 Purpose 25.7.2 Procedure 26 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 27 Hysteresis Loop Plots Purpose Procedure Cut-Off Corners Save Loops to a File Moment and Shear Diagrams
27.1 Detailed Results for a Single Element 27.1.1 Element Selection 27.1.2 Element Loads Option 27.1.3 Moment and Shear Envelopes Option 27.1.4 Moment and Shear Histories Option 27.1.5 Deflected Shapes Option 27.2 27.3 28 28.1 Moment and Shear Diagrams for a Line of Elements Moment and Shear Diagrams Based on Structure Sections General Push-Over Plots Overview
Available Methods Differences Among Methods Some Key Points Main Steps
28-1 28-1 28-6 28-8 28-10 28-10 28-10 28-11 28-11 28-11 28-11 28-12 28-12 28-14 28-15 28-20 28-22 28-23 28-23 28-24 28-24 28-24 28-26 28-26 28-27 28-27 28-27 28-28 28-29 28-30 28-30 28-32 28-33 28-33 28-33 28-36 28-37 29-1
28.2 Procedure for Defining Response Spectra 28.2.1 Spectrum Types 28.2.2 Add or Edit a Spectrum 28.2.3 Copy Spectra from a Different Structure 28.3 Procedure for Capacity and Demand Curves 28.3.1 Choose Task 28.3.2 Plot Capacity Curve 28.3.3 Sa vs. Sd Option 28.3.4 Spectral Acceleration Capacity 28.3.5 Define Trial Points 28.3.6 Period Calculation 28.3.7 Choose Push-Over Method and Response Spectrum 28.3.8 Plot Demand Curve 28.3.9 Capacity Curve Scaling for Sensitivity Studies 28.4 Performance Evaluation 28.5 Consistency 28.5.1 General 28.5.2 Calculation of Spectral Displacement 28.5.3 Suggested Methods 28.5.4 A Reason for Using Sa vs. Sd Option 28.6 Energy Dissipation and Damping 28.6.1 General 28.6.2 Stiffness and Degradation and Energy Ratio 28.6.3 Equivalent Damping Ratio 28.6.4 Degradation in Push-Over Methods 28.6.5 PERFORM Method for Energy Ratio 28.6.6 Extra Damping from Fluid Dampers 28.6.7 Strength Loss and Degradation 28.7 Theory for Relationship Between Sa and H 28.7.1 General 28.7.2 Special Case With Modal Load and Displaced Shape 28.7.3 General Case Where Load Matches Displaced Shape 28.7.4 Case Where Load Does Not Match Displaced Shape 29 xii Target Displacement Plot
29.1 Target Displacement Method 29.1.1 Concept 29.1.2 Target Drift 29.1.3 Spectral Drift 29.1.4 Factor C0 29.1.5 Factor C1 29.1.6 Factor C2 29.1.7 Factor C3 29.2 30 30.1 30.2 31 PERFORM Implementation Usage Ratio Graphs Usage Ratios Procedure Load Case Combinations and Envelopes.
29-1 29-1 29-2 29-3 29-3 29-3 29-4 29-4 29-4 30-1 30-1 30-2 31-1 31-1 31-1 31-2 31-3 31-4 31-4 31-5 31-6 32-1 32-1 32-1 32-2 32-4 32-4 32-5 32-6 32-8 32-8 32-9 32-10 32-10 xiii
31.1 Overview 31.1.1 Main Steps 31.1.2 Load Case Combinations 31.1.3 Combination Methods 31.2 Procedure 31.2.1 Load Combinations 31.2.2 Usage Ratios for Structure 31.2.3 Usage Ratios for Elements 32 Importing/Exporting Structure Data
32.1 Importing Structure Data 32.1.1 Text Files 32.1.2 File for Elements (with Optional Nodes) 32.1.3 File for Nodes 32.1.4 File for Nodal Masses 32.1.5 File for Nodal Loads 32.2 Note on Element Import 32.3 Import and Export Procedures 32.3.1 Import 32.3.2 Export 32.4 Component Properties Export/Import 32.4.1 General
32.4.2 33 33.1
Export/Import Steps
33.2 Procedure For Sending Files 33.2.1 Structure Data 33.2.2 Send As An Email Attachment 33.2.3 Upload to FTP Site
xiv
Chapter 1. Overview
1 Overview
PERFORM-3D is a typical Windows program. You can move around the program by clicking on buttons and folder tabs; select items by clicking on a drawing of the structure or by choosing from drop-down lists; and enter data by typing into text boxes. If you hover the mouse pointer over a button, a tool tip that describes its purpose will pop up. Some text boxes also have tool tips. In this version of PERFORM-3D there is no Help button to call up contextsensitive help. This chapter provides an overview of the program and covers some things you should know before you begin.
1.1
Screen Layout
Figure 1.1 shows the screen layout for most tasks. The minimum required screen resolution is 1024 x768 pixels. Figure 1.1 is the layout at this resolution. If the resolution is finer the size of the graphics panel is increased.
Menu bar Tool bar Data panel for data entry. Usually consists of a number of tabbed pages. Graphics panel for graphic display of data or results.
Figure 1.1 Screen Layout For Most Tasks PERFORM-3D User Guide 1-1
Chapter 1. Overview
Figure 1.2 shows the screen layout for specifying the properties of linear and nonlinear components. This screen has diagrams to explain the required properties.
Menu bar Tool bar Graphics panel to show required data and display properties for checking.
Data panel for component type and options. Consists of a number of tabbed pages.
Figure 1.2 Screen Layout For Component Properties There are a number of other screens, most of them self-explanatory. The best way to learn the program is to work through a tutorial, and also to experiment with the program features.
1.2
Structures
You can set up any number of structures (analysis models). Each structure must have a unique name. For an explanation of how to manage structures and data files, see Chapter 2, Structures, Folders and Files. When you start PERFORM-3D you have the option of starting a new structure or opening an existing structure. After you make this choice
1-2
Chapter 1. Overview you can press buttons on the toolbar to move around the program. If you prefer, you can use the menus rather than the toolbar buttons. The toolbar buttons are as follows. Start a new structure from scratch. Open an existing structure. Save any changes you have made to the current structure. Save the current structure as a new structure. Delete the current structure. If you are a beginning user, we suggest that you start by opening one of the example structures and playing with it. If you make changes to an example, be careful not to save these changes. If you want to make changes to an example, first save it as a new structure, then make the changes.
1.3
Phases
There are two phases, namely Modeling and Analysis. The toolbar buttons for phases are as follows. Modeling phase (build the structure). Analysis phase (calculate and process the analysis results). Each phase has a number of tasks, as described in the following sections.
1.4
Modeling Phase
The toolbar buttons for tasks in the modeling phase are as follows.
1-3
Chapter 1. Overview
Umbrella task. Specify overall information for the structure. After you press the toolbar button the required information is self-explanatory. Nodes task. Specify node data, including coordinates, support conditions, slaving constraints (e.g. rigid floor diaphragms) and structure masses. This is a relatively simple task, and the required information is largely self-explanatory. For some key points see Chapter 3, Nodes. Component Properties task. Specify properties for nonlinear and linear components. This is the most critical and complex task. For an explanation see Chapter 5, Component Properties. Elements task. Specify element data, including element types, locations and properties. For an explanation see Chapter 6, Elements. Frames task. The plotted geometry for a 3D structure can be complex. You can (and usually must) simplify the plot by showing only selected parts of the structure. A "frame" is any part of the complete structure. It can be a plane frame, a floor, or any other part of the structure that you would like to plot separately from the structure as a whole. You can quickly set up, modify and delete frames, and then toggle between a full structure view and a view showing only a single frame. For an explanation see Chapter 4, Frames. Load Patterns task. Specify load patterns for node, element and/or self weight loads. For this version of the program there is only a limited choice for element loads. For an explanation see Chapter 7, Load Patterns. In the analysis phase you can combine load patterns to form load cases. See Chapter 12, Gravity Load Cases, and Chapter 13, Static Push-Over Load Cases. Import Structure Data task. Import nodes, masses, elements and/or loads from a text file. If you have built an analysis model in another computer program, and if you can set up the 1-4 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 1. Overview data for this model in a comma-delimited text file, you can use this task to import much of the structure into PERFORM3D. For an explanation see Chapter32, Importing/Exporting Structure Data. Drifts and Deflections task. Specify drifts and deflections. Horizontal drifts are valuable measures of structure deformation, and you will typically specify a number of them. For long span structures you may also use vertical deflections as deformation measures. For an explanation see Chapter 8, Drifts and Deflections. Structure Sections task. Specify structure sections. If the structure has a number of lateral load resisting systems, you may want to know how the total load is distributed among them. You can do this by specifying sections through parts of the structure and examining the forces on these sections. For an explanation see Chapter 9, Structure Sections. Limit States task. Specify limit states. This is an extremely important task. If you make effective use of limit states you can greatly simplify the decision making process. For an explanation see Chapter 10, Limit States and Usage Ratios. Inactive Elements task. Specify elements that are inactive for gravity loads. For an explanation see Chapter 11, Inactive Elements. You do not have to perform these tasks in any particular sequence. For example, you can specify some nodes, then some elements, then more nodes, then some component properties, etc.
1.5
Analysis Phase
The tasks in the analysis phase can be divided into Structural Analysis tasks, Behavior Assessment tasks and Demand-Capacity tasks. The structural analysis tasks are for defining load cases and running structural analyses. The behavior assessment tasks allow you to examine and check the behavior of the analysis model. The demand-
1-5
Chapter 1. Overview capacity tasks allow you to calculate demand-capacity ratios, and hence make decisions about the performance of the structure. The toolbar buttons for the structural analysis tasks are as follows. Load Cases task. Specify gravity, push-over, earthquake and other load cases. For explanations see Chapter 12, Gravity Load Cases, Chapter 13, Push-Over Load Cases, Chapter 14, Earthquake Load Cases and Chapter 16, Dynamic Force Load Cases and Analyses. Run Analyses task. Run static and dynamic analyses. For an explanation see Chapter 17, Analysis Series, Chapter 19, General Load Sequence and Chapter 20, Running Structural Analyses. The toolbar buttons for the behavior assessment tasks are as follows. Mode Properties task. Examine the calculated mode periods and mode shapes, and examine the results of response spectrum analyses.. For an explanation see Chapter21, Mode Shapes. For response spectrum analysis see Chapter 22, Response Spectrum Analysis. Energy Balance task. Plot graphs that show how much energy of different types is dissipated by the structure. For an explanation see Chapter23, Energy Balance. Limit State Groups task. Specify limit state groups. In the modeling phase you may have specified a large number of limit states. This task allows you to organize the limit states into related groups, and hence simplify the decision-making process. For an explanation see Chapter10, Limit States and Usage Ratios. Deflected Shape task. Plot deflected shapes, either static or animated. As an option, color the elements based on their usage ratios. This can be extremely useful for assessing the behavior of a structure. For an explanation see Chapter 24, Deflected Shape Plots.
1-6
Chapter 1. Overview Time History task. For dynamic analyses, plot time history graphs of a variety of response quantities, including nodal displacements, velocities and accelerations, element responses of a variety of types, drifts, and cross section forces. For static push-over analyses, plot graphs of similar response quantities against structure drift. For an explanation see Chapter 25, Time History Plots. Hysteresis Loop task. For dynamic analyses, plot hysteresis loops for inelastic components (e.g. plot loops of bending moment at a plastic hinge versus hinge rotation). For an explanation see Chapter 26, Hysteresis Loop Plots. Moment and Shear Diagrams task. For beams, columns and walls, plot bending moment and shear force diagrams. For beams and columns draw detailed deflected shapes. For an explanation see Chapter 27, Moment and Shear Diagrams. The toolbar buttons for the demand-capacity tasks are as follows. General Push-Over task. Plot capacity and demand curves, and hence assess the structural performance. This task covers a number of different push-over methods. For an explanation see Chapter 28, General Push-Over Plot. Target Displacement task. Plot the capacity curve and calculate the target displacement for push-over analysis using the FEMA 356 Coefficient (Target Displacement) method. This task has been superseded by the preceding General PushOver task, but has been kept for historical reasons. For an explanation see Chapter 29, Target Displacement Plot. Usage Ratio task. For any analysis and limit states, plot graphs of usage ratio versus time, drift or load factor. For an explanation see Chapter 30, Usage Ratio Plots. Combinations and Envelopes task. Combine the results from a number of analyses, and calculate usage ratios based on maximum or mean values, using a variety of combination methods. If desired, color the elements based on their usage ratios. See Chapter 31, Load Case Combinations and Envelopes. PERFORM-3D User Guide 1-7
Chapter 1. Overview
1.6
Figure 1.3 Tools for View Direction and Perspective You can view the structure from any direction in plan, and at any vertical angle from directly downwards to directly upwards. To change the view direction, either click in the diagrams to set the directions of the axes, or enter angles in the text boxes. To change the viewing distance for the perspective projection, choose one of the standard distances or enter a distance in the text box. Then press OK to change the view, or Cancel to retain the current view. The "Basic" view is the default. If you have changed the view direction, press the "Basic" button to return to this view. Press the "Plan", "H1" or "H2" button to get a plan or elevation view, with no perspective (the view distance is infinity). You can add perspective to plan and elevation views by choosing a view distance.
1-8
Chapter 1. Overview
1.7
Reports
Chapter 1. Overview
For the location of the ECHO file, see Chapter 2, Structures, Folders and Files.
1.8
Reporting Errors
We do our best to keep PERFORM-3D reliable and free of errors, but we are not always successful. If you find an error in the program, please report it to us. For the procedure see Chapter 33, Reporting Errors.
1.9
1-10
Chapter 1. Overview Keep in mind that the goal of structural analysis is not to get an accurate simulation of a structure's behavior, but to get information to help in making design decisions. Once an analysis model has been set up, it is easy to be seduced into believing that the model is an exact representation of the real structure. It probably is not, and it does not need to be. The model must be sufficiently accurate to provide useful design information, but the analysis results are almost certainly approximate, no matter how sophisticated the analysis model. Also keep in mind that analysis is not an end in itself, but merely a tool to help in decision making. It can be entertaining to plot deflected shapes, time histories of node and element response, and hysteresis loops for nonlinear components. This is not a trivial activity, since such plots are certainly useful for checking the behavior of the analysis model. Ultimately, however, decision making must be based on limit states and demand-capacity ratios.
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2.1
Chapter 2. Structures, Folders and Files structures in a project name Project A, you might set up a User Structures Folder Project-A. The path to this folder might be : C:\ProgramFiles\Computers and Structures\PERFORM\PERFORM3D\Project-A or C:\ProgramFiles\Computers and Structures\PERFORM\PERFORM3D\Structures\Project-A However, you can choose any path you wish.
2.2
2.3
2-3
2.4
Other Folders
2-4
Chapter 2. Structures, Folders and Files you installed the program in the default location, the RecordsF folder is: C:\ProgramFiles\Computers and Structures\PERFORM\RecordsF All force time history records are stored in this folder. For the procedure see Chapter 16, Dynamic Force Load Cases and Analyses, Section 16.3.
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Chapter 3. Nodes
3 Nodes
A PERFORM-3D analysis model consists of nodes connected by elements. You can specify nodes and elements in any order (e.g., some nodes, then some elements, then more nodes, etc.) This chapter describes how to specify nodes and node-related data.
3.1
3-1
Chapter 3. Nodes
After you have entered the required data in the data panel, press the Test button to show the effect. Any additions or changes are shown in yellow. You then have the choice of pressing OK (which accepts the new or changed nodes) or Undo, which undoes the operation. The available methods for specifying nodes are as follows. (1) Create a regular grid of nodes. Choose the Grid tab. It is usually convenient to begin with this method, then use other methods to manipulate the grid. You can create a 3D grid, but if you do you may initially get a jumble of nodes in the structure plot. If you create a 3D grid it is may be useful to view the structure in plan, so that the node layout makes sense. You should then set up a number of frames (see Chapter 4, Frames), so that when you define elements you can work in a frame-only view and show only the nodes in one frame. An alternative is to create a 2D grid, add elements to it, then use the Duplicate tab (see below) to duplicate that grid. You can also use the Frames task to duplicate nodes and elements. (2) Move one or more nodes. Choose the Move tab. There are three options for moving nodes, namely Translate, Tilt and Rotate. If you have already specified elements, the elements are also moved. (3) Delete one or more nodes. Choose the Delete tab. If you have already specified elements, any elements connected to the deleted nodes are deleted. (4) Add new nodes one at a time. Choose the Single tab. There are three options for adding single nodes, namely Total H,V, coordinates, H,V Offsets from an existing node, and Polar Coords using an existing node as the origin. (5) Interpolate one or more nodes along a straight line between two existing nodes. Choose the Interpolate tab. You can also extrapolate. (6) Duplicate a line or block of nodes. Choose the Duplicate tab. This operation duplicates nodes only. To duplicate both nodes and elements see the Duplicate operation in the Frames task.
3-2
Chapter 3. Nodes
3.2
Zooming
You can zoom in by pressing the zoom-in button on the toolbar. After pressing this button, click in the graphics panel, hold, and drag a rectangle covering the region you want to view. You can zoom in multiple times, to get progressively more detailed views. To zoom out, press the zoom-out button on the toolbar. Pressing this button returns to the un-zoomed view.
3.3
3.4
Supports
To specify rigidly supported (restrained) nodes choose the Supports tab, set the support type, select nodes singly or using a box select, and use the Test, Clear, OK and Undo buttons in the usual way. You can add, change and delete supports at any time. When you are in the Supports page, support symbols are always shown. When you are in other pages you can show or hide the support symbols by pressing the support symbol button in the toolbar.
3-3
Chapter 3. Nodes You do not need to specify supports for nodal displacements that are completely unrestrained. For example, if your structure is a truss you do not have to restrain the rotational displacements. PERFORM-3D does this automatically. There will be a warning message in the ECHO file.
3.5
Masses
To specify masses choose the Masses tab. In the current version of PERFORM-3D you must specify all masses as nodal properties. There is no provision for element masses. You are not restricted to a single mass distribution. Instead, you can specify up to 6 mass patterns, each identified by a name. For example, you might specify a mass pattern for dead load masses and a second pattern for live load masses. Then, in the Analysis phase, you can specify the masses for the analysis as a linear combination of the mass patterns (e.g., 1.0 times dead load mass plus 0.25 times live load mass). For a more detailed discussion see Chapter 17, Analysis Series. To start a new mass pattern press the New button, specify the pattern name, then specify the masses, select nodes singly or using a box select, and use the Test, Clear, OK and Undo buttons in the usual way. To change the masses for an existing pattern, choose the pattern name from the list and specify changes as needed. You can also delete any mass pattern. If you have a rigid floor diaphragm (with a rigid floor constraint see the next section) you can specify the floor mass in either of two ways, as follows. (1) Calculate the center of mass for the floor, place a node at this point (be sure to include it in the rigid floor constraint), and put the translational mass and rotational inertia for the entire floor at the point (be sure to include the rotational inertia). This can be the best method if you want to consider different mass locations, to account for "accidental" mass eccentricity. If you define a series of nodes that have masses but are not connected to any elements in the
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Chapter 3. Nodes structure, you can change the mass locations by moving these nodes. (2) Do not calculate the center of mass. Instead, specify a mass at each beam-column intersection in the floor, using tributary areas. When you specify a rigid floor constraint, PERFORM-3D will calculate the floor rotational inertia and the center of mass, and place the floor mass at this center. You probably do not need to calculate the tributary rotational inertias at the individual mass points, since in most cases they will be small. However, you can do so if you wish.
3.6
Slaving Constraints
3.6.1 General
Each constraint constitutes a Constraint Set, and must affect at least two nodes. As an example, if you have a three story frame and use rigid floor slaving, you will have three constraint sets, one for each floor or roof level. If you have four column lines along each of the H1 and H2 directions, each constraint set will affect 16 nodes. To start a new constraint set press the New button, specify the constraint set name, and choose the constraint type. You can either add or delete nodes. Select the affected nodes, singly or using a box select, and use the Test, Clear, OK and Undo buttons in the usual way. The order in which you select the nodes does not matter. It is not necessary to identify a "master" node and a number of "slave" nodes.
Chapter 3. Nodes sections or concrete type P-M-M hinges, the beam element may want to extend. Since you are restraining this extension, there may be compression forces in the beams. You can not include a node in a rigid floor constraint if the node has an H1 or H2 translational support or a V rotational support. Conversely, you can not add an H1 or H2 translational support, or a V rotational support, to a node that is part of a rigid floor constraint.
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Chapter 3. Nodes
Eccentricity
Figure 3.1 Eccentric Connection of Beam to Column Figure 3.2 shows a more complex example, where both the beams and columns have eccentricities.
Figure 3.2 More Complex Eccentric Connection If you want to take this type of eccentricity into account, you can model the connection in three different ways as follows. (1) Connect the nodes by short, stiff elements. This requires that you specify the extra elements and element properties, and is usually not a very convenient method. (2) Connect the nodes using a rigid link constraint. You can use this constraint only if the nodes are not part of a rigid floor constraint, since any displacement can be a part of only one constraint. Rigid link and rigid floor constraints both constrain the H1 and H2 translations and the V rotation. PERFORM-3D User Guide 3-7
Chapter 3. Nodes
(3) Connect the nodes using an eccentric connection constraint. This constraint is specifically intended for the case where the nodes are already part of a rigid floor constraint. It constrains the V translation and the H1 and H2 rotations. You should use this constraint only if the nodes are already part of a rigid floor constraint. Note that you must have a separate constraint set for each eccentric connection.
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Chapter 4. Frames
4 Frames
The plotted geometry for a 3D structure can be complex. You can (and usually must) simplify the plot by showing only selected parts of the structure. A "frame" is any part of the complete structure. It can be a plane frame, a floor, or any other part of the structure that you would like to operate on separately from the complete structure. You can quickly set up, modify and delete frames, and then toggle between a full structure view and a view showing only a single frame. This chapter explains the procedure.
4.1
4-1
Chapter 4. Frames toggle between a "structure" view that shows the complete structure and a "frame" view that shows only a single frame. In a structure view, the elements in the current frame are highlighted to help them stand out. Any elements that are in both the current frame and the current element group are plotted light blue. In a frame-only view, only the nodes and elements in the current frame are plotted. You can add elements, specify loads, define structure sections, etc. in either a structure view or a frame view.
4.2
Defining a Frame
To define a new frame or modify an existing frame, press the toolbar buttons for the Modeling phase and the Frames task. The steps for adding a new frame are as follows. Press the New button. Input a name for the frame, then press OK. Choose the Add Nodes tab. In the graphics panel, select the nodes to be added to the frame, using either single node or box selection. If you are defining a vertical frame it is usually best to change to a plan view, so that you can select the nodes with a box select. If you are defining a horizontal floor it is usually best to change to an elevation view. (5) If the selected nodes are OK, press OK to add them to the frame. If not, press Clear. Any elements that are connected to nodes in the frame are also a part of the frame, including any elements that you specify later. (6) Repeat Steps (4) and (5) until you have selected all the desired nodes. To delete nodes from a frame, choose the Delete Nodes tab. You can return to a previously defined frame at any time to add or delete nodes. To delete a complete frame press the delete (X) button next to the New button. To toggle between structure and frame-only views, press the S-F (Structure-Frame) button. When you are in the Frames task, this button and the list of frames is in the data panel. After you exit this task, the list of frames and the S-F button is at the right end of the toolbar. You (1) (2) (3) (4)
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Chapter 4. Frames can choose a frame from the list and toggle between structure and frame views at any time
4.3
Duplicating a Frame
If you have a number of similar frames in a structure, you can save time by defining one frame then duplicating it. When you duplicate a frame you duplicate both the nodes and the elements in the frame (if you use the Duplicate option for nodes, you duplicate only the nodes). If you have similar frames, you may duplicate a frame after you have specified the elements but before you have assigned properties to the elements. If you have frames that are more nearly identical, you can duplicate a frame after you have assigned properties to the elements. When you duplicate a frame you can specify H1, H2 and/or V distances between the original frame and the duplicate, which means that the new frame is parallel to the original. If you also want the new frame to be rotated, you must first create it parallel to the original frame, then use the Move operation in the Nodes task to rotate the new frame. To duplicate a frame, press the toolbar buttons for the Modeling phase and the Frames task, and choose a frame from the frame list. The steps for duplicating the frame are as follows. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Choose the Duplicate tab. Specify the name for the duplicate frame. Specify the H1, H2 and V translations from the current frame. Press Test to show the new frame. Press either OK or Undo.
In the current frame the elements will belong to element groups. Corresponding elements in the new frame belong to the same element groups.
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5 Component Properties
Elements are made up of components. A simple element, such as a truss bar, may consist of a single component. A more complex element, such as a column, can consist of a number of components of different types. Before you can assign properties to elements, you must first specify properties for components. This is the most complex task for nonlinear modeling, and usually the task that will require most of your time. This chapter covers the essential concepts, and the procedures for specifying component properties. For more details, see the document "PERFORM Components and Elements".
5.1
5-1
Chapter 5. Component Properties complex than elastic components. A fluid damper dissipates energy and is classified as inelastic, although its behavior is different from that of other inelastic components. (4) Strength sections. These are not structural components. Their purpose is to allow you to calculate strength demand-capacity ratios at interior points in beam and column elements. (5) Compound components. A compound component is made up of a number of cross section, basic and/or strength section components. For example, a compound component for a beam might consist of an elastic end zone component, a plastic hinge component, an elastic segment with a uniform cross section, a second plastic hinge, and a final end zone. It might also have shear strength sections at the plastic hinge locations, to check that the shear strength is not exceeded. Some elements consist of one compound component. These include frame type elements (beam, column, diagonal brace), and also shear wall, general wall, buckling restrained brace and viscous bar elements. Other elements consist of one basic component.
5.2
5.2.1 Scope
This section describes the basic steps for specifying components. Nonlinear components can have complex properties, and the forms for input of component properties may appear to be complex. You do not, however, have to specify values for all possible properties. For example, you may choose to specify elastic-perfectly-plastic behavior rather than the more complex trilinear behavior; you may not need to consider brittle strength loss; and unless you are an advanced user you will not need to specify upper/lower bounds. It is usually a good idea to start with relatively simple component properties, and to add more complex properties later, as the analysis proceeds. If you are a new user, you might like to experiment with the component properties task before starting a complete structure. The forms for input 5-2 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 5. Component Properties of component properties contain a lot of information, so be sure to look at them carefully. For more information on component properties see the following sections. (1) If you are not familiar with the PERFORM action -deformation (FD) relationship, see the brief description in Section 5.5. For more detailed information see the document "PERFORM Components and Elements". (2) For brittle strength loss, see Sections 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8. (3) For deformation and strength capacities, and an overview how they are used for limit states and usage ratios, see Section 5.9. (4) For cyclic degradation and hysteresis loops see Sections 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12. (5) For the role of cross sections and how to use them see Sections 5.13 and 5.14. (6) For "auto" end zone and connection panel zone components, see Sections 5.15. (7) For upper and lower bounds on strength and stiffness see Section 5.16.
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5.2.3 Materials
To specify a material the steps are the same as for a basic structural component, as described later.
5-4
Chapter 5. Component Properties You can press the Save As button to save the current cross section as a new section with a different name. It can be a time saver to do this if you have cross sections that are similar. Set up and save one section, then use Save As to initialize each similar section, and make just the needed changes. Be sure to press Save after you have made the changes. You can press the Delete button to delete the current cross section provided that you have not yet saved it. Do this if you have started a new section and find that you do not want to complete it. You can delete a saved cross section by pressing the delete (X) button (next to the New button). If a cross section is used by a basic component or a compound component, you will not be able to delete it. You can change the name of a saved cross section by pressing the Rename button.
For each cross section there are two options for specifying the fibers, as follows. (1) Fixed Size. You must specify the area and coordinate location for each fiber in the cross section. The width of the cross section is fixed, based on the maximum and minimum fiber coordinates. When you assign this cross section to an element, you must make sure that the element width is consistent with the cross section width. With this type of section you can account for thickness variations in the wall. You can also have different reinforcement areas in different part of the section.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties (2) Auto Size. You must specify the wall thickness and the number of fibers. The width of the cross section is not fixed. When you assign the cross section to an element, PERFORM-3D makes the cross section width equal to the element width, and hence calculates the fiber areas and coordinates. With this type of section you can not vary the wall thickness over the element width, and the reinforcement percentage must be constant. You can, however, account for changes in thickness and additional reinforcement, using additional Concrete Strut and Steel Tie elements. The steps in defining a fiber wall section are as follows. (1) (2) (3) (4) Choose the Cross Sects tab. Choose the cross section type from the Type list. Press the New button to start a new cross section. Enter the section name and choose the units. Plan the names carefully (although you can change the name later if you wish). Be sure to choose the correct units. (5) Choose the "Fixed Size" or "Auto Size" option. (6) Press OK. (7) Enter the data for structural fibers. Also enter the data for out-ofplane bending. Use the Add, Insert, Replace and Delete buttons to add or modify fibers. (8) If you wish, enter data for monitored fibers. This is usually a good idea, since it allows you to define limit states based on strain (for an inelastic section) or stress (for an elastic section). You can also monitor deformations of wall elements using separate Deformation Gage components (these are elastic basic components). (9) Press the Check button to check the data. You will be told of any errors. Keep an eye on the Status box. (10) When the data is correct press the Save button to save the data. Again, keep an eye on the Status box. (11) To cancel any changes press the UnChange button. This restores the last saved data. To review or change an existing cross section, choose the section type from the Type list and the name from the Name list. If you make changes, keep an eye on the Status box. You can press the Save As button at any time to save the current cross section as a new section with a different name. It can be a time saver to do this if you have cross sections that are similar. Set up and save one 5-6 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 5. Component Properties section, then use Save As to initialize each similar section, and make just the needed changes. Be sure to press Save after you have made the changes. You can press the Delete button to delete the current cross section provided that you have not yet saved it. Do this if you have started a new section and find that you do not want to complete it. You can delete a saved cross section by pressing the delete (X) button (next to the New button). If a cross section is used by a shear wall or general wall compound component, you will not be able to delete it. You can change the name of a saved cross section by pressing the Rename button.
(6) (7)
(8)
Choose the Inelastic or Elastic tab. Choose the component type from the Type list. Press the New button to start a new component. Enter the component name and choose the units, then press OK. Plan the names carefully (although you can change the name later if you wish). Be sure to choose the correct units. Choose the options (symmetry, whether the component uses a cross section, whether there is strength loss, etc.). You can change these later if you wish. Enter the component properties. You will usually have to fill in data on a number of tabbed pages in the form. Diagrams in the form explain the required data. If you choose "Yes" for the "Use Cross Section" option, you must select a cross section type and name from the lists. If you do this, the properties that are obtained from the cross section are shown green. You can not change these properties. If you have specified cross section strengths that can be used by the component, these strengths will be shown green. If you have not specified such cross section strengths, the strength text boxes will be white and you must enter the properties. Press the Check button to check and (in most cases) plot the data so that you can review it graphically. You will be told of any errors. Keep an eye on the Status box. When the data is correct press the Save button to save the data. Again, keep an eye on the Status box. After you have saved the data, you can plot hysteresis loops for most inelastic components. This can be valuable for checking the component behavior. See the next section for the procedure. To cancel any changes press the UnChange button. This restores the last saved data.
To review or change an existing component, choose the component type from the Type list and the component name from the Name list. If you make changes, keep an eye on the Status box. You can press the Save As button at any time to save the current component as a new component with a different name. It can be a time saver to do this if you have components that are similar. Set up and save one component, then use Save As to initialize each similar component, and make just the needed changes. Be sure to press Save after you have made the changes.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties You can press the Delete button to delete the current component provided that you have not yet saved it. Do this if you have started a new component and find that you do not want to complete it. You can delete a saved component by pressing the delete (X) button (next to the New button). If a basic component is used in a compound component, you will not be able to delete it. If a basic component is assigned directly to an element, you will be able to delete the component, but you will need to assign a new component to the element. You can change the name of a saved component by pressing the Rename button.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties (4) Press Plot to plot the loops. Uncheck or check deformation ranges to add or delete them in the plot. Press Print to print the current loops, or Save to save the loops to a text file. Press Close to exit.
You can return to examine or change a compound component at any time. If you make changes, keep an eye on the Status box, and be sure to press Save to save the component. Use the Save As, Delete, UnChange, Rename and X buttons as for basic components.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties A shear wall element can also bend out of plane. This is assumed to be a secondary mode of behavior. Out-of-plane bending is assumed to be elastic. For a shear wall compound component the overall steps are similar to those for a frame compound component, but the form is very different. For the primary bending behavior you must choose a fiber wall cross section. For shear you must choose a shear material and specify an effective wall thickness. For transverse behavior you must specify an effective thickness and an elastic modulus. For out-of-plane bending you must specify an effective plate bending thickness and a modulus.
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5.3
5.3.1 General
In a large structure there can be a lot of components. This section describes some tools that can be useful for managing the components and their properties.
5.3.2 Filter
In PERFORM, components are selected from drop-down lists. If there are many components of a given type, the drop-down list can be long, and finding a particular component can involve searching. Also, the components are listed in the order that they are defined, so that related components may not be adjacent to each other in the list. You can use the filter feature to shorten the list. In the Component Properties task, below the list of component names there is a Filter button as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Purge, Rename and Filter Buttons To filter the list of component names, type a text string into the Text for filter box, then press the Filter button. Only component names that include the text string will be listed. The text string is case sensitive. To use this feature effectively you must use distinctive text strings for component names. If you wish you can press the Rename button to change component names. PERFORM-3D User Guide 5-13
5.3.3 Purge
A list of component names may contain components that are not used in any higher level components (such as a compound component) or in any elements. To purge such components from the list, press the Purge button (Figure 5.2).
5.3.5 Save As
Rather than start each new component by pressing the New button, use the Save As button and edit the properties.
5.3.6 Copy-Paste
In the Component Properties task, most component property pages have Copy and Paste buttons as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Copy-Paste Buttons You can use these buttons to copy properties from one component to another, as follows. (1) Set up the properties for a component. Go to one of the pages that has Copy-Paste buttons. (2) Press the Copy button. The name of the component will be shown in the box between the buttons, as a reminder, and also to show that properties for that page can be pasted. (3) Choose another component of the same type, and go to the same page. Press the Paste button. All of the properties on that page from the copied component will be pasted into the current component. 5-14 PERFORM-3D User Guide
You can press Copy in multiple pages if you wish, then Paste to multiple pages (one page at a time). The main restriction is that all of the properties on a page are copied. You can not copy selected properties.
5.4
Printed Reports
To get a printed report for any component, press the button with the printer symbol. In the current version of PERFORM-3D you can print the properties for only the current component. If you want to print the properties for all components, you must print each one in turn. The component properties are also included in the ECHO file.
5.5
F-D Relationship
Chapter 5. Component Properties and we will have difficulty getting analysis results that are reliable enough for design purposes. Simplicity is also important. Structural design is a complex task, and it can be made impossibly complex if we have to use elaborate analysis models.
U Y
Hardening stiffness
Initial stiffness
DEFORMATION
Figure 5.4 PERFORM Action-Deformation Relationship The key points in the relationship are as follows. (1) Y Point. This is the first yield point, where significant nonlinear behavior begins. (2) U Point. This is the ultimate strength point, where the maximum strength is reached. (3) L Point. This is the ductile limit point, where significant strength loss begins. (4) R Point. This is the residual strength point, where the minimum residual strength is reached. (5) X Point. This is usually at a deformation that is so large that there is no point in continuing the analysis. You can continue an analysis beyond this point if you wish, but usually you will stop the 5-16 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 5. Component Properties analysis if any component is deformed beyond its X point. For some components you can specify that the strength reduces to zero at the X point. In this case the analysis does not stop. For most components the relationships can be different for positive and negative deformations (i.e., the component can be unsymmetrical).
ACTION
Basic relationship
DEFORMATION
Figure 5.5 Additional Parallel Stiffness
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Chapter 5. Component Properties Note that the parallel stiffness is added to all segments of the F-D relationship, including the initial elastic stiffness. You may have to adjust the initial elastic stiffness and the component actions to allow for this.
5.6
Strength Loss
5.6.1 General
In a structural component, "brittle" strength loss can be caused by a number of effects, including tensile fracture, concrete crushing, concrete shear failure, and buckling. When a component loses strength, the lost strength is redistributed to adjacent components (if this is possible), and the resulting behavior can be complex. The behavior can also be sensitive to small changes in the loads and/or the component properties. In PERFORM, strength loss is optional, As a general rule, you should specify it only if it is essential. Usually it is not permissible to deform an inelastic component beyond the L point (i.e., the deformation capacity is usually smaller than the L point deformation). For example, the FEMA 356 criteria generally allow deformation beyond the L point only for certain secondary members at the collapse prevention performance level. Hence, what happens after the L point is reached may be academic, and there may be no point in doing the calculations. For an exception to this rule, see Section 5.8. Figure 5.6 shows the action-deformation relationships for FEMA 356 (Q- relationship) and PERFORM (F-D relationship).
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Figure 5.6 Strength Loss In the FEMA 356 relationship there is sudden strength loss at Point C, and total strength loss at Point E. In the PERFORM relationship, strength loss begins at Point L and can be sudden or gradual. It is likely that strength loss in an actual structure will be gradual, and hence sudden strength loss is not realistic. As a general rule you should avoid specifying sudden strength loss. See the Section 5.7 for some problems that can occur when there is sudden or rapid strength loss. In the FEMA 356 relationship there is total strength loss at Point E. In the PERFORM relationship total strength loss at Point X is optional, as explained in the next section.
For the FEMA beam and moment hinge components, the moment strength of the component reduces to zero at Point X. However, the
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Chapter 5. Component Properties shear strength is not affected. For these components the effect of total strength loss is the same as inserting a moment release. If this option is used for an inelastic shear material (in a wall element), the shear strength and stiffness reduce to zero at Point X. The procedure for specifying total strength loss is as follows. Choose a component type, and go to the Strength Loss page. If the option for total strength loss is available for the component type, there will be a Total Strength Loss at Point X frame. To get total strength loss, choose the Yes option. If you specify total strength loss at the X point, and if the component has an added parallel stiffness (see Figure 5.5), this parallel stiffness is still present. Hence, the strength does not actually reduce to zero.
Chapter 5. Component Properties be a Strength Loss Interaction frame. Specify the interaction factor in this frame. The default factor is zero. To see the effect of this factor, it can be useful to plot hysteresis loops, as described earlier in this chapter.
5.7
5.7.1 General
If you specify strength loss, you should be aware of the consequences and pitfalls. Some of these are considered in this section.
Figure 5.7 Effect of Strength Loss. Parallel Case. Figure 5.7(b) shows the structure behavior for two cases, as follows. (1) If the strength loss is gradual, so that the stiffness Ku is numerically smaller than the elastic stiffness Ke, the structure loaddisplacement relationship increases monotonically. PERFORM-3D User Guide 5-21
Chapter 5. Component Properties (2) However, if Ku is numerically larger than Ke, the structure strength decreases. If Ku, is infinite, corresponding to sudden strength loss, the structure loses strength suddenly.
Figure 5.8 Effect of Strength Loss. Series Case. In this case the structure load-displacement relationship always decreases as the yielding component loses strength. If Ku is numerically larger than Ke, the load-displacement relationship reverses, as shown in Figure 5.8(b). If the strength loss is sudden, Ku is infinite and the relationship reverses with a stiffness equal to Ke.
Chapter 5. Component Properties to obtain a solution even for this type of behavior. However, this may not always be the case, and the analysis may fail to converge. If reversal does occur, it will usually be local rather than global. This is a reason why it is always a good idea to use multiple controlled drifts in static push-over analysis. If only a single drift is controlled, it may be badly behaved, with reversal of the relationship between load and drift. If multiple drifts are controlled, it is unlikely that all of them will be badly behaved, even if there is local reversal. Sudden strength loss is probably not a good idea. It rarely occurs in real structural components, and as a general rule should be avoided. Progressive strength loss as shown in Figure 5.9 is suggested as an alternative, with a strength at R equal to, say, 0.001 times the strength at U.
Chapter 5. Component Properties value of Ku for the hinge is chosen to give the specified Ku for the beam as a whole. This means that Ku for the hinge is numerically smaller than Ku for the beam as a whole. However, if you use plastic hinge components directly, rather than FEMA components, you must specify the Ku value for the hinge. If you make this value too large, the moment-rotation relationship for the beam as a whole can reverse. You should choose the value of Ku for the hinge so that this does not happen (Ku for the hinge should be numerically smaller than 6EI/L for the beam as a whole). If Ku is too large and the moment-rotation relationship for the beam as a whole reverses, PERFORM is usually able to obtain a solution. However, this may not always be the case, and the analysis may fail to converge. Behavior of this type also tends to increase the energy balance error.
5.8
Figure 5.10 Effect of Axial Force on Ductile Limit Figure 5.10(a) shows a steel column with equal end moments, M, and a chord rotation . Figure 5.10(b) shows the P-M interaction surface, and 5-24 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 5. Component Properties two compression forces, PL and PU. Figure 5.10(c) shows an elastically-perfectly-plastic moment-rotation relationship with strength loss at the ductile limit. The yield moment is smaller at PU than at PL, because of the shape of the interaction surface. The ductile limit is smaller at PU than at PL, because the column is less ductile at the larger compression force. As noted earlier, if the deformation capacity is smaller than the ductile limit, then there may be no need to model strength loss, since any column with strength loss will have a deformation D/C ratio larger than 1.0, and hence will not satisfy the performance requirement. However, FEMA 356 Section 3.4.3.2.1 states the following. Primary and secondary component demands shall be within the acceptance criteria for secondary components at the selected Structural Performance Level. This section applies to the Nonlinear Static Procedure (NSP), where demand/capacity ratios for component deformations are evaluated at the estimated displacement demand (target displacement). The FEMA 356 commentary on this section states the following. When all components are explicitly modeled with full backbone curves, the NSP (Nonlinear Static Procedure) can be used to evaluate the full contribution of all components to the lateral force resistance of the structure as they degrade to residual strength values. When degradation is explicitly evaluated in the NSP, components can be relied upon for lateral-force resistance out to the secondary component limits of response. Some engineers interpret this to mean that the deformation capacities (acceptance criteria) for secondary members can be used for steel columns. These capacities are larger than for primary members, and also larger than the ductile limit deformation. If these capacities are used, a steel column can be deformed beyond its ductile limit, and hence strength loss must be modeled in the analysis, including the effect of axial force on the ductile limit.
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(5.1a) (5.1b)
where P = axial compression force, PCL = compression strength of the column, and y = yield rotation. The yield rotation is given by
y = ZFy L 1 P 6EI AFy = y0 1 P AFy
(5.2)
where Fy = material yield stress and Z, A, E, I and L have their usual meanings, and y0 = yield rotation when P = 0. Note the following points. (1) In Equation 5.1b the axial strength is PCL, which includes the effect of slenderness ratio and hence is a property of the member as a whole, whereas in Equation 5.2 the axial strength is AFy, which is a property of the cross section only. (2) From Equations 5.1 and 5.2, the rotation at the ductile limit varies with axial compression force essentially as shown in Figure 5.11a. The ductile limit rotations in this figure are as follows, where the approximate values are calculated assuming that PCL AFy .
0 = 9 y 0
(5.3a)
7.2 y0
5.8 y0
1 = 9 y0 1
2 = 11 y0 1
0.2PCL AFy
0.2PCL AFy
(5.3b) (5.3c)
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3 = 11 y0 1
(5.3d)
Figure 5.11 Rotation at Ductile Limit This can be simplified with no practical loss of accuracy, as shown in Figure 5.11(b). In this figure the reduction in the ductile limit rotation is based on AFy rather than PCL, with effective length effects accounted for by considering P- effects in the analysis. Also, all rotations are multiples of the yield rotation at zero axial force, which is constant, not a yield rotation that varies with the axial force. PERFORM allows the ductile limit to vary only as shown in Figure 5.11(b). If FEMA 356 is used, the curve in Figure 5.11(a) must be approximated. It may be noted that the FEMA 356 equations for rotation capacities in columns are similar to the above equations, and they can also be simplified. PERFORM allows the rotation capacities to vary with axial force, but using only the simplified form.
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(5.4)
During each analysis (static or dynamic), the rotation and axial force for each component are monitored at each step. Based on the axial force, the ductile limit rotation, DL, is calculated. If the rotation demand exceeds DL, the ductile limit has been reached, and the component begins to lose strength. After this point, the rotation DL is frozen (kept constant), and monitoring of the axial force ceases.
5.8.4 Procedure
The procedure for specifying the component properties is the same for FEMA Column, Steel Type components and P-M2-M3 Hinge, Steel Type components. In the Strength Loss page you have the option of specifying that strength loss depends or does not depend on the axial compression force. If you choose the No option the strength loss properties are 5-28 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 5. Component Properties fixed, and you specify only one set of properties. If you choose Yes you must specify two sets of properties, one set at an upper compression force, PU, and a second set at a lower compression force, PL. Typically, PU will be 0.5PCL (or 0.5AFy in the simplified form) and PL will be 0.2PCL (or 0.2AFy). For axial forces between PU and PL, PERFORM interpolates linearly. As noted in the preceding section, at each step of an analysis (static or dynamic), PERFORM calculates the DL value based on the current axial force, until DL is reached. When DL is reached, the strength loss properties are frozen, and do not change in later analysis steps.
5.9
5.9.1 General
PERFORM-3D is a tool for both nonlinear analysis and performance based structural design. To use the performance based design capabilities, you must specify deformation capacities for inelastic components and/or strength capacities for elastic components. You can then define limit states to make use of these capacities, and process the analysis results to give demand-capacity ratios (or limit state usage ratios). This section gives an overview of the procedure.
Some deformation measures, such as drift and deflection, have also been used for many years. However, engineers have less experience with deformation measures such as plastic hinge rotation. On the demand side, to obtain rotation demands for a plastic hinge we must use nonlinear structural analysis. On the capacity side, we do not yet have definitive design code equations for rotation capacities (although FEMA 356 will become a design code). Hence, the calculation of deformation demand-capacity ratios for deformation-based design is more complex, and requires greater judgment than the calculation of strength demand-capacity ratios for conventional strength-based design. PERFORM-3D has extensive capabilities for calculating demandcapacity ratios, considering both deformation and strength. You can save a lot of time if you make effective use of these capabilities.
Chapter 5. Component Properties structure drifts, not individual element deformations. You can do this by specifying one or more drifts, and assigning drift capacities (use the Drifts and Deflections task to define drifts, and the Limit States task to specify drift capacities). Most often you will use both drifts and component deformations as demand-capacity measures.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties specific hinge is not considered at this stage, only the effect of rotation. (2) In the properties of any Frame Member Compound Component that uses the strength section. See the Strength Sections page. When you use a shear strength section, you can specify which rotational hinge component affects its shear strength. The strength section and the hinge will usually have the same location, but PERFORM does not check this. At each step in an analysis, PERFORM checks whether a shear strength section is affected by the rotation of a hinge component. If so, PERFORM gets the maximum rotation of the hinge up to the current step (positive or negative rotation, whichever is larger), uses this rotation to calculate the strength capacity of the shear strength section, and hence calculates the shear strength Demand/Capacity ratio for the strength section.
Chapter 5. Component Properties about Axis 3, specify an Axis 2 Rotation Factor larger than 1.0. The effective rotation is the resultant of (a) the Axis 3 rotation and (b) the Axis 2 rotation divided by the Rotation Factor. If an Axis 2 rotation causes a larger shear strength reduction, specify a Rotation Factor smaller than 1.0. This factor is not needed for a shear strength section in a beam. (6) Save the properties in the usual way. The above steps and Figure 5.12 refer to hinge rotation. As noted in the next section, the rotation is not limited to the rotation of a plastic hinge component.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties (3) Go to the Strength Sections page. If you add a shear strength section, in addition to the usual name and location properties, you can specify a range of basic components for calculating rotation. For example, if the second basic component is a PMM hinge, and if you specify a range from 2 to 2, the rotation of the hinge will be used. The shear strength section in this case should be at or close to the PMM hinge component, but PERFORM does not check this. As a second example, if the second and third components are fiber segments, and if you specify a range from 2 to 3, the sum of the rotations across the segments will be used. You can specify any range, covering components of any type or types. The rotation is the sum of the rotations over all of the components in the range. Be sure that you define one or more Strength Limit States that use the shear strength sections. If you specify a compound component and later edit it by changing its basic components, be sure to check that the rotational component ranges for any strength sections are still correct, since the rotational components are identified by sequence number, and these numbers may have changed.
Chapter 5. Component Properties use a single force-deformation relationship that accounts implicitly for cyclic loading, assuming a certain amount of cycling. This is usually referred to as the "backbone" relationship. The F-D relationship for analyses in PERFORM is the backbone relationship. FEMA 356 suggests backbone relationships for components of a variety of types, and also provides guidelines for constructing this relationship from experimental results (see FEMA 356 Section 2.8). The backbone relationship accounts implicitly for cyclic degradation on the effective strength and ductility. It does not, however, account for energy degradation in the hysteresis loop. This is considered in the next section.
ACTION
DEFORMATION
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Chapter 5. Component Properties Since the seismic response of a structure can be sensitive to the amount of energy dissipation, it may be important to account for stiffness degradation in the hysteresis loop. Different methods are needed for dynamic analysis and static push-over analysis, as considered in the following sections. For more details see the document "PERFORM Components and Elements".
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Chapter 5. Component Properties (4) Sum these dissipated energies over all components. (5) Calculate the effective push-over strain energy in the structure. If the push-over forces are {H } and the corresponding nodal displacements are {} , this energy is 0.5{H }T {}. (6) Given the dissipated and strain energies, calculate the equivalent damping ratio = (dissipated energy)/(4 (strain energy)). This equation assumes that dissipated energy from an inelastic hysteresis loop has the same damping effect as the same amount of energy dissipated by viscous damping. (7) Use this damping ratio to calculate the spectral acceleration demand in the push-over analysis. Since this method takes into account the properties of each specific structure, it may have an advantage over the "one size fits all" formulas in the capacity spectrum method.
Chapter 5. Component Properties (2) In Loop B the elastic range on unloading is a maximum. The unloading stiffness is reduced to provide the required energy degradation. (3) Loop C is midway between Loops A and B.
Figure 5.14 Loops with Same Energy Degradation In PERFORM, the default option corresponds to Loop C. If you wish, you can specify an "unloading stiffness factor" that controls the loop shape. A value of zero for this factor (the default) corresponds to Loop C, a value of +1 corresponds to Loop A (maximum stiffness, smallest elastic range), and a value of -1 corresponds to Loop B (minimum stiffness, largest elastic range).
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Figure 5.16 Trilinear Relationship Beyond U Point Figure 5.16(a) shows the non-degraded loop. This is divided into a parallelogram and a pair of triangles, as shown. The parallelogram is degraded as for the E-P-P component in Figure 5.15. The two triangles make up a bilinear loop as in Figure 5.14, which is degraded using the unloading stiffness factor. The result for the case of Loop A (unloading stiffness factor = +1) is shown in Figure 5.16(b). 5-42 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 5. Component Properties (2) Define basic components, using cross section properties. (3) Assign basic components to element. If a beam or column element consists of a compound component it could require up to six steps to assign the element properties. For example, if a beam element has plastic hinges, the steps might be as follows. (1) (2) (3) (4) Define beam cross sections, with stiffness and strength properties. Define plastic hinge components, using cross section properties. Define shear strength sections, using cross section properties. Define compound components, using plastic hinge components (for hinges), beam cross sections (for beam segments between hinges) and strength sections (to check shear strength). (5) Assign compound components to elements. As another example, if a beam element uses fiber cross sections the steps might be as follows. (1) (2) (3) (4) Define materials. Define fiber cross sections, using material properties. Define non-fiber beam cross sections. Define shear strength sections, using non-fiber cross section properties. (5) Define compound components, using fiber cross sections (for hinge regions), non-fiber cross sections (for beam segments between hinge regions) and strength sections (to check shear strength). (6) Assign compound components to elements. The process is thus more complex than for a linear analysis, and requires more careful planning.
Chapter 5. Component Properties Hence, in defining the bending strength for a beam section it is sufficient to consider uniaxial bending with no P-M interaction. However, a column element can have large axial forces and is usually bent about both axes. Hence, in defining the bending strength for a column section it is necessary to consider biaxial bending and P-M-M interaction. For any beam or column section, you must define specify the stiffness properties, but it is optional to specify the strength properties. If you specify only the stiffnesses, there is no difference between a beam and column section. However, it is usually a good idea to specify cross section strengths, because these strengths can be used to define the strengths of other components. For example, if you specify a P-M-M yield surface for a column cross section, and if you create a P-M-M plastic hinge component that uses the cross section, the hinge component gets its yield surface from the cross section. For steel beam and column sections you can specify the cross section properties directly, or you can make use of standard steel sections. Details of the procedure are presented later.
Chapter 5. Component Properties material properties, then specify the area, location and material for each fiber in the cross section.
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Figure 5.17 Model Using Component Dimensions The beam member will be modeled using a frame compound component. At each end of the compound component there is (a) an end zone that extends from the end node to the to the column face, (b) a uniform X-section segment that extends to the center of the RBS, and (c) a zero-length plastic hinge to represent the RBS. The flange width in the uniform X-section segment is the B dimension for the cross section. One of the options for the length of a uniform X-section segment is to specify a fixed length, which you could calculate as a multiple of the cross section breadth. If you choose this option, and if some time later you change the size of the cross section, you must also change the length for the segment. This requires changes in two places, and can make it difficult to maintain consistency. Another option for the length of a uniform X-section segment is to specify the length as a multiple of the cross section breadth. If you choose this option, and if some time later you change the size of the cross section, the segment length is automatically updated. Hence, by using the cross section dimensions you can save substantial effort.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties strength loss, deformation capacities and cyclic degradation, you will need only one Auto Panel Zone component. The F-D relationship is not drawn for this component type (if you press Graph, nothing happens), because the F-D relationship is not yet known. This means that you can not immediately check that the component properties are correct, and that you have to exercise more care. You can (and should) check the properties as follows. (1) Run one or more analyses, in order to create an ECHO.txt file. (2) Open the ECHO.txt file. Go to the section for inelastic panel zone component properties (search for "IZ1A"). (3) If you have any "regular" panel zone components, their properties are listed first. A set of properties is then listed for each different beam-and-column combination where auto panel zone components are used. The name for each set of properties consists of the number of the column section (search for "COLM" in ECHO.txt to see the section details), followed by the depth of the beam section, and followed by the name of the Auto Panel Zone component. If this name is long it may be truncated, since a component name is limited to 40 characters. (4) Check that the properties are correct. (5) After you have run some analyses. use the Time History and/or Hysteresis Loops tasks to plot results for typical panel zone elements, to check that the behavior is correct.
Chapter 5. Component Properties to do this is to set up different analysis models with different strengths and stiffnesses. An easier way, in most cases, is to specify upper and lower bounds. You can then vary strength and stiffness without setting up multiple analysis models. Upper and lower bounds can be specified for certain component properties. Inelastic components and materials can have bounds on both strength and stiffness. Elastic components and materials can have bounds on stiffness. Strength sections can have bounds on strength. Upper and lower bounds can be specified for most, but not all, components. There are two steps in the process, as follows. (1) When you specify component properties, you have the option of specifying upper and lower bounds. For a typical inelastic component, upper and lower bounds can be specified as multiples of the nominal strength and stiffness. The multiple for upper bound values must be between 1.0 and 2.0 (with a few exceptions). The multiple for lower bound values must be between 0.5 and 1.0. (2) When you define a new Analysis Series (see Chapter 17, Analysis Series) , you can specify that strengths and stiffnesses other than the nominal values are to be used. For any inelastic component you can specify U/L Bound Ratios for strength and stiffness. A zero ratio means that the nominal values are to be used. A ratio of 1.0 means the upper bound values, and a ratio of -1.0 means the lower bound values. A ratio between -1.0 and 1.0 means interpolation between the upper and lower bounds. The default is to use the nominal values.
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Chapter 5. Component Properties complex component such as a P-M-M hinge has separate strength bounds for bending and axial force. To specify bounds, choose the Yes option for Upper/Lower Bounds, then go to the Upper/Lower Bounds page. In addition to the upper and lower bound values, there are options that define the effects of the bounds on the following parameters. (1) Deformation at U Point, DU. This applies for trilinear F-D relationships only. The options are (a) keep DU constant as the strength and/or stiffness are varied, (b) keep the ratio DU/DY constant, and (c) keep the deformation DUDY constant. (2) Deformation at L Point, DL. This applies only for cases with strength loss. The options are (a) constant DL, (b) constant DL/DY, (c) constant DL-DY, (d) constant DL/DU (for trilinear relationships only) and (e) constant DL-DU. (3) Deformation at X Point, DX. The options are the same as for DL. (4) Deformation capacities. The options are the same as for DL. To show the effects of the bounds you can specify U/L Bound Ratios in the Upper/Lower Bounds page. These are the same as the ratios that can be specified for an Analysis Series (i.e., values between -1 and 1). To see the effect, specify U/L Bound Ratios for strength and/or stiffness, and check the Show Effect box. Then, when you press Check or Graph, the plotted properties show the U/L bound effects. If you plan to use U/L bounds, be sure to use this feature to check that the scaled F-D relationships and other properties are as expected. Upper and lower bounds are not considered if you use the Plot Loops feature. For this feature, only the nominal values are used.
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Chapter 6. Elements
6 Elements
This chapter describes how to specify elements. There are three main parts to the data for an element, namely overall location, local axis orientation and component properties. If you wish you can specify element locations before you specify component properties. However, you will not be able to assign properties to elements until you have specified the required components.
6.1
Element Types
6.1.1 General
This section presents brief descriptions of the available element types. For more detailed descriptions see the document PERFORM Components and Elements.
Chapter 6. Elements Beams will usually have relatively small axial forces, so that it is usually not necessary to account for P-M interaction. Also beams will usually be bent in only one plane, about the cross section strong axis. Hence it is usually not necessary to consider biaxial bending or biaxial shear. However, you can consider P-M interaction, biaxial bending and/or biaxial shear if you wish (i.e., you can model a beam element using column type components). Each beam element connects two nodes and consists of one frame compound component. In most cases you can use a single beam element to model a complete beam member, from column centerline to column centerline. The exception is if a member such as a diagonal brace connects to the beam within its span. In this case you must locate a node at the connection point and divide the beam into two or more elements. You must assign local axis orientations to beam elements. Local Axis 1 is along the element, from element End I to element End J. Local Axes 2 and 3 are normal to Axis 1, with Axes 1, 2 and 3 forming a right handed coordinate system. Bending in the 1-2 plane (i.e., bending about Axis 3) is usually strong axis bending. Bending in the 1-3 plane (about Axis 2) is usually weak axis bending. Axis 2 is usually directed vertically upwards, and Axis 3 is usually horizontal. However, the axes may be inclined. When you add beam elements to a structure, be sure to use a consistent method for choosing Ends I and J. If the beams are essentially along the H1 and H2 directions, we suggest that you always direct I-J along the corresponding axis. You can specify distributed and/or concentrated loads along the element length (these are element loads, as distinct from nodal loads). In the current version of PERFORM-3D, only gravity loads are allowed (usually loads in the negative V direction).
6-2
Chapter 6. Elements Columns will usually have relatively large axial forces, so that it is necessary to account for P-M interaction. Also columns will usually be bent in about both cross section axes, so that it is necessary to consider biaxial bending and biaxial shear. However, if a column has small axial forces and is bent mainly about one axis, you can model it using beam type components. Each column element connects two nodes and consists of one Frame Type compound component. In most cases you can use a single column element to model a complete column member, from beam axis to beam axis. The exception is if a member such as a diagonal brace connects to the column within its height. In this case you must locate a node at the connection point and divide the column into two or more elements. You must assign local axis orientations to column elements. Local Axis 1 is along the element, from element End I to element End J, and is usually vertical. We suggest that you consistently make End I the lower end and End J the upper end. Local Axes 2 and 3 are normal to Axis 1 and are usually horizontal. You must specify the orientations in plan of Axes 2 and 3. You can specify distributed and/or concentrated loads along the element length. However, since only gravity loads are allowed (usually loads in the negative V direction) you probably will not do this for vertical column elements.
Chapter 6. Elements
You can model diagonal bracing members using simple bar elements or brace/other frame elements. If you can ignore the bending stiffness of a bracing member, the simplest approach is to use a simple bar element. If you must consider the bending stiffness you must use a brace/other frame element. Each element consists of one frame compound component. You can use beam type basic components if you do not need to account for P-M interaction. You must use column type basic components if P-M interaction is important. Do not model bracing members using beam or column elements. As noted earlier, PERFORM-3D bases the lengths of default end zones for columns on the dimensions of the adjacent beams, and the lengths of default end zone for beams on the dimensions of the adjacent columns. If you use beam or column elements for bracing members, PERFORM3D may get confused and use the wrong dimensions. As with beams and columns, you must assign local axis orientations to brace/other frame elements. Local Axis 1 is along the element, from element End I to element End J. Axis 2 will usually be in the vertical plane, and Axis 3 will usually be horizontal. You can specify distributed and/or concentrated gravity loads along the element length.
Chapter 6. Elements
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Chapter 6. Elements
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Chapter 6. Elements
For PERFORM-3D the most likely application is to model deformable floor diaphragms. In this application the membrane behavior of the element accounts for in-plane effects in the diaphragm, and the plate bending behavior can be used for applying and distributing gravity loads. A floor diaphragm can be modeled using wall elements, but this requires four steps to define the element properties, namely material, cross section, wall compound component, and element. For a slab/shell element this is reduced to three steps, namely material, cross section, and element. This element is a special case of the inelastic slab/shell element that is available in PERFORM-COLLAPSE. That element is intended primarily for modeling two-way slab floors. It has two cross section options, namely elastic (as in the PERFORM-3D element) and reinforced concrete (using a layered model similar to a fiber model for a beam section). The reinforced concrete version of this element is not currently available in PERFORM3D.
You must assign local axis orientations to slab/shell elements. Axis 1 is normal to the plane of the element, and Axes 2 and 3 are in the element plane, similar to a wall element.
Support spring elements can have translational and/or rotational stiffnesses, with up to a 6x6 stiffness matrix. Strength capacities and strength based limit states can be specified. You must assign local axes to support spring elements. These axes can be inclined to the H1-H2-V axes if desired. Support spring elements can be used to impose displacements at support points. This is done by making the elements very stiff and specifying that they have initial deformations (similar to thermal expansions).
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Chapter 6. Elements
Only the beam type rotation gage requires local axes. These are the same as for a beam element.
6.2
Specifying Elements
6-8
Chapter 6. Elements Before you begin specifying a structure, spend some time planning the element groups. If you need to, you can combine or split element groups after they have been created.
6.2.2 Steps
To specify elements press the toolbar button for the Modeling phase and the Elements task. The overall steps are as follows. (1) Create an element group. Each group is identified by a name. (2) Add elements to the group. (3) Assign orientations and properties to the elements. You can edit an existing element group at any time, to add elements, delete elements or change element properties. You can also delete entire groups.
Chapter 6. Elements you believe that the calculated value will underestimate the energy dissipation, specify a factor larger than 1.0. If you want to ignore K damping for an element group, specify a factor of 0.
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Chapter 6. Elements Selected elements will change color. If you select an element a second time, it is deselected. Use the Test, Clear, OK and Undo buttons in the usual way.
6.3
Element Orientations
To assign local axis orientations to elements choose the Orientations tab. There are diagrams to illustrate how Axes 1, 2 and 3 are defined. The steps are as follows. (1) Choose the element group from the Current Group list. Elements in the current group are light blue. Elements that already have orientations assigned have axis symbols (see below for explanation of these symbols). (2) Select one or more elements. You can select elements in the following ways. Selected elements are red. (a) Select singly or using a box select. (b) Double click on an element. This selects all elements that have the same orientation data. (c) Double click in blank space. This selects all elements that do not yet have assigned orientations. If all of the selected elements have the same orientation data, the data in the Orientations tab will be set. You can use this feature to review the orientation of an element. If the selected elements have no orientations, or if they have different orientations, the data in the Orientations tab is not set. (3) Choose the orientation type, and input any needed data. (4) Press Test to show the new orientations, then either OK or Undo. Diagrams in the form illustrate the elements axes (Axes 1, 2 and 3) and explain how the orientations are assigned. For panel zone elements you have two options for assigning the orientations, namely "Standard" and "Nonstandard". If you choose the Standard option, the orientation of a panel zone element depends on the
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Chapter 6. Elements orientation of the adjacent column elements. This applies only to cases where the columns are I sections, and only if there is no ambiguity. If you choose the Nonstandard option you must input the orientation data directly. If you assign "auto" panel zone components to any elements, you must use the Standard option for those elements. The plotted orientation symbols have the following meanings. (1) For a frame type element the symbol is plotted near the element End I. Axis 1 is along the element from End I to End J. The orientation symbol is a pair of lines along Axes 2 and 3, with a dot on the positive Axis 2 side. (2) For a panel zone element Axis 1 is normal to the element, and has a dot at its end. Axes 2 and 3 are in the plane of the element. Axis 2 has a dot at its end. (3) For a shear wall or general wall element the symbol is plotted at Node I. Axis 1 is normal to the element, and has a dot at its end. Axes 2 and 3 are in the plane of the element. Axis 2 has a dot at its end. (4) For a seismic isolator element, Axis 3 is the bearing direction and Axes 1 and 2 are the shear directions. The 1-2 plane is shown as a rectangle. The axes have dots at their ends. (5) For a support spring element, Axes 1 and 2 are usually the structure H1 and H2 axes, and Axis 3 is usually the V axis. However, the axes can be rotated if desired. The 1-2 plane is shown as a rectangle. The axes have dots at their ends. (6) For a beam-type rotation gage element, the axes are the same as for a frame type element.
6.4
Element Properties
To assign properties to elements choose the Properties tab. You must have specified the properties for all needed components. The steps are as follows. (1) Select one or more elements. You can select elements in the following ways. Selected elements are red. (a) Select element singly or using a box select. The properties that are currently assigned to the selected elements, if any, will be
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Chapter 6. Elements shown in the Component Currently Assigned part of the form. (b) Double-click on an element. This selects that element plus all other elements in the group that have the same properties. The currently assigned properties will be shown in the Component Currently Assigned part of the form. (c) Double click in blank space. This selects all elements in the group that do not yet have assigned properties. (2) If you want to assign a component to the selected elements, or change the currently assigned component, press the Assign Component button. The properties that you can assign will be shown in the Component to be Assigned part of the form. Select the component, then press Assign. The Properties tab has a Show Properties button. If you press this button, you can review the properties of the current component. You can not change the properties in this mode. To change the properties you must use the Component Properties task.
6.5
6.6
6.6.1 General
P-, P- and large displacement effects can cause nonlinear behavior of elements and hence of complete structures. This is usually referred to PERFORM-3D User Guide 6-13
Chapter 6. Elements as "geometric" nonlinearity. PERFORM-3D gives you options to include or ignore geometric nonlinearity. This section reviews the different types of geometric nonlinearity, and summarizes the PERFORM-3D options.
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Chapter 6. Elements
P H Top moves horizontally h h H Top moves horizontally h P P H Top moves in an arc
(b) P-
Figure 6.1 Geometric Nonlinearity Assume for this example that the axial extension of the bar is negligible (EA is very large). The three parts of the figure are as follows. (a) Small displacements theory. This theory says (i) that the top of the bar moves horizontally (this is small displacements geometry, which also predicts that the bar extension is zero), and (ii) that equilibrium can be considered in the undeformed position. Hence, the force H is zero for all values of (take moments about the base of the bar). (b) P- theory. This theory says (i) that the bar moves horizontally and the bar extension is zero (small displacements geometry), and (ii) that equilibrium is considered in the deformed position. Hence H = P/h. (c) Large displacements theory. This theory says (i) that the top of the bar moves in an arc, so that it moves vertically as well as horizontally, and the bar extension is indeed zero, and (ii) that equilibrium is considered in the deformed position. Hence H=P/hcos. The difference between the value of H from P- theory and from large displacements theory is small up to quite large rotations. For example for /h = 0.05 (a large drift for most structures), P- theory gives H = PERFORM-3D User Guide 6-15
Chapter 6. Elements 0.05V and large displacements theory gives H = 0.05006V, which is a negligible difference. Also, for /h = 0.05 the vertical displacement in case (c) is 0.00125h. P- theory predicts zero, which is not a significant error in most cases. Hence, for most structures it is accurate enough to use P- theory. Consider, however, the simple bar structure in Figure 6.2.
L V L
Figure 6.2 Case Where P- Theory Is Not Accurate For this structure, small displacements theory says that the structure has zero stiffness, since the theory predicts no extension of the bars as the deflection increases, and hence no axial force. Hence, force V is zero for all deflections. If the initial force in the bars is zero, P- theory also says that the force V must be zero, since the theory again predicts no extension of the bars. Large displacements theory, however, predicts that the bars extend, and that there is a progressively increasing V force as the deflection increases. If the initial force in the bars is P in tension, P- theory says that this force stays constant, and that there is a linear relationship V = 2P/L between vertical force and vertical displacement (apply equilibrium as in the preceding example). The stiffness 2P/L is the "geometric" or "initial stress" stiffness of the two bars. Large displacements theory correctly predicts a progressively increasing stiffness, with an initial stiffness equal to 2P/L. In most building structures subjected to earthquake-type loads, the behavior is more closely analogous to Figure 6.1 than to Figure 6.2. P theory works well in this case, and has the advantage that it is both simpler to apply than large displacements theory, and requires less computation. 6-16 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 6. Elements
6.6.3 P- Effect
Figure 6.3(a) shows a cantilever column with vertical and horizontal loads.
P H P part h Small displs part Hh (a) Column P P part
Figure 6.3 P- and P- Effects If the column remains elastic, it deforms as shown. Hence, considering equilibrium in the deformed position, the bending moment diagram is as shown in Figure 6.3(b) (not exactly, if we consider true large displacements, but to a high degree of accuracy). The bending moment diagram has three parts, as follows. (1) A small displacements part, with a moment Hh at the base. This is the moment from small displacements theory. (2) A P- part, with a moment P at the base. This depends on the lateral displacement at the top of the column, (3) A P- part. This depends on the bending of the column within its length. Computationally, it is easy to account for the P- part of the moment, since it depends on only the overall rotation of the column. It is more difficult to account for the P- part, since it depends on the bending PERFORM-3D User Guide 6-17
Chapter 6. Elements deformation of the column (which in turn depends on the moments and on whether the column yields or remains elastic). It is possible to account for the P- effect in structural analyses. However, it is important to be careful when considering this effect. In Figure 6.3, the column is elastic. Figure 6.4 shows the same column, but now it yields and forms a plastic hinge at the base.
P H P part
Figure 6.4 P- Effect When Column Yields As the figure shows, for a given the P- moments are the same as before, but the P- moments are now much smaller. The P- theory must account for this. If the P- moments are calculated based on the elastic deformation of a column, these moments can be substantially in error. Figure 6.4 also shows why P- effects reduce the strength of a column. Let the moment capacity at the plastic hinge be M. This is a constant quantity it is not affected by P- effects. If we use small displacements theory, the plastic hinge forms when M= Hh, and the predicted horizontal strength of the column is H = M/h. If we consider P- effects, the hinge forms when M= Hh + P, and the predicted strength is H = (M P)/h.
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Chapter 6. Elements
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Chapter 6. Elements You can convert P- effects to P- effects by adding nodes within a member length. Adding nodes also converts "bending" effects to "bar" effects.
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7 Load Patterns
Load definition involves two steps. In the Modeling phase you set up load patterns. In the Analysis phase you set up load cases, by combining load patterns and adding other data. This chapter describes how to set up load patterns.
7.1
7-1
7.2
7.3
7-2
Chapter 7. Load Patterns elements. As you select elements for the current subgroup they will change to green. To deselect an element, select it a second time. You can use single element or "box" selects. (b) When the subgroup is complete, press Done. This completes the subgroup. You can now either define another subgroup, by repeating Steps (a) and (b), or you can specify element loads and return to add more subgroups later. If you are ready to specify element loads, go to Step (3). If you wish you can change any subgroup, by adding or deleting elements, as noted later. (3) Add element loads. To do this choose the Add Loads tab. Define the loads as follows. (a) Choose the subgroup number from the list. The elements in the subgroup will be shown green. The "No. of elems" box shows the number of elements in the subgroup, and the "No. of loads" box shows the number of load components currently defined for this subgroup. If there are any loads they will be plotted in a floating window. If this window obscures the model, drag it out of the way (click and hold inside the window, drag, then release). (b) Choose the load type from the list. A diagram in the form will show the required data. (c) Enter the required data, and use the Test, Cancel, OK and Undo buttons in the usual way. Repeat Steps (a), (b) and (c) for as many load components as you want to apply. You can change subgroups by choosing the subgroup number from the list. You can define new subgroups by returning to the Loaded Elems tab. Repeat Steps (1), (2) and (3) for as many element groups as you want to include in the load pattern. To review, add, change or delete a subgroup, choose the Loaded Elem tab and the View/Edit existing subgroups option, and follow the instructions.
7-3
Chapter 7. Load Patterns To delete load components, choose the Delete Loads tab, and follow the instructions.
7.4
7-4
8.1
Drifts
8-1
Outer columns have relatively small axial deformations. Shear deformations in outer bays are larger than story average.
Chapter 8. Drifts and Deflections structure height. You will usually (and you usually should) define other drifts, possibly one for each story, to use in drift limit states and to serve as "controlled" drifts for static push-over analysis.
8.2
Deflections
To define one or more deflections press the toolbar buttons for the Modeling phase and the Drifts and Deflections task, then choose the Deflections tab. A deflection is the downwards V displacement of one node (the deflected node) relative to a second node (the reference node). The reference node is not necessarily at a support. Deflections have the units of length. Deflections are identified by name, with a maximum of 20 characters. To define a new deflection press the New button and enter the deflection name. Then select the nodes, and press OK to save the deflection. Once you have defined a deflection you can not change it. You must delete it and replace it with a new one.
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9 Structure Sections
A Structure Section is a cut through all or part of a structure. Structure Sections have a number of uses. The forces on structure sections can be useful for checking the behavior of a structure. For example, if a structure has more than one lateral load resisting system, you may want to know how the total load is distributed among them. You can do this by specifying sections through parts of the structure and comparing the forces on these sections. In tall shear wall structures it is common to allow inelastic behavior in bending, but to require that the wall remain essentially elastic in shear. The shear strength in a wall can be checked either (a) in individual wall elements, or (b) for a wall cross section that extends over several elements. Because there can be stress concentrations, it may be better to check the strength for the wall section as a whole, rather than for individual elements. You can do this by defining structure sections through walls and assigning shear strengths to these sections. You can plot diagrams of bending moment and shear force over the height of a tall shear wall, by cutting sections at different levels over the height and using the forces on these sections. This Chapter explains the procedures.
9.1
Concept
A structure section is defined by cutting through a number of elements. You can cut elements only at their ends. To define a structure section you must specify the cut elements and the cut location for each element (whether at the I or J end for a 2-node element, and whether at the IJ, KL, IK or JL edge for a 4-node element). Figure 9.1(a) shows two alternative sections through a story of a frame. For Section A the element cut ends (shown by rectangles) are at the top
9-1
Chapter 9. Structure Sections of the story, whereas for Section B the element cut ends are at the bottom of the story.
50
50 Section A 50 Section B
50 Section A
50
Section B
Structure sections are usually plane, but this is not essential, and PERFORM-3D does not check. Sections will most often be horizontal, and you will usually be interested in the horizontal (shear) forces. For the loads shown in Figure 9.1, the H force on section A is minus 100 units, and the H force on Section B is plus 100 units. The V force is zero for both sections.
9.2
9-3
9.3
Figure 9.2 Plan of a Shear Core Suppose it is required that the wall remain essentially elastic in shear. The wall has four sides, usually with a number of wall elements along each side. You may want to check the shear strength for each side separately. To do this the steps are as follows. (1) Calculate the shear strength of the wall, considering contributions from the concrete and the steel reinforcement in the usual way. The strength can be the strength of the entire wall, the strength per unit length of the wall, or the strength per unit area. There will probably be several different strengths, as the reinforcement percentage varies over the height of the wall. (2) Using the Component Properties task and the Materials tab, define one Elastic Shear Material for Walls material for each different strength. You will use these materials to define the properties of the Shear Wall Compound Components as well as the structure section strengths. If you wish you can specify that the shear strength depends on the axial stress.
If you have calculated the shear strength as the strength per unit area, the material strength is in terms of stress. The wall strength in this case is the material strength multiplied by the effective wall area, where the area is specified in Step (4). If you have calculated the shear strength as the strength per unit length of wall, the wall area in Step (4) is the effective wall length. If you have calculated the shear strength as the strength of the entire wall, the wall area in Step (4) is 1.0.
9-4
(4) Using the Structure Sections task and the Strengths tab, specify a shear strength for each section at which you want to check the strength. Do this by choosing the section and associating it with an Elastic Shear Material. You must also specify the section area. As noted in Step (2) this may be the actual area, the length of shear wall in the section, or a unit value. The section shear strength is the material strength multiplied by the section area. Be careful to use consistent units.
This completes the structure section definition and the strength specification. The next section explains how to set up shear strength limit states.
9.4
9-5
9.5
9.5.1 Procedure
It can be useful to plot bending moment and shear force diagrams for shear walls. Diagrams showing the variation of shear strength D/C ratio over the height of a shear wall can also be useful, because the usage ratio for a shear strength limit state gives the D/C ratio for only the worst structure section covered by the limit state. If you plot D/C variations over the height of a wall you can see which sections are most highly stressed. The procedure is as follows. (1) Use the Moment and Shear Diagrams task (see Chapter 27) and the Section Group tab. (2) Choose the result type and whether to plot envelopes only or time histories. Press Plot to begin the plot. Time histories can be animated. To get a sensible plot, the structure section group must be a sensible group, such as a series of horizontal sections over the height of a wall. The group should not contain multiple sections at any level, otherwise the plot will be strange. This feature is most likely to be used for horizontal sections in shear walls, but it can be used for other purposes. For example, you can cut horizontal sections through a frame structure and plot story shear and overturning moment envelopes and time histories. You can also cut vertical sections through long span structures such as bridges. Currently the moment and shear diagrams are plotted on a horizontal axis, even for a group of sections along a vertical line.
Chapter 9. Structure Sections the toolbar will be activated. To save the D/C ratios, press this button and follow the instructions. Currently you can save the results only for envelope values and only for D/C ratios. The most likely application is when you have run analyses for a number of earthquakes and you want to get the maximum or average D/C ratio for each section. You can save a text file for each analysis (and possibly a number of structure section groups), then process the results using a spreadsheet program.
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10-2
Chapter 10. Limit States and Usage Ratios As before, if you choose a component type and none of the elements in the group has a component of this type, the condition does not apply to any elements. Again, PERFORM-3D does not check this. Deformation type. Select this from the Deformation Type list. A component typically has only one deformation, but this deformation can be positive or negative. Usually you will choose to consider the deformation regardless of its sign. However, you can choose to consider only positive deformations or only negative deformations. For some components you will have more choices. Performance level. Select this from the Performance Level list. The list is always 1 through 5, even if you have defined component capacities at fewer than 5 levels. If you choose, say, Level 4 and none of the components has capacities for that level, the condition will not apply to any elements. PERFORM-3D does not check this. (The reason is that you can edit the component properties at any time, and PERFORM-3D would have to check for consistency each time you make a change. Also, you might want to define a limit state before you specify the component properties.) Limit on the demand-capacity ratio. Input this value in the box. Usually this value will be 1.0 (i.e., the usage ratio is 1.0 when the demand equals the capacity for the chosen performance level). You may, however, specify some other value. For example, suppose that when you defined the component properties you specified a deformation capacity of 0.01. You then decide that for this limit state it is justified to increase this capacity by 20%, to 0.012. You can do this by specifying a limit of 1.2 on the demand-capacity ratio for this condition. At any step in a structural analysis the demand-capacity ratio for a component is the calculated demand divided by the capacity at the specified performance level. The usage ratio for a limit state condition is the demand-capacity ratio for the "worst" component, divided by the limit on the demand-capacity ratio (e.g., divided by 1.2 in the above example). The usage ratio for the limit state as a whole is the largest usage ratio for the "worst" condition. PERFORM-3D User Guide 10-3
To add a condition to a limit state, specify the above properties for the condition, then press the Add button. You can also Insert, Replace and Delete conditions from a limit state. When you have specified all conditions, press the Save button to save the limit state. You can return to this task to edit an existing limit state at any time. Be sure to keep an eye on the Status box, and to press Save to save any changes.
Specify the positive and negative limits, and select the All drifts or Highlighted drifts only option. For the highlighted option, click the drifts that you want to include. Then press the Save button.
Chapter 10. Limit States and Usage Ratios states with different types and performance levels, and hence a large number of usage ratios. In the Analysis phase you can organize the limit states into related groups, to decrease the number of usage ratios and simplify the decision making process. Often you will organize by performance level. For example, if you have limit states for the Immediate Occupancy, Life Safety and Collapse Prevention levels you might place all IO states in one group, all LS states in a second group, and all CP states in a third group. For any load case you can then quickly determine when the IO performance level is exceeded, by considering only the IO group. The usage ratio for the group is the largest usage ratio for any limit state in the group. The results have thus been reduced to a single usage ratio that indicates whether the structure satisfies all of the IO design criteria. You might also set up a limit state group containing all IO limit states that affect beam elements, and another group containing all IO limit states that affect column elements. You can then quickly see whether the beams or columns are more critical for the IO limit state. Limit state groups are identified by name. To start a new group, press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Limit State Groups task, press the New button, and input the group name. Then choose the limit states for the group using the type and name lists and the Add, Insert, Delete and Clear buttons. When you have chosen the limit states, press the Save button to save the group. You can edit an existing group at any time. When you do this, keep an eye on the Status box. You can also delete an existing group. If you change a limit state, this is a change in the analysis model, and you must re-run the analyses. If you add, delete or change a limit state group, you do not have to re-run the analyses.
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11 Inactive Elements
PERFORM-3D allows you to specify that some elements are inactive for gravity load. This chapter explains the procedure.
11.2 Procedure
The only element types that you can make inactive are Simple Bar, Brace, Infill Panel and BRB elements. To specify inactive elements press the toolbar buttons for the Modeling phase and the Inactive Elements task, then follow the instructions. Be careful to ensure that the structure without the inactive elements is stable, otherwise the gravity load may cause collapse.
11-1
12-1
12.2 Procedure
12.2.1 Steps
To start a new gravity load case press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Load Cases task. In the Load Cases form choose Gravity as the Load Case Type, press the New button, and enter the load case name. Keep an eye on the Status box. The steps are as follows. Choose the option (linear or nonlinear) for the analysis method. (1) If you have chosen nonlinear analysis complete the Control Information for Nonlinear Analysis. You must specify the following. For more details on each of these items see later in this section. (a) Number of equal load steps. See Section 12.2.2. (b) Maximum number of nonlinear events allowed in any step. See Section 12.2.3. (c) Whether to use equal steps throughout, or to have an initial step to the first event then equal steps after that. See Section 12.2.4. (2) Specify the load patterns and scale factors. Use the Add, Insert, Replace and Delete buttons in the usual way to build up a load pattern list. (3) When the load case is complete press the Save button to save it. Use the Delete button if you want to delete a load case before saving it. You can edit a saved load case at any time. If you do, keep an eye on the Status box. Use the Save, Save As and UnChange buttons in the usual way. You can also delete saved load cases.
Chapter 12. Gravity Load Cases the structure collapses, a reasonable number of load steps is about 50. The analysis results are saved at the end of each step. For plotting analysis results, 50 steps gives a reasonable number of points along a graph for a collapse load analysis.
Chapter 12. Gravity Load Cases until collapse, rather than have several linear steps before first yield. Usually, therefore, you can choose the Yes option. There may, however, be cases where it is better to use equal steps throughout. For example if there are large P- effects there can be substantial nonlinear behavior before first yield is reached. Since the analysis assumes linear behavior in the initial step, if you choose the Yes option the calculated behavior at first yield can be incorrect. In most practical cases the P- effect at first yield is small. Nevertheless, for analyses that include P- effects you may prefer to choose the No option to be safe. If you switch from one option to the other, note that the load step size will change. For example, if the load at first yield is, say, 40% of the total gravity load (i.e., if the load factor at first yield is 0.4), and if you specify 50 steps with the Yes option, the first 40% of the load is applied in one step, and the last 60% is applied in 50 equal steps. If you choose the No option with the same 50 steps, it takes 20 steps to reach first yield, with only 30 steps for the last 60% of the load.
Chapter 12. Gravity Load Cases applied too much load. Hence, if a gravity load analysis stops because the analysis limit state is reached, this is regarded as an abnormal exit. The load case can not be used as the preceding load case for subsequent push-over or dynamic earthquake cases. You can still process the analysis results, provided at least one load step has been completed.
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Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases and only the magnitude varies. Hence, the distribution of story shears stays constant. To account for different story shear distributions it is necessary to consider a number of different push-over load distributions. One option in FEMA 356 is to use uniform and triangular distributions over the building height. Note that a uniform distribution usually corresponds to a uniform acceleration over the building height, so that the load at any floor level is proportional to the mass at the floor. Similarly, a triangular distribution usually corresponds to a linearly increasing acceleration over the building height. PERFORM has the following options for push-over loads. (1) Load distributions based on nodal load patterns. (2) Load distributions based on masses and a specified displacement (acceleration) variation over the structure height. Examples are linear and triangular variations. (3) Load distribution based on masses and the mode shapes of the structure. For more details on this option see the next section.
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Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases (3) Mode 1 - Mode 2. Use force distributions based on modes 1 and 2, with the mode 1 and 2 base shears in opposite directions. This tends to give smaller story shears in the lower stories than for mode 1 alone, and larger shears in the upper stories. PERFORM-3D allows you to specify load distributions of this type. The procedure is described later in this chapter.
13.2 Procedure
13.2.1 Steps
To start a new push-over load case press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Load Cases task. In the Load Cases form choose Static Push-Over as the Load Case Type, press the New button, and enter the load case name. Keep an eye on the Status box. The steps are as follows. (1) Choose the option for the analysis method. In the current version this must be Nonlinear Analysis. (2) Complete the Control Information for Nonlinear Analysis. You must specify the following. For more details on each of these items see later in this section. (a) Number of load steps. See Section 13.2.3. (b) Maximum number of nonlinear events allowed in any step. See Section 13.2.4. (c) Whether to use equal steps throughout, or to have an initial step to the first event then equal steps after that. See Section 13.2.5. (d) The maximum allowable drift. See Section 13.2.3. PERFORM-3D User Guide 13-3
Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases (e) A limit state to stop the analysis. See Section 13.2.6. (f) The reference drift. See Section 13.2.2. (3) Choose the Load Type option (based on nodal load patterns, mode shapes or a displacement pattern). (4a) If the load type is based on nodal load patterns, specify the load patterns and scale factors. To push the structure in, say, the +H1 direction specify scale factors that give +H1 loads. To push in the H1 direction specify scale factors to give H1 loads. For pushover along an inclined direction, specify load patterns and scale factors to give forces in the required direction. Use the Add, Insert, Replace and Delete buttons in the usual way to build up a load pattern list. Only horizontal loads are allowed for push-over loads, and hence you can use only load patterns that have no vertical loads. (4b) If the load case type is based on a displacement pattern, specify the displacement pattern over the structure height. For a displacement pattern choose the base and roof levels of the structure, and from zero to 4 intermediate levels, for a total of up to 6 levels. Specify the V coordinate and the H1 and H2 displacements at each level. For a uniform pattern specify the same H displacements at the base and roof levels. For a linear pattern, specify zero H displacement at the base and unit H displacement (or some other non-zero value) at the roof. The V coordinates must be in the structure coordinate system and the structure length unit. The H displacements are relative values only, and do not have units. For each mass in the structure, the H1 and H2 loads are proportional to the mass multiplied by its H1 and H2 displacements. (4c) If the load case type is based on mode shapes, specify the pushover direction, the modes to be used, a scale factor for each mode, and a base shear direction for each mode. For an explanation see Section 13.3. Use the Add, Insert, Replace and Delete buttons in the usual way to build up a modal load list. Only horizontal translational masses are considered for push-over loads. Vertical translational masses are ignored, and rotational masses do not affect push-over loads. (5) Choose the controlled drifts. For an explanation see Section 13.2.3. The default is to use all drifts as controlled drifts. To over-ride this 13-4 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases default choose the Controlled Drifts tab and choose the controlled drifts. As a general rule you should use the default. It is not a good idea to run an analysis with only a single controlled drift, especially if there is strength loss. (6) When the load case is complete press the Save button to save it. Use the Delete button if you want to delete a load case before saving it. You can edit a saved load case at any time. If you do, keep an eye on the Status box. Use the Save, Save As and UnChange buttons in the usual way. You can also delete saved load cases.
This procedure prevents large increases in any drift in a time step, which could cause inaccuracies or other problems. This is why it is advisable to include all drifts in the set of controlled drifts. If you control the analysis using only the roof drift (i.e., if you choose only one controlled drift), and if the structure has a weak story, it is possible for the (uncontrolled) drift in the weak story to increase rapidly even though the(controlled) roof drift increases slowly (or decreases). This can cause inaccuracies in the solution process. If you choose only one controlled drift, and if this is the same as the reference drift, then the reference drift will have equal increments in each analysis step. However, if you choose a number of controlled drifts the reference drift generally will not increase in equal increments. This is not a problem in fact it is often desirable. For example, if the reference drift is the roof drift, and if the structure has a weak story, you do not want the reference drift to have uniform increments. The reference drift should increase more slowly as the weak story yields, and may even decrease in some steps if the weak story loses strength and load is redistributed through the structure. The reference drift at the end of the analysis may be smaller than the maximum allowable drift, and the actual number of analysis steps may be larger than the specified number. This is because the reference drift is not necessarily the largest drift, and because the controlling drift is not necessarily the same drift in all analysis steps. As a general rule, we suggest that you use the roof drift as the reference drift, that you use a number of controlled drifts, and that you specify about 50 load steps with a maximum drift that is rather larger than the maximum that you actually want to consider.
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Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases If there is a very large number of events in any analysis step, this could indicate that the analysis has become numerically unstable and that PERFORM-3D can not find a solution (experience suggests that this is unlikely, but it could happen). In this case you would like the analysis to stop, otherwise it might waste a lot of computer time. On the other hand, if you have a large structure with a lot of nonlinear components you could have a large number of real events in a step. In this case you do not want the analysis to stop prematurely. For a moderately large structure a reasonable maximum for the number of events in any analysis step is about 1000. It is unlikely that there will be that many real events in any analysis step, so it is unlikely that the analysis will stop prematurely, and if the analysis becomes unstable you will not waste a lot of computer time before the analysis stops. If a push-over analysis stops because it reaches the maximum number of events in any load step, this is an abnormal exit. However, the results up to this point will usually be OK.
Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases for any inelastic component exceeds its X point deformation. This is based on the assumption that the analysis is no longer meaningful if any element is deformed past its maximum allowable deformation. As a general rule, this is the best choice for the analysis limit state.
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Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases (6) Specify the mode number for the "first" mode in the push-over direction (= 2) and the scale factor for this mode from Step (4). Choose "+D" for the base shear direction. Since the structure in this example is symmetrical, the results will be the same for +D and D push-over. (7) Specify the mode number for the "second" mode in the push-over direction (= 5) and the scale factor for this mode from Step (4). If you want the base shears for modes 1 and 2 to be in the same direction choose "+D" for the direction, else choose "-D". (8) If you wish, repeat Step(7) for the "third" mode. This defines the load distribution and direction for this load case. You may ask why it is necessary to specify the angle to the push-over direction. For the symmetrical structure in this example, PERFORM3D could figure out the direction, since both mode 1 and mode 2 have base shears only along H2. Also, since the structure is symmetrical it is necessary to consider push-over only in the +H2 direction. In general, however, it is not that simple. This is considered in the next section.
Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases the modes have base shears only in this direction, the load for each mass is the product of the following values. (1) The H2 mass. (2) The H2 displacement of the mass for unit modal amplitude. (3) The modal (mass) participation factor of the mode for ground acceleration in the H2 direction. (4) The spectral acceleration value from the response spectrum. In the general case there are loads in both the H1 and H2 directions. For each mass the H1 force is the product of the following values. (1) The H1 mass. (2) The H1displacement of the mass for unit modal amplitude. (3) The modal (or mass) participation factor of the mode for ground acceleration in the specified push-over direction. In the simple example this is zero. (4) The spectral acceleration value from the response spectrum. Similarly, for each mass the H2 force is the product of the following values. (1) The H2 mass. (2) The H2 displacement of the mass for unit modal amplitude. (3) The participation factor of the mode for ground acceleration in the push-over direction. (4) The spectral acceleration value from the response spectrum. In general there will be both H1 and H2 loads at each mass point. For equal H1 and H2 masses (which is required in PERFORM-3D), the resultant force at any mass point is along the push-over direction. Hence the resultant base shear is also along the push-over direction.
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Chapter 13. Static Push-Over Load Cases (2) Be sure that at least one of the controlled drifts is along the pushover direction. If not, the specified load will not cause any drifts and the analysis will stop. It is usually wise to have several controlled drifts, along both directions.
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14.2 Procedure
14.2.1 Steps
To start a new earthquake load case press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Load Cases task. In the Load Cases form choose Dynamic Earthquake as the Load Case Type, press the New button, and enter the load case name. Keep an eye on the Status box. The steps are as follows. (1) If you have not already set up the needed earthquake records (ground accelerograms) press the Add/Review/Delete Earthquakes button. See Chapter 15, Earthquake Records for instructions on how to set up earthquake records. (2) Complete the Control Information for Dynamic Analysis. You must specify the following. For more details on these items see later in this section. PERFORM-3D User Guide 14-1
(a) Total time. See Section 14.2.2. (b) Time step. See Section 14.2.3. (c) Maximum number of nonlinear events allowed in any step. See Section 14.2.4. (c) Interval for saving results. See Section 14.2.5. (d) A limit state to stop the analysis. See Section 14.2.6. (e) The reference drift. For processing the analysis results, PERFORM-3D uses the reference drift as an overall measure of the structure response. As a general rule you should use the drift at the roof as the reference drift. (3) Specify the angle from the structure H1 axis to the earthquake Q1 direction. This allows you to apply an earthquake in any horizontal direction. (4) Choose the Q1 Earthquake, if any, from the list of earthquake records. The peak acceleration and duration for the record will be shown in the boxes. Also specify acceleration and time scale factors. The accelerations and times in the earthquake record are multiplied by these factors. The time factor should usually be 1.0. You can plot the earthquake record before you specify the scale factors (See Chapter 15, Earthquake Records), but to plot it after scaling you must run an analysis and use the Time History task. Hence, take care with the scale factors. (5) Similarly choose the Q2 and V Earthquakes, if any. The default is none. (6) Press the Save button to save the load case. Use the Delete button if you want to delete a load case before saving it. You can edit a saved load case at any time. If you do, keep an eye on the Status box. Use the Save, Save As and UnChange buttons in the usual way. You can also delete saved load cases.
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Chapter 14. Dynamic Earthquake Load Cases is longer the record is padded with zeros. If it is shorter only a part of the record is used.
Chapter 14. Dynamic Earthquake Load Cases Increasing the time step has no effect on the total number of substeps, and hence may not have much effect on the total computation time.
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15 Earthquake Records
You can set up and store any number of earthquake records. You can then use any record to define an earthquake load case. This chapter describes how to set up earthquake records.
15.1 Organization
15.1.1 Overall Steps
The overall steps for setting up a new earthquake record are as follows. (1) Obtain a text (formatted) file containing the earthquake ground accelerations. This file can have a variety of formats, as explained later in this chapter. (2) Decide on a group and name for the earthquake record. This is explained later. (3) Convert the ground accelerations file into an earthquake record. This is explained later. You can then use the record in any earthquake load case, for the current structure or any other structure.
Note that the parent folder is PERFORM, not PERFORM-3D. This is done so that the earthquake records are available to other programs in the PERFORM series. All earthquake records are (and must be) placed in the Records folder. If they are not, PERFORM-3D will not be able to find them. Within the Records folder you can organize the earthquake records into related groups, where the records in any group are in a subfolder of the Records folder. Since you can have a large number of records, it is a good idea to organize them in groups. Each time you add a new earthquake record you must specify the group name (max. 12 characters). If you specify a new group, PERFORM-3D creates a record group folder of the same name, as a subfolder of the Records folder. For example, if you name the group "Group-A", the default location of the folder for this group is : C:\ProgramFiles\Computers and Structures\PERFORM\Records\Group-A Each time you add an earthquake record to a group you must specify a file name (max. 12 characters) and a record name (max. 40 characters). The earthquake record is stored as a file in the folder for the group, with the specified file name. For example, if you name the earthquake record "Eqke-A" and put it in Group-A, the default location of the file is : C:\ProgramFiles\Computers and Structures\PERFORM\Records\Group-A\Eqke-A When you use an earthquake record in an earthquake load case you must identify the record by its group name and record name (see the preceding chapter). You do not use the file name for this purpose. The file name is important only if you need to copy earthquake records from one computer to another. Once you have set up a record group folder and the files for a number of earthquake records in the folder, do not change the folder or file names. If you do, PERFORM-3D may not be able to find the earthquake record. 15-2 PERFORM-3D User Guide
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(10) Specify a file name and a record name for the earthquake record. Choose the record name carefully because you must use it to identify the record when you review it or use it in a load case. (11) To read the file and set up the earthquake record press the Read File button. If the file is read successfully the earthquake record will be plotted. If the record is OK press Save to save the record, else press Cancel, revise the above data, and try again. When you have set up all of the needed records, press Return to Earthquake Load Case.
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Chapter 17. Analysis Series The overall steps for setting up a dynamic force load case are as follows. (1) Define the required nodal load patterns. (2) Set up the required dynamic force records. (3) Define one or more dynamic force load cases. In any load case you can apply up to 40 load patterns, each with a corresponding force record. Hence, if you use a dynamic force load case for an earthquake analysis with multi-support excitation, you can apply up to 40 different motions.
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Chapter 16. Dynamic Force Load cases and Analyses example, if you name the group "Group-A", the default location of the folder for this group is:
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Chapter 17. Analysis Series copy these records to another computer, rather than go through the set-up procedure again. You can copy any of the following. . (1) The complete RecordsF folder. (2) The folder for any record group. (3) The file for any record.
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Chapter 16. Dynamic Force Load cases and Analyses (2) Choose the file contents type from the list (Forces Only, Time-Force pairs, or Force-Time pairs). (3) If the contents type is Forces Only, specify the time interval. (4) Specify the duration to be used for the imported record. This may be longer or shorter than the maximum duration in the file. If it is longer the imported record is padded with zeros. If it is shorter only a part of the file is read. (5) Specify the number of force values per line. (6) Specify the number of header lines to be skipped before the beginning of the force data. (7) Specify whether the values are separated by spaces or commas. (8) If the record is to be placed in an existing record group, choose the name of the group from the list. To create a new group, press the New button and specify the group name. (9) Specify a file name and a record name. Choose the record name carefully because you must use it to identify the record when you review it or use it in a load case. (10) To read the text file and set up the record press the Check button. If the file is read successfully the record will be plotted. If the record is OK press Save to save the record, else press Cancel, revise the above data, and try again. When you have set up all of the needed records, press Return to Dynamic Force Load Case. Note that you do not specify the force unit. The reason is that a dynamic force record is a series of load factors, not actual forces. When you specify a dynamic force load case you must associate each record with a nodal load pattern. The actual forces at any time in the record are the load pattern forces multiplied by the current dynamic force (load factor). The time unit is always seconds.
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16.6.1 Purpose
During an earthquake the ground displaces dynamically. The ground displacements, velocities and accelerations can all be important in determining the response of a structure. When a structure and the adjacent ground are instrumented, the accelerations are measured directly, and the velocities and displacements are usually obtained by integration. For most building structures, it is reasonable to assume that the ground motions are the same at all support points. For long structures such as bridges, however, different support points may have substantially different ground motions. This will be referred to here as multi-support excitation. Using PERFORM-3D dynamic force analysis, it is possible to run analyses for multi-support excitation. This section describes the procedure. The method is indirect, and it has some weaknesses as noted in this section. It is provided as a temporary method. A more direct method, based on dynamic imposed support displacements, may be added in a future version.
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Chapter 17. Analysis Series is carried out for these forces. This analysis assumes fixed supports, so the displacements at the support points are zero. This is not correct, since different supports can have different displacements, and hence the support points can displace relative to each other. This effect is accounted for by a second analysis in which the relative support displacements are considered. The results of the two analyses are added together. This approach can be used for linear time history analysis and also for response spectrum analysis. The time history version of this method can be extended to nonlinear time history analysis. However, it is complex. A simpler method is to impose dynamic support displacements on the structure, where the displacement time history at any support is the earthquake ground displacement record. This method is used in PERFORM-3D. In this method, ground displacements are applied in the analysis, not ground accelerations. One consequence of this is that the calculated node displacements during the analysis are absolute displacements, not displacements relative to the ground. Also, the ground accelerations follow from the ground displacements by double differentiation, which can lead to a loss of accuracy. These aspects are considered later in this section.
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Chapter 16. Dynamic Force Load cases and Analyses at the node (actually slightly less, but if K is large enough the difference is negligible). (3) For each different ground displacement record set up a Dynamic Force Record that defines the ground displacement time history. See the next section for a method to get ground displacement records. Read the records into PERFORM as described earlier in this Chapter. Each dynamic force record is actually a time history of load factors that are to be applied to a load pattern. If the forces in the load pattern cause unit displacements, a unit load factor in the dynamic force record corresponds to a unit displacement. Hence, the values in any force record are numerically equal to the ground displacements for that record. (4) Define one or more dynamic force load cases as described earlier in this Chapter. For each imposed displacement there will be a load pattern and an associated dynamic force record. If you wish you can specify a scale factor to adjust the displacement magnitude. If the load pattern causes a unit displacement, this factor will be 1.0. (5) Run analyses with the load cases.
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Chapter 17. Analysis Series the Newmark = Method). This method assumes that the acceleration is constant in each time step, equal to the average of the values at the beginning and end of the step. Hence the velocity is assumed to vary linearly in a time step. Theoretically the displacement varies quadratically, but if there are events in a step they are calculated assuming a linear displacement variation. The CAA method is the simplest integration method, and arguably the best for nonlinear analysis. Like all integration methods it is approximate. In particular, it can calculate inaccurate response for vibration modes with periods that are shorter than about 12 times the time step. For a time step of 0.02 seconds this means that the calculated response for any mode with a period shorter than about 0.25 seconds can be inaccurate. For stiff structures a time step shorter than 0.02 seconds should be used. Note, however, that earthquake acceleration records are usually discretized at 0.02 second intervals, and that when a time step shorter than 0.02 seconds is used, the accelerations are interpolated linearly. This is not strictly correct, so the discretization of the acceleration record can cause inaccuracy for short period structures.
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Figure 16.1 Displacement Gage for Converting Ground Accelerations to Ground Displacements To get the ground displacements you can analyze this structure using a dynamic earthquake load case, and plot the relative displacement of the mass. Since the mass is very large it does not move in space, so its displacement relative to the ground is minus the ground displacement. Save the displacement time history to a text file, and if necessary apply a baseline correction using a spreadsheet program. Then read the time history into PERFORM-3D as explained earlier in this Chapter. If you double integrate an acceleration record, you must choose an integration method and an integration time step. If you analyze the structure in Figure 16.1, the integration method is the CAA method in PERFORM, but you must still choose a time step. The following method is suggested. (1) Decide on the time step that you will use for the dynamic force analyses of the structure (say 0.02 seconds). The ground acceleration record will usually be at constant time intervals, often 0.02 seconds. Since structures that have multi-support excitation will tend to be larger structures with longer periods, the time step will usually be this value. As a general rule, do not use a time step that is larger than this value, since it may not capture the ground motion accurately. If you use a time step that is smaller, make it a whole number subdivision (e.g., for an acceleration record at 0.02 second intervals, use time steps such as 0.02, 0.01. 0.005, 0002 seconds.
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Chapter 17. Analysis Series (2) Use this time step to analyze the displacement gage in Figure 16.1, and output the displacements at every time step. This is the displacement record. This method is suggested because it should be the most consistent. For the case where all supports move in phase, this method should give the same ground motions on the structure whether you run (a) a dynamic force analysis with the calculated ground displacement record or (b) a dynamic earthquake analysis using the ground acceleration record.
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Chapter 16. Dynamic Force Load cases and Analyses (1) As noted in the preceding section, you can not get an overall energy balance, because the strain energy in the support springs is much larger than the other energies. (2) If you plot a time history of displacement at a support point, you will find that it closely matches the input displacement (assuming the support spring is sufficiently stiff). However, if you plot a velocity time history you may find that it is more jagged than expected, and if you plot an acceleration time history you may find that it is very jagged. The acceleration time history should, of course, match the original ground acceleration record. You may find that it does this fairly well for the first second or two of the response, but then becomes very jagged with large oscillating values. We think that this is numerical precision problem, and we are looking into improvements. We do not think that it affects the overall results. Note that node displacements, velocities and accelerations are absolute values. However, drifts are still relative.
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17 Analysis Series
When you have set up an analysis model and some load cases you are ready to run structural analyses. Before you do this you must set up one or more Analysis Series. This chapter explains the procedure.
17.1.2 Procedure
Figure 17.1 shows the form for specifying Analysis Series parameters.
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Figure 17.1 Form for Analysis Series Parameters The steps for starting a new analysis series are as follows. (1) Press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Run Analyses task. (2) Choose the Start a new analysis series option. The other options are to continue or delete an existing series, as explained later. (3) Input the series name (choose this carefully) and description. You can specify the following parameters. 17-2 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Type of load sequence (Standard or General). Whether or not P- effects are to be considered. Masses. Number of mode shapes to be calculated. Modal damping. Rayleigh (M+K) damping. Upper/lower bound ratios. Certain options for simplified analysis.
See Chapter 18, Elastic Viscous Damping for an explanation of Modal and Rayleigh damping. See the later sections in this chapter for explanations of the other parameters. After you have specified the properties for the Analysis Series, press OK to save the properties and move to the Run Analyses form. See Chapter 20, Running Analyses. You can add analyses to an existing series, or change the parameters for an existing series, using the Continue or change an existing series option. If you change the parameters for an existing series, the analyses in that series are no longer valid, and they will be deleted (you will be warned before this happens). If you make changes to the parameters and want to cancel those changes, press the Unchange button. You can delete an existing series, using the Delete an existing series option. You can delete just the analyses in any series, or you can delete the series completely.
(2) Choose an event overshoot factor. This is explained later in this chapter. For a large structure you can save computer time by specifying a value larger than the default value of 1.0. (3) Choose whether you want a Standard or General load sequence. In almost all cases you can use the Standard sequence. The General sequence is for advanced users with special needs. For an explanation of the General sequence, see Chapter 19, General Load Sequence. (4) Specify scale factors for the mass patterns. If you have not specified any mass patterns, or if you specify zero scale factors for all patterns, the analysis model has no mass. Hence, you can apply gravity and static push-over load cases but not dynamic earthquake loads. Also, you can not use the General Push-Over Plot or Target Displacement Push-Over Plot task to assess performance. In the early stages of an investigation you may have an analysis series with no mass, but in order to get useful results you will need to specify masses. For a new analysis model it is can be a good idea to specify zero mass and run only static analyses until you are sure the model is correct. (4) Specify the number of mode shapes that are to be calculated. If you use only Rayleigh damping, you will need only a few mode shapes. If you use modal damping you will usually need more shapes.
computers, experience has shown that this is not a serious problem, and that PERFORM-3D is efficient computationally even for very large structures. Nevertheless, it can be useful to use the Event Overshoot Factor to reduce the computation time. This factor works as follows. If PERFORM-3D were to consider each stiffness change exactly as it occurs, the number of events could be very large. To reduce the number of events, PERFORM-3D uses an event overshoot tolerance, so that a yield event does not occur until the calculated force exceeds the yield force by a small amount (the overshoot tolerance). If there are closely spaced stiffness changes, a number of these changes can occur within this tolerance. If this happens, these stiffness changes are treated as a single event, and the total number of events is reduced. The disadvantage of using an overshoot tolerance is that the overshoot causes an equilibrium error (unbalanced forces) that must be corrected. If there is an equilibrium error at the end of any substep, PERFORM3D corrects for it in the following substeps, by applying the unbalanced forces as extra loads. Any unbalanced forces are thus temporary, and usually have little effect on the calculated response. Equilibrium errors also lead to energy errors, where the work done by the external forces on the structure is different from the internal work (which is partly dissipated and partly stored as recoverable strain or kinetic energy). PERFORM-3D calculates an energy balance, which is shown in the ECHO file. If the difference between external and internal work is larger than a few percent, this indicates that the equilibrium errors could be significant. In PERFORM-3D the energy balance is usually very close, although the energy error may be larger if there is brittle strength loss. For elements that yield, PERFORM-3D uses a default overshoot tolerance of 1%. This means that any unbalanced forces are relatively small. It also means that there is a relatively small chance that a number of stiffness changes will occur within a single event. For structures of moderate size, it is usually a good idea to use the default tolerance. For very large structures, however, it is usually acceptable to use a larger tolerance, and hence reduce the number of events. The reason is that if an element yields and there are unbalanced forces, these forces are transferred to the other elements in the structure. In a small structure, there are relatively few elements to absorb the unbalance, so it is best to keep the unbalance as a small percentage of the strength of a single element. In a large structure, however, there are more elements to PERFORM-3D User Guide 17-5
absorb the unbalance, and this unbalance can safely be a larger percentage of the strength of a single element. A larger unbalance means a larger chance that a number of stiffness changes will occur within a single event, so the computation time can be significantly reduced. When you set up a new Analysis Series, you can choose an event overshoot factor. If you choose a factor of, say, 5, you are essentially specifying a 5% overshoot tolerance for a yielding element. For a very large structure you should be able to use a factor of 10 or even higher. You should experiment to make sure that a larger tolerance does not cause significant differences in the results, and for each analysis you should check the energy balance in the ECHO file. In a push-over analysis, if there are any unbalanced loads at the end of a load step (as distinct from a substep), PERFORM-3D iterates to eliminate this unbalance before continuing with the next load step. Hence, a load step typically consists of a number of "advancing" substeps, where the structure drift progressively increases, followed by a few "correcting" substeps, where the unbalanced forces are corrected at essentially constant drift. If you specify an event overshoot factor of 10 or larger, the correcting substeps are omitted, and any unbalanced forces are carried over to the next load step. Correcting steps are also used in nonlinear gravity load analyses. They are not used in dynamic earthquake analyses (any unbalanced loads at the end of one time step are carried over to the next time step).
17.3 Damping
17.3.1 General
See Chapter 18, "Elastic" Viscous Damping for an explanation of Modal and Rayleigh damping. For most structures we suggest (a) using modal damping, with a number of modes roughly the same as you would use for a linear modal analysis of the same structure, and (b) using a small amount of Rayleigh damping to avoid potential problems with undamped degrees of freedom. This is explained in Chapter 18, Section 18.4. 17-6 PERFORM-3D User Guide
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Figure 17.2 Form for U/L Bound Ratios When you set up a new Analysis Series, you have the option of varying the strengths and/or stiffnesses of any or all components. The default is to use nominal strength and stiffness values for all components. If you want to use larger or smaller values for any component, you must specify U/L Bound Ratios for that component. These ratios have the following meaning. (1) If the ratio = 0, use the nominal value for the corresponding strength or stiffness. (2) If the ratio = 1.0, use the upper bound value. (3) If the ratio = -1.0, use the lower bound value. 17-8 PERFORM-3D User Guide
(4) If the ratio is between 0 and 1.0, interpolate between the nominal and upper bound values. (5) If the ratio is between 0 and -1.0, interpolate between the nominal and lower bound values. In general you can specify U/L Bound Ratios for axial strength (P), bending strength (M), shear strength (V) and stiffness (K). However, most components have upper/lower bound values for only some of these quantities. For example, a FEMA Beam, Steel Type component has bounds for moment strength, shear strength and (bending) stiffness. This component has only moment strength, but shear strength is included because the rotation capacity can depend on shear force. The steps for specifying U/L Bound Ratios are as follows. (1) Choose a component group (Inelastic, Elastic, Material or Strength Section) from the Group list. (2) Choose a component type (e.g., Inelastic Bar) from the Type list. All components of that type will be listed in the table. You can reduce the length of the list by typing a text string in the Text for filter box and pressing the Filter button. Only component names that include the text string will be listed. (3) Specify U/L Bound Ratios. (4) Click individual components in the table, to highlight them. Click a second time to remove a highlight. Alternatively, check Select All to select all components in the table. (5) Press Apply. The specified ratios will be shown in the table, and the table will also be saved. You must press Apply for changes to take effect. (6) Repeat as necessary for all components that have U/L Bound Ratios. You can edit the tables at any time. If analyses have been run in an Analysis Series and you change any U/L Bound Ratios, the analyses must be deleted, since the structure has changed.
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17.5 Quick'n'Dirty
It can often be useful to run a simplified analysis, to save time or to check an analysis model. The "Quick'n'Dirty" page allows you to run simplified analyses without changing the analysis model. At present there is only one option on this page, namely ignoring strength loss. If you have components that have strength loss, it can be useful to run preliminary analyses without strength loss, to check the analysis model. We strongly recommend that you do this in all cases with strength loss, until you are sure that the model is correct. Then start a new Analysis Series where strength loss effects are included. (We also recommend that you turn off P- effects until you are sure that the model is correct.) For this option, cyclic degradation of stiffness and energy is also ignored.
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)(
(18.1)
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Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping where N = number of damped modes, Tn = mode period, n = mode damping ratio, M = mass matrix and n = mode shape. As noted later, when you use modal damping, we recommend that you add a small amount of Rayleigh damping. If you do not understand the following paragraph, dont worry. The important thing is that modal damping can cause an increase in the energy balance error. Experience indicates that this effect is minor. For solution of the equilibrium equations at each step of an analysis, the structure stiffness matrix is banded. However, the damping matrix is not banded. All terms in the damping matrix that lie within the stiffness matrix band are included in the stiffness matrix (they are left-handsided). The remaining coefficients are not included in the stiffness matrix, but are considered when the resisting force, and hence the equilibrium unbalance, is calculated at the end of the step (they are right-hand-sided). Because of this, the damping forces cause some equilibrium unbalance. This unbalance is added to any unbalances that result from nonlinear behavior. This tends to increase the energy balance error. Experience indicates that the effect is usually minor.
Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping prohibitively expensive, however, to recalculate the mode shapes (and hence, in effect, the damping matrix) at every event. Hence, when modal damping is used for a nonlinear structure, it is assumed that the damping matrix remains constant. At any instant of time the deformed shape of the structure still contains contributions from the elastic mode shapes. However, unlike the linear case, the effective periods of vibration for these shapes are not the linear periods, the shapes are generally not independent (uncoupled), and the deformed shape contains shapes other than the linear mode shapes. This has the following effects. (1) The mode shapes are still damped, but since the effective period may have changed (probably increased) while the effective damping coefficient is unchanged, the amount of damping, expressed as a proportion of critical damping, generally changes. (2) The only components of the deformed shape that are damped are those that correspond to the linear mode shapes. All other deformations are undamped. This does not invalidate a damping model based on linear mode shapes. It just indicates that a physical interpretation is difficult. This type of model is probably the best that is currently available (with the addition of a small amount of Rayleigh damping, as noted later). The next section describes the Rayleigh damping model in some depth. A later section makes suggestions for a reasonable damping model that combines modal damping with a small amount of Rayleigh damping.
(18.2)
where M is the structure mass matrix, K is the initial elastic stiffness matrix, and and are multiplying factors.
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Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping The physical meaning of M+K damping is illustrated in Figure 18.1.
M1 M1 C M2 M2 C C C C C M2 C C M2 M1 M1
The figure shows a frame with beam stiffnesses KB, column stiffnesses KC, and horizontal masses M1 and M2. The physical meaning of M damping is that viscous dampers with damping coefficients M1 and M2 connect the masses to external fixed points. The physical meaning of K damping is that internal viscous dampers with damping coefficients KB and KC act in parallel with the elements. For a truss bar element the K damper is a simple axial damper. For a frame element the concept is the same, but physically the damper is a velocity-dependent bending element.
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i =
Ti 4
(18.3)
where Ti = period of mode i and i = proportion of critical damping in this mode. It can also be shown that K damping corresponds to less damping in the lower modes and more damping in the higher modes, with the relationship:
i =
Ti
(18.4)
For linear analysis, it can also be shown that Rayleigh damping does not cause coupling between mode shapes (i.e., if a structure is deformed in a mode shape, the damping forces affect only that mode shape, and have no effects on any other mode shapes). Modal damping does the same, of course. With modal damping, however, the damping ratio can be specified independently for each mode, and is usually specified to be the same in all modes. With Rayleigh damping this is not the case. There are only two independent parameters for Rayleigh damping, namely the factors and . Hence, the damping ratio can be specified for only two modes. For the other modes the damping ratio varies with mode period as shown in Figure 18.2
Figure 18.2 Variation of Damping Ratio with Period for Linear Analysis PERFORM-3D User Guide 18-5
It is not possible to get the same damping ratio in all modes. However, by choosing appropriate values for and it is possible to have essentially constant damping over a significant range of periods, as indicated in Figure 18.2. When this type of damping is used for linear dynamic analysis, the longer period, TB , is usually the first mode period (or close to it) and the shorter period, T A , corresponds to some higher mode. For example, if and are chosen so that the damping is 5% at TB = 0.9T1 , where
T1 is the first mode period, and so that the damping is also 5% at TA = 0.25T1 , then the damping is close to 5% over a range of periods from 0.2T1 to T1 . This might cover the most important modes. Higher modes are more heavily damped.
Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping is inaccurate. There is, however, high effective damping in the short (and zero) period modes. Hence, Rayleigh damping, with T A and TB chosen as in the preceding section, is similar to modal damping, but with more damping in the higher modes shapes.
Suppose that you have a structure where the response is dominated by the first mode, and that you estimate a ductility ratio of 6. You can expect that the first mode period will increase, and will vary in the range from the elastic value to about 2.5 times that value. Hence, you might like to keep the elastic damping essentially constant over that range of periods. You can do this by specifying T A / T1 = about 1.2 and at TB / T1 = about 2.2.
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Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping The first of these two methods gives a smaller value for and a larger value for than the second method. It is not possible to say which method is better. Intuitively, the first method, with a smaller value for sounds preferable, and if you use only Rayleigh damping, we suggest that you use that method.
Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping axial viscous damping forces in the wall. It can also stiffen the wall excessively, and lead to unrealistically large amounts of viscous energy dissipation. To avoid this problem, PERFORM-3D makes a special assumption when it calculates K stiffnesses for elements that use concrete fibers. These include shear wall and general wall elements that use fiber wall cross sections, frame type elements that use fiber cross sections, and bar elements that use concrete strut components. For these elements, the stiffness, K, used for the element K stiffness is based on only 15% of the concrete material area. In other words, in components where concrete cracking can occur, the concrete is considered to be only 15% effective when the K damping stiffness is calculated. Steel fiber areas are not reduced, and hence steel fibers are assumed to be 100% effective for the K damping stiffness.
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M dampers connect to ground level and affect entire structure. (a) Standard Option
M dampers connect above isolation level and affect only isolated structure. (b) Base Isolation Option
Figure 18.3 Alternative M Damping Models PERFORM-3D allows you to choose either the "Standard" or the "Base Isolation" option. As noted earlier, experience suggest that there is little difference between these options. The following are some points on the Base Isolation option. (1) Only the H masses are connected as shown in Figure 18.3(b). If there are any V or R masses, the M dampers for these masses are connected to the ground. (2) The K damping model does not change. (3) You must have a rigid floor constraint at the level immediately above the isolators. The M dampers connect to this level. The steps for specifying this option are as follows. (1) Before you begin the analysis series you must calculate the first mode period for the non-isolated structure. In effect this is the first mode period for the structure with rigid seismic isolators. You can do this using PERFORM-3D, by changing the isolator properties to make them very stiff before yield. However, you will probably have done the calculation earlier, using a linear analysis program such as SAP or ETABS. Call this period T1R , where R indicates rigid isolators.
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Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping (2) You must also calculate the elastic first mode period for the structure with elastic isolators (i.e., with the isolators assigned their pre-yield stiffnesses). Again, you can use PERFORM-3D but you will probably have done the calculation earlier. Call this period T1E , where E indicates elastic isolators. (3) In the Run Analyses task and the Analysis Series form, choose the Rayleigh Damping and Alpha-M Options pages. (4) Choose the Base Isolation damping option, not the Standard option. (5) Choose the level immediately above the base isolators from the list of rigid floor constraints. You must already have defined the required constraint. (6) Specify the ratio T1E / T1R . This ratio will be larger than 1.0. When you specify the period ratios T A / T1 and TB / T1 , the standard option calculates the and values using the periods T1E (with elastic isolators). If you choose the base isolation option, PERFORM adjusts these values so that they are based on T1R (with a fixed base).
18.3 A Case Where Modal vs. Rayleigh Damping May Be Substantially Different : Coupled Shear Walls
There is an important case where modal and Rayleigh damping may give substantially different results. This is the case of a shear wall structure with stiff coupling panels. When K damping is used, the K damping coefficient for a coupling panel is based on the initial elastic bending and shear stiffnesses of the panel, which can be large. After the panel yields (often in shear) the ductility ratio can be large. Since the K damping coefficients remain constant, the K energy dissipation might be overestimated, and the deformations of the panel might be underestimated.
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Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping In the Energy Balance task you can examine the dissipated K energy in each element group. We suggest that you always do this. In the case of a shear wall, if the amount of energy seems to be unreasonable for the coupling panel elements, you may wish to specify a reduced Beta-K damping scale factor (possibly zero) for the corresponding element group(s). This potential problem may not be present with modal damping. When modal damping is used, in effect a viscous damper "element" is added for each mode shape. When the structure deforms, each of these elements dissipates energy based on the amount of the mode shape that is present in the total deformed shape (and on the current deformation rate for this mode). In the case of coupled walls, it is likely that none of the elastic mode shapes involves large deformations of the coupling panels relative to the rest of the wall. Hence, when the panels yield, modal damping should not contribute a lot of added dissipation. We must emphasize that this is conjecture. We have not run comparative analyses to compare the effects of the different kinds of damping for this type of structure.
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Chapter 18. "Elastic" Viscous Damping displaced shapes have some damping, but that Rayleigh damping in the lower modes is negligible.
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If you choose the General sequence, you can apply loads in any sequence. This provides you with a great deal of flexibility for performing nonlinear analyses. However, it also requires that you exercise a much greater degree of care and skill.
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Chapter 19. General Load Sequence (2) Push to minus 1% drift. This requires that you apply, say, a load case "Push minus 2%". (3) Push to zero drift. This requires that you apply "Push plus 1%" a second time. (4) The last push-over load case was "Push plus 1%". Hence, you may try to remove the push-over loads by using an Unload Push-Over load case with the unload single case option, and unloading the "Push plus 1%" case. If you do this, at Step (4) you will be adding minus the loads applied in Steps (1) and (3) (i.e., you will be unloading all "Push plus 1%" loads), but you will leave in place the loads applied in Step (2). This is probably not what you intend. Also, the structure may not be able to support these loads, and the analysis may not converge. The analysis for Unload Push-Over load cases is load controlled, not displacement controlled, and if the load is larger than the collapse load there is no solution. In the above example, in Step (4) you usually should use an Unload Push-Over load case with the "unload all" option. This will remove all previous push-over loads. For Unload Push-Over load cases we suggest that you specify 5 load steps and about 500 maximum events (there will usually be only a few unloading events, but specify a large number to be safe).
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20 Running Analyses
20.1 Steps for Running Analyses
The form for running analyses is shown in Figure 20.1.
Figure 20.1 Form for Running Analyses You can run as many analyses as you wish in a single analysis session, and you can add analyses to any analysis series at any time. The steps for adding analyses and running them are as follows. (1) Choose the load case type from the Load Case Type list. (2) Choose the load case name from the Load Case Name list. (3) Choose the number of the preceding analysis. For a Standard load sequence you will usually apply gravity load first, then add pushover or dynamic earthquake load. The Preceding Analysis list contains only the analysis numbers for preceding gravity load analyses. The analyses are numbered in the order that they are PERFORM-3D User Guide 20-1
Chapter 20. Running Analyses performed. For a General load sequence, all previous analyses are listed. For either sequence, make sure you choose the correct analysis. (4) Use the Add, Insert and Delete buttons in the usual way to build up an analysis list. (5) When you have specified the required analyses, press GO to run the analyses. Press Don't Go to return to the Analyses Series form. If you have specified masses for the current analysis series, a mode shape analysis will automatically be set up. You can run this analysis alone if you wish, without adding any other analyses to the list. During the analyses a window is displayed showing the analysis progress. For a new analysis series PERFORM-3D first sets up data for the analysis model, then calculates the mode shapes, then runs the analyses. After the analyses have been run, they are added to the list of completed analyses. This list shows the status of each analysis, in particular whether the full load was applied or the analysis terminated early. You can get additional details on the status of any analysis by highlighting it, then pressing the Details button.
Chapter 20. Running Analyses way to ensure consistency. When you make a change to the model, you will be asked if you want to delete the existing analysis series (the analysis series settings are not deleted), and if you answer "Yes", PERFORM-3D will delete them. If you add or change a Limit State, Drift, Deflection or Structure Section, this is a change in the model, since PERFORM-3D processes limit states, drifts, etc. during the analysis. If you add or change a Frame or a Limit State Group, this is not a change in the model.
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21 Mode Shapes
Mode shapes and periods can be useful for checking the behavior of the structure, and for comparing a PERFORM-3D model with a linear analysis model. You can also use mode shapes for static push-over analysis. If you do, you must be careful to choose the "correct" mode shape(s). With the Mode Analysis Results task you can plot and animate mode shapes, and get other mode shape properties. This chapter explains the procedure.
Chapter 21. Mode Shapes is a maximum. For a symmetrical structure the principal directions for the dominant modes will be along the axes of symmetry of the structure. For a purely torsional mode the base shear factor will be zero.
Chapter 21 Mode Shapes much effect on the overall behavior of the structure, but if there is inelastic P-M-M interaction, or if the structure has friction-pendulum isolators, they can cause the nonlinear analysis to be substantially less efficient, and possibly to be inaccurate. To get an accurate analysis you may have to choose a very small time step. For long span structures such as bridges, vertical inertia effects can be significant. In this case, be sure to distribute the V masses in a reasonable way, and consider the vertical vibration periods when selecting the time step for a dynamic earthquake analysis. If you specify V masses, and if you use mode shapes to define load patterns for static push-over analysis, the V masses are ignored. Static push-over loads are horizontal only.
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Chapter 22 response Spectrum Analysis press the Add/Review/Delete Spectra button. You can then add one or more new spectra, review (plot) any existing spectrum, and delete any existing spectrum. The steps to add a new spectrum are as follows. (1) Enter the name of the spectrum text file. If you have copied this file to the User folder you need to enter only the file name. Otherwise you must give the complete path to the file. The file can be on a diskette or CD if you wish. (2) Choose the acceleration unit from the list. (3) Specify the number of header lines to be skipped before the beginning of the data. (4) Specify whether the values are separated by spaces or commas. (5) If the spectrum is to be placed in an existing spectrum group, choose the name of the group from the list. To create a new group, press the New button and specify the group name. (6) Specify a file name and a spectrum name for the spectrum. Choose the spectrum name carefully because you must use it to identify the spectrum when you review it or use it in a load case. (7) Press the Check button to read the file and set up the spectrum. If the file is read successfully the spectrum will be plotted. If the spectrum is OK press Save to save the spectrum, else press Cancel, revise the above data, and try again. When you have set up all of the needed spectra, press Return to Spectrum Load Case.
(1) If you have not already set up the needed spectra, press the Add/Review/Delete Spectra button and add spectra as described in the preceding section. (2) Specify the angle from the structure H1 axis to the earthquake Q1 direction. This allows you to apply an earthquake in any horizontal direction. (3) Specify the number of modes to be used. If this is larger than the number of modes actually calculated (when the analysis is run), the smaller number will be used. (4) Choose the Q1 Spectrum, if any, from the list of spectra. Also choose the damping ratio (i.e., the particular spectrum that is to be used if there are spectra for more than one damping ratio), and specify a spectrum scale factor if desired. (5) Repeat for the Q2 and V Spectra, if any. The default is none. (6) Press the Save button to save the load case. Use the Delete button if you want to delete a load case before saving it. You can edit a saved load case at any time. If you do, keep an eye on the Status box. Use the Save, Save As and UnChange buttons in the usual way. You can also delete saved load cases.
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23 Energy Balance
The response of a structure to an earthquake can depend on the amount of energy that the structure is able to dissipate. In the analysis of elastic structures, it is usually assumed that energy is dissipated by viscous damping (which is a modeling approximation, except for structures with actual viscous dampers). In the analysis of inelastic structures, it is still usually assumed that there is viscous damping, and in addition energy is dissipated by inelastic effects (yielding, friction, etc.). With the Energy Balance task you can plot graphs that show the amount of each type of energy. This can be useful for checking the analysis. You can also determine which members in the structure contribute the most to the inelastic dissipated energy. This can be useful for assessing the performance of the structure. This chapter explains the procedure.
PERFORM-3D calculates each of these energies at each step of the analysis (with certain approximations as noted below). PERFORM-3D also calculates the external work done on the structure. For earthquake analysis this is the work done by the base shear, although it is actually calculated as the work done by the equivalent inertia forces.
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Figure 23.1 Loading and Unloading of an Inelastic Component If the component is loaded monotonically (i.e., with progressively increasing deformation and no unloading) from its unloaded point O through yield at A to State B, the work done on the component is equal to the area OABC under the force-deformation curve. At this state we do not generally know how much of this work is stored as recoverable 23-2 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 23. Energy Balance strain energy and how much is dissipated as inelastic energy. The only way we can find out how much energy can be recovered is to unload the component. Figure 23.1 shows two of many possible unloading paths, as follows. (1) Inelastic unloading along BD, with no stiffness degradation. In this case the unloading stiffness is equal to the original elastic stiffness. The strain energy is the recovered work, area BCD. The rest is inelastic dissipated work. (2) Inelastic unloading with stiffness degradation. In this case the unloading stiffness is smaller than the original elastic stiffness. The strain energy is again the recovered work, area BCE, which is larger than in Case (1). The rest is again the inelastic dissipated work, which is smaller than in Case (1). At each step of an analysis, PERFORM-3D calculates the total static work on each component, equivalent to the area OABC for State B. For an inelastic component, PERFORM-3D generally does not know how the total work is divided between strain energy and dissipated energy, since in general this can be determined only by unloading the component. PERFORM-3D thus estimates the amount of strain energy (and hence also estimates the amount of dissipated energy). This estimate assumes that the component unloads with no stiffness degradation. This means that for a component with stiffness degradation, PERFORM-3D can underestimate the strain energy, and hence overestimate the dissipated energy, at least temporarily. For example, if the component in Figure 23.1 is loaded along path OAB then unloaded to either Point D or Point E, PERFORM-3D calculates the strain energy and the dissipated inelastic energy as shown in Figure 23.2. Up to Point A the behavior is elastic, and the strain energy increases quadratically with deformation. Between Point A and Point B the total energy increases linearly. If there is no stiffness degradation the strain energy stays constant and the inelastic energy increase linearly. PERFORM-3D calculates the energies using this assumption. If there is actually no stiffness degradation, with unloading along BD, the strain energy decreases quadratically and the inelastic energy stays constant. This is correct. However, if there is stiffness degradation, with
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Chapter 23. Energy Balance unloading along BE, the change in strain energy is larger and the inelastic energy decreases.
Total energy ENERGY B D A O E Inelastic energy LOAD PATH
Figure 23.2 Energy Variation for Paths in Figure 23.1 Since inelastic dissipated energy can not decrease, the energies calculated by PERFORM-3D for the degrading case are not correct. However, note the following points. (1) The dissipated energy is correct at all points if there is no stiffness degradation. (2) For the case with degradation the dissipated energy is correct at Point E, after unloading. (3) As the deformation increases, the error in the dissipated energy gets smaller. (4) If the component is loaded cyclically, as in a dynamic earthquake analysis, the error in the dissipated energy gets smaller. (5) Usually we will be concerned not with the absolute amount of dissipated energy but with the relative amounts contributed by different components (e.g., for a frame structure, the amount of energy dissipated in the beams compared with the amount dissipated in the columns). The relative energies will tend to have smaller errors than the absolute energies. For a component with stiffness degradation it is possible to get better (but not necessarily exact) energies by calculating the degraded stiffness at each step of the analysis and using this stiffness to calculate the strain energy. However, we have chosen not to do this. For computational reasons PERFORM-3D calculates the degraded stiffness for a component only when it unloads. It is possible to calculate the 23-4 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 23. Energy Balance degraded stiffness at every step, but this requires substantial additional computation, and is not justified simply to obtain a more accurate energy estimate. In summary, the inelastic "dissipated" energy calculated by PERFORM-3D is not exact, and does not necessarily increase monotonically. However, any errors are usually small.
Chapter 23. Energy Balance chosen group. Cycle through the Element group list to show the proportion for each element group.
23.3.2 Theory
If a linear single DOF structure with viscous damping is subjected to forced sinusoidal vibration at a constant amplitude, energy is dissipated
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Chapter 23. Energy Balance in each cycle. The relationship between the dissipated energy in a complete cycle and the maximum strain energy for the cycle is :
Dissipated Energy = 4 Max. Strain Energy
(22.1)
where = damping ratio. If a linear single DOF structure is subjected to earthquake loading, the strain energy will vary with time as indicated in Figure 23.3(a). Each strain energy peak corresponds to a half cycle. If the dissipated energy is known for a whole number of half cycles, the damping ratio can be calculated as
1 2N
(22.2)
where N is the number of half cycles (strain energy peaks). For a multi-DOF nonlinear structure the strain energy variation is likely to be more complex, as indicated in Figure 23.3(b). However, a rough estimate of the effective damping ratio can be calculated as
1 2N
(22.3)
which assumes that the mean of the strain energy peaks is 2 times the mean strain energy.
Figure 23.3 Strain Energy Variation for Earthquake Loading PERFORM-3D User Guide 23-7
23.3.3 Procedure
The above theory is implemented in PERFORM-3D. Use the Energy Balance task. Choose the load case and press Plot to plot the energy balance for the structure. You can then enter data defining a range of times (from T1 to T2 seconds) and the number of strain energy peaks over that range. In the energy plot, choose a strain energy trough and note the corresponding time (move the cursor to the trough to show the time). Then count forward a number of strain energy peaks, and note the time at another trough. Enter the times and the number of peaks, and press Calculate to show approximate damping ratios over the range. Ratios are calculated for inelastic energy dissipation and for the four possible types of viscous damping, namely modal, M, K and fluid dampers.
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Chapter 24. Deflected Shape Plots (1) Draw the deflected shape only. This can be useful for studying such things as concentration of story drift. (2) Draw the deflected shape, calculate usage ratios for chosen limit states, and assign colors to the elements based on their usage ratios. This is valuable for identifying the critical elements in a structure. Be warned that it requires a lot of computation to process the results for this type of plot, and for a large structure there may be a significant delay before plotting begins. In both cases you can animate the plot if you wish.
24.2 Procedure
24.2.1 Deflected Shape Only
To start a deflected shape plot press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Deflected Shapes task. In the Plot Scale and Type page choose the Entire elements option (see later for an explanation of this). Also choose the analysis series from the Series list and the load case from the Case list. When you choose the load case a "thumbnail" view of the structure response appears. For a dynamic earthquake analysis this is a plot of reference drift vs. time. For a push-over analysis it is a plot of base shear vs. drift. For a gravity analysis it is a plot of load factor vs. load step number. To plot deflected shapes only, without usage ratio coloring, the steps are as follows. (1) Choose the method for scaling structure displacements. Specify either a displacement scale factor or the ratio of maximum displacement to maximum structure dimension. (2) Select the point in the analysis for the deflected shape. The thumbnail plot has a yellow vertical line. To position this line at a point in the plot, click that point. You can do this before or after the deflected shape is drawn. The default is the shape at the beginning of the analysis. 24-2 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 24. Deflected Shape Plots (3) Press the Plot button to draw a static deflected shape at the selected point. (4) To animate the plot use the animation buttons. You can move the plot forwards or backwards a single step at a time, jump to the beginning or end of the analysis, and animate forwards or backwards. To control the speed of the animation use the slider. On the fastest setting the animation for dynamic analyses is in real time (but only if your computer is fast enough).
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Chapter 24. Deflected Shape Plots In deflected shape plots, the elements are drawn using straight lines only. You can examine the detailed deflected shapes for individual beam, column and brace elements using the Moment and Shear Diagrams task.
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25.1.2 Procedure
For a single node history plot, press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Time History task. In the Time History form choose the Node and Single Node tabs. In the toolbar choose the analysis series from the Series list and the load case from the Case list. The steps are as follows. Choose the result type to be plotted. Choose the translation or rotation direction. Specify the displacement unit. Select the node, by clicking on it in the graphics panel. To make a new selection press the Clear button and repeat. (5) Press the Plot button. After you press the Plot button for absolute accelerations, you can enter damping ratios and other data for a set of corresponding response spectra. Press the Plot Spectrum button to plot the spectra. (1) (2) (3) (4)
Chapter 25. Time History Plots (2) Select the nodes, by clicking on individual nodes or using one or more box selects. To make a new selection press the Clear button and repeat. (3) Choose whether to save complete histories or maximum and minimum values only. (4) Press the Save button. You will be asked to input a file name and description. By default the file is saved in the User folder (see Chapter 2, Structures, Folders and Files). The file contains a description of the data followed by the results.
Chapter 25. Time History Plots (a) If the element consists of a single basic component the component type is shown in the component type list, and you can choose only this component. (b) If the element is a frame type it can have several basic components and several strength sections. These are shown in the list in their order along the element. Choose the component or strength section. If the element has, for example, two plastic hinge components, take care to choose the correct component. (c) If the element is a shear wall element it has a bending component and a shear component. Choose the component. (d) If the element is a general wall element it has two bending components and two shear components. Choose the component. (e) If the element is a viscous bar it has a viscous damper and an elastic bar component. Choose the component. (5) Choose the result type for the chosen component or strength section. The choices depend on the component type. (6) If desired specify the length and force units. (7) Press the Plot button to draw the graph. The X axis is time, reference drift or load factor, depending on the load case type. The Y axis is the result quantity.
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25.7.2 Procedure
The steps are as follows. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) In the Analysis phase choose the Time Histories task. Choose the Structure Section and Multiple Loads tabs. Choose the result type and units. Choose the Structure Section from the list. Highlight the required push-over load cases in the table. Press Plot.
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26.1 Purpose
Hysteresis loop plots are useful for checking the behavior of inelastic components (and also viscous dampers). Elastic components do not have hysteresis loops. You will usually plot hysteresis loops for dynamic earthquake load cases, where components are subjected to cyclic loading. You can also plot them for gravity and push-over load cases if you wish. Since there is usually no cyclic loading for these load cases, the hysteresis loops are usually just action-deformation plots with monotonically increasing values. PERFORM-3D uses a specific model for hysteresis loops. For an explanation of this model see the document PERFORM Components and Elements.
26.2 Procedure
To start a hysteresis loop plot press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Hysteresis Loops task. In the Hysteresis Loops form choose the analysis series from the Series list and the load case from the Case list. When you choose the load case a "thumbnail" view of the structure response appears. For a dynamic earthquake analysis this is a plot of reference drift vs. time. The steps are then as follows. (1) Choose the element group from the list. The elements in the chosen group are shown white.
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Chapter 26. Hysteresis Loop Plots (2) Select the element, by clicking on it in the graphics panel. Its color changes to red. To make a new selection click the Clear button and repeat. (3) Choose the component type. This depends on the element type, as follows. (a) If the element consists of a single basic component the component type is shown in the component type list, and you can choose only this component. (b) If the element is a frame type element it can consist of several basic components. These are shown in the list in their order along the element. Choose the component. If the element has, for example, two plastic hinge components, take care to choose the correct component. (c) If the element is a shear wall element it has a bending component and a shear component. Choose the component. (d) If the element is a general wall element it has two bending components and two shear components. Choose the component. (e) If the element is a viscous bar it has a viscous damper and an elastic bar component. Choose the component. (4) Choose the force-deformation type for the hysteresis loop. The choices depend on the component type. There are no choices for elastic components, since they do not have hysteresis loops. For a viscous damper you can plot force vs. deformation, which is the hysteresis loop, or force vs. deformation rate. This is not a hysteresis loop, but it is a useful plot. (5) If desired specify the length and force units. (6) Select the starting and ending points for the plotted loop. The thumbnail plot has a green vertical line to mark the starting point and a red line to mark the ending point. To position the green line at a point in the plot, left-click that point. To position the red line, right click. You can do this before or after the loop is plotted.
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Chapter 26. Hysteresis Loop Plots (7) Press the Plot button to draw the loops. The starting point for the selected range is marked by a solid circle, and the ending point by a solid square. (8) To expand or contract the loops, left and right click in the thumbnail plot to move the starting and ending points. For fine tuning, or to watch the loop develop, move the starting and ending points up or down one step at a time using the green and red arrow buttons.
Corners may be cut off because loop is plotted only at time step intervals. DEFORMATION
Chapter 26. Hysteresis Loop Plots this button. You can then process this file using a spreadsheet program. This can be useful if, for example, you want to plot two sets of loops on the same graph to compare them. You will be asked to input a file name and description. By default the file is saved in the User folder (see Chapter 2, Structures, Folders and Files). The file contains a description of the data followed by two columns of X-Y values.
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Chapter 27. Moment and Shear Diagrams (1) Choose the force and length units. (2) Select a point in the analysis for the diagrams. The thumbnail plot has a yellow vertical line. To position this line at a point in the plot, click that point. (3) Press the Plot button to draw the diagrams at the selected point. (4) To animate the plot use the animation buttons. You can move the plot forwards or backwards a single step at a time, jump to the beginning or end of the analysis, and animate forwards or backwards. To control the speed of the animation use the slider. Use the option buttons at the top of the plot to toggle between the element 1-2 and 1-3 planes. In these plots all elements are plotted horizontal. To change the element press Clear and select a new element.
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Chapter 27. Moment and Shear Diagrams (3) Select the point in the analysis for the deflected shape. The thumbnail plot has a yellow vertical line. To position this line at a point in the plot, click that point. (4) Press the Plot button to draw a static deflected shape at the selected point. (5) To animate the plot use the animation buttons. You can move the plot forwards or backwards a single step at a time, jump to the beginning or end of the analysis, and animate forwards or backwards. To control the speed of the animation use the slider. On the fastest setting the animation is in real time (if your computer is fast enough). Use the option buttons at the top of the plot to toggle between the element 1-2 and 1-3 planes. In the plots, elements that are inclined less than 45 degrees to the horizontal are plotted horizontal, and elements that are more steeply inclined are plotted vertical. To change the element press Clear and select a new element.
(1) Choose an element group from the list. Only frame type element groups are listed. In the graphics panel the chosen group is shown light blue. (2) In the graphics panel select a line of elements, by clicking the elements individually and/or using box selects. The selected
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Chapter 27. Moment and Shear Diagrams elements must be in a continuous line, usually either a horizontal or vertical line. The selected elements are shown red. (3) Choose the units. (4) Choose the result type. The options are (a)moment and shear envelopes and (b) moment and shear histories. (5) For the histories option, select a point in the analysis for the first plot. The thumbnail plot has a yellow vertical line. To position this line at a point in the plot, click that point. (6) Press the Plot button. (7) To animate a history plot use the animation buttons. You can move the plot forwards or backwards a single step at a time, jump to the beginning or end of the analysis, and animate forwards or backwards. To control the speed of the animation use the slider.
The moment and shear diagrams are plotted on horizontal axes, even for a vertical line of columns.
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28.1 Overview
28.1.1 Available Methods
You can choose from the following methods. (1) FEMA 440 Linearization Method. (2) FEMA 440 modification of the Coefficient Method (also known as the Displacement Modification Method). (3) FEMA 356 Coefficient Method. (4) Capacity Spectrum Method, with options for the ATC 40 procedure or a modified procedure that may be more accurate. The FEMA 356 Coefficient Method is also implemented, in a somewhat different way, but with the same results, in the Target Displacement task (see Chapter29, Target Displacement Plot).
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Figure 28.1 Main Steps for Static Push-Over However, the methods differ substantially in their details. Figures 28.2 through 28.5 illustrate the differences. Each method starts with a pushover curve that relates lateral load, H, to horizontal displacement, . In each figure, follow Steps 1, 2, 3, etc. for the computation sequence.
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Figure 28.2 Steps in FEMA 356 and FEMA 440 Coefficient Methods
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(1) The Capacity Spectrum and Linearization Methods require a response spectrum family, with spectra for a number of damping ratios. The Coefficient Method uses only one spectrum, usually for 5% damping. (2) The Coefficient and Linearization Methods use empirical formulas that are obtained by calibration against a large number of dynamic analyses. Empirical formulas are used in the Coefficient Method for the coefficients C1, C2 and C3, and in the Linearization Method for the period Teff and damping ratio eff. (3) The ATC 40 Capacity Spectrum Method can be interpreted as an extension of response spectrum analysis for a linear structure, but using the secant period and damping ratio rather than the elastic period and 5% damping. With this interpretation, this method is rational rather than empirical (although the implementation has empirical features). The Capacity Spectrum Method is also more flexible than the purely empirical methods. For example, it can be used to assess the effect of additional energy dissipation in fluid damper components (this is explained in a later section). (4) It has been shown that the ATC 40 Capacity Spectrum Method is not as accurate as the Coefficient and Linearization methods (see, for example, FEMA 440). It can be argued that this is not a fair comparison, because the Coefficient and Linearization Methods have both been calibrated against dynamic analysis, and the Capacity Spectrum Method has not. The Capacity Spectrum Method has empirical parameters, and if these parameters were calibrated against dynamic analysis, it might be as accurate as the other methods, while still retaining its rational flavor. One reason why the Capacity Spectrum Method is inaccurate may be that it uses the secant period and damping. This is equivalent to assuming that in an earthquake the structure will experience several cycles with displacements equal to the maximum displacement. It is more likely that there will be only a few cycles with amplitudes close to the maximum, with more cycles at smaller amplitudes. Intuitively, it should be more accurate to use an effective period and damping, based on a displacement that is smaller than the maximum.
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This is the main basis of the Modified Capacity Spectrum Method. In this method, the period and damping are calculated at a displacement that is smaller than the maximum. Based on limited experience, a displacement about 0.8 times the maximum appears to be reasonable. The usual effect is to increase the period and decrease the damping, and hence to increase the displacement demand compared with the ATC 40 Capacity Spectrum Method. Another cause of inaccuracy may be that the Capacity Spectrum Method explicitly relates dissipated energy to damping ratio. The equation for this relationship (see later) applies for linear analysis but may not be accurate for nonlinear analysis. The accuracy of the method might be improved if the relationship included empirically calibrated parameters. (5) This is a philosophical point, but worth noting. When dynamic analysis is used, it is common to consider several ground acceleration records, and to use the average result for performance assessment. The goal of push-over analysis is usually to calculate a displacement demand that matches this average result. This is reasonable if push-over analysis is viewed as an analysis method. However, it is not necessarily wise if push-over analysis is viewed as a design tool. Push-over analysis is approximate. Hence, when it is used as a design tool it should tend to err on the conservative side.
28-8
Figure 28.6 Push-Over Plot In FEMA 356 the displacement demand is the Target Displacement. In ATC 40 the displacement demand locates the Performance Point. As shown later, this plot can provide useful information on the sensitivity of the displacement demand to changes in the strength and stiffness of the structure. The main steps are as follows. Detailed steps are given later. (1) Choose a push-over load case and plot the Capacity Curve. This is usually a plot of base shear or base shear coefficient vs. reference drift. However, it can be a plot of spectral acceleration vs. spectral displacement. (2) Select a number of trial points on the Capacity Curve, and for each point construct a bilinear approximation. (3) Choose a push-over method. Depending on the method, choose certain options and specify certain details. (4) If you have not done so previously, define one or more new response spectra. If desired, edit existing spectra. (5) Choose a response spectrum. (6) Plot the Demand Curve. For each trial point a corresponding demand point is calculated. The line passing through the demand points is the demand curve. The point where the demand curve intersects the capacity curve gives the displacement demand (target displacement or performance point). (7) Examine the limit state usage ratios at the displacement demand to assess the performance. PERFORM-3D User Guide 28-9
Press Plot to draw the capacity curve. If limit points are plotted, they are shown as short red lines. Click on a line to show the corresponding limit state in the box near the bottom of the Capacity page. At the bottom of the Capacity page are boxes for optional Scale Factors and Plot Ranges. See later for an explanation.
capacity is equal to the applied horizontal load), the corresponding spectral acceleration capacity is given by
S a , capacity =
1 H capacity Cm (W / g )
(3.1)
where H capacity = base shear, W = structure weight, g = gravitational acceleration, and Cm = dimensionless effective mass factor for the first mode shape. This factor is the effective mass along the pushover direction divided by the total mass, given by
Cm =
({ }T [M ]{d }) 2
T
{} [M ]{ } (W / g )
(3.2)
where { } = mode shape, [M ] = mass matrix, and {d } = matrix of direction cosines for the push-over direction. If the push-over direction is along the H1 axis, matrix {d } has a unit value for each H1 mass in [M ] , and a zero value for all other masses. Similarly, if the push-over direction is along the H2 axis, matrix {d } has a unit value for each H2 mass in [M ] , and a zero value for all other masses. There are two potential inaccuracies in this equation, as follows. (1) It is accurate only if the deflected shape of the structure is proportional to the mode shape, { } . (2) It is accurate only if the push-over load distribution is proportional to [M ]{ } . As shown in Section 3.7, if the applied push-over load at a point on the push-over curve is {R} and the deflected shape is {r} , a more consistent equation is
S a , capacity =
H capacity
mr
(W / g )
(3.3)
where
28-13
Cmr =
({r} [M ]{d }) .
T
2
{r} [M ]{r} (W / g )
T
(3.4)
For the special case where the loads, {R} are proportional to [M ]{r} , Equation 3.3 reduces to
S a , capacity = 1 H capacity Cmr (W / g )
(3.5)
If the current deflected shape is proportional to the mode shape, { } , Equation 3.5 becomes Equation 3.1. Since push-over methods are approximate, Equation 3.1 can be an acceptable approximation. Equation 3.3 may seem complex. However, since {R}T {d } = H , this equation reduces to
S a ,capacity =
(3.6)
If you choose the first option for the deflected shape (first mode shape), PERFORM calculates the spectral acceleration capacity at any point on the push-over curve using Equation 3.1. If you choose the second option (current deflected shape with FEMA 356 Equation 3-16), PERFORM uses Equation 3.5. If you choose the third option (current deflected shape with more consistent equation), PERFORM uses Equation 3.6.
set up a bilinear approximation. For the FEMA 356 approximation, the areas under the bilinear and actual curves must be equal, and the initial slope of the bilinear curve must intersect the actual curve at 60% of the distance to the yield point. As you drag the bilinear curve, the area ratio is shown and there is a small circle at the 60% point. Drag until the area ratio is very close to 1.0 (a value between 0.998 and 1.002 is suggested) and the small circle lies on the actual curve. After you release the mouse button the bilinear curve properties are shown highlighted in the table. If this approximation is OK, press OK (actually, this is optional if you wish you can just start the next point). If the approximation is not OK, press Clear and repeat. To use the right-click method, move the cursor in the graph to the desired drift or displacement value (D), then simply right click. A FEMA 356 bilinear approximation will be drawn automatically (in some cases this may not work if so there will be a message). As before, the bilinear curve properties are shown highlighted in the table. If the approximation is OK, press OK, and if not press Clear. To change a point, choose its number, press Clear, and define a new point (or just choose its number and define a new point). The points do not have to be in order of increasing D. Often you will start with only 2 or 3 points to locate the displacement demand approximately, then add more points close to the displacement demand to get better accuracy.
28-15
Figure 28.7 Spectral Acceleration Demand Stiffnesses The vibration period depends on the structure stiffness. There are several stiffnesses that may be used. These stiffnesses can be related to slopes in the push-over plot, as shown in Figure 28.8.
28-16
(1) Ki = tangent to the push-over curve at the origin. If the structure remains linear under gravity load, this represents the elastic stiffness of the structure. However, if there is nonlinear behavior such as yield or cracking under gravity load, this may not be an accurate representation of the elastic stiffness. (2) Ks = secant stiffness at the trial point. (3) Ke = elastic stiffness for the bilinear approximation at the trial point. In ATC 40 this stiffness is K0. (4) Kh = strain hardening stiffness for the bilinear approximation. (5) Keff = effective stiffness, used by some push-over methods. Relationship Between Period and Stiffness For a single DOF structure, the vibration period is given by the wellknown equation
T = 2 M K
(3.7)
By analogy, if the stiffnesses at two points, A and B, on a push-over curve are KA and KB, the corresponding periods are related by
TA = TB KB KA
(3.8)
For example, in Figure 28.8 the period Ti, corresponding to the initial stiffness Ki, can be assumed to be the first mode elastic period of the structure, which is known. Hence, the period Te, corresponding to the stiffness Ke, can be calculated as
Te = Ti Ki Ke
(3.9)
Alternatively, the period Ts, corresponding to the secant stiffness Ks, can be calculated (see below). Hence, the period Te can be calculated as
Te = Ts Ks Ke
(3.10)
28-17
The Coefficient Method uses the period Te to enter the response spectrum, the ATC 40 Capacity Spectrum Method uses the period Ts, and the FEMA 440 Linearization Method and the Modified Capacity Spectrum Method use an effective period Teff. Options for Period Calculation. In the Points page there is a box with two options for the method of period calculation. The options are as follows. (1) Use the elastic mode period. In this case the period Te for each trial point is calculated using Equation 3.9. This is the method that is most commonly used. It is specified by FEMA 356, although it is not necessarily the best method. As noted above, this method can be inaccurate if there is yield or cracking under gravity load. To allow for this case, you have the option of using the initial slope of the push-over curve as the stiffness Ki, or of specifying Ki directly. If you choose this second option, you must run a separate push-over analysis for the structure with no gravity load, get Ki from the initial slope of this curve, and specify this stiffness (slope) directly. (2) Use the Rayleigh Quotient. In this case, the secant period Ts is calculated for each trial point, using the Rayleigh Quotient (see the next section).The period Te is then calculated using Equation 3.10. This method has some advantages, and is arguably more consistent theoretically. The Rayleigh Quotient is calculated as follows. Rayleigh Quotient Let the deflected shape at a trial point be {r} . Assume that the structure vibrates with this shape, at a period determined by the secant stiffness at the trial point. The maximum strain and kinetic energies are given by
SE = 0.5{r}T [K s ]{r} = 0.5{r}T {R}
(3.11a) (3.11b)
and
KE = 0.5 4 2 Te2
{r}T [M ]{r}
28-18
where [K s ] = secant stiffness matrix, {R} = applied push-over loads at the trial point, and [M ] = mass matrix. Equating these energies gives the secant period as
Ts = 2
(3.12)
This is the Rayleigh Quotient method. For a given deflected shape it gives the best estimate for the period. It has the advantage that it does not depend on the initial slope, Ki, of the push-over curve, so it does not matter if there is yield or cracking under gravity load. If you choose the Rayleigh Quotient method, by default the secant period, Ts, is calculated, and Te is obtained using Equation 3.10. You will usually use this default. However, if you wish you can specify that the Rayleigh Quotient is to be calculated at any point between the bilinear yield point and the trial point. The reasoning is that the deflected shape at a trial point corresponds to the maximum displacement of the structure, and that an effective displacement that is smaller than this maximum may be more representative. A similar argument is used for the Modified Capacity Spectrum Method (see Appendix A). If you specify an effective displacement that is smaller than the displacement at the trial point, Equations 3.12 and 3.10 are modified to use the stiffness and period at the effective displacement. It may be noted that if the displaced shape does not change as the displacements increase, it does not matter which point is chosen. Warning on Relationship Between Period and Stiffness The relationship between period, T, and stiffness, K, is accurate only if the structure is well behaved. This is the case if the deflected shape does not change substantially as the deformations increases. It may not be the case if the deflected shape changes substantially. This can be the case if there is brittle strength loss, which can cause local deformations that change the deflected shape. An example is a structure with a brittle bottom story, where the deflected shape can be roughly linear over the building height before the story fails, then can suddenly change to roughly constant over the height.
28-19
There can also be inaccuracy if the push-over curve is plotted in terms of reference drift (typically based on roof displacement) and if this drift is not closely related to the masses and the push-over loads. Figure 28.9 shows an example.
Figure 28.9 Choice of Reference Drift The structure in this figure is unsymmetrical in plan, and push-over loads applied at the center of mass might cause significant torsional deformation. If the reference drift is Drift A, on one side of the building, this drift may not provide a good representation of the behavior of the building as a whole, and periods based on this drift may not be accurate. A drift such as Drift B is likely to provide a better representation. As noted later, this effect can be a reason for plotting the push-over curve in terms of spectral acceleration and spectral displacement.
28-20
(2) For the Linearization Method choose the type of hysteresis loop that most closely approximates the H vs. loop for structure. FEMA 440 gives equations for effective stiffness and damping ratio for three different hysteresis loops, and a fourth set of equations that are not based on a specific loop. There is also an option for user specified values. (3) For the Capacity Spectrum Method, choose an option for energy degradation. To implement the Modified Capacity Spectrum Method specify an Effective Drift Factor. If the structure has fluid dampers, specify an Effectiveness Factor for the energy dissipation in these dampers. These aspects are explained in more detail in later sections. After specifying the details, return to the Demand page. The properties at the trial points are shown in the table in that page. If any userspecified values are to be entered, the corresponding cells in the table are colored beige, and you must enter values for these properties. Otherwise the properties are calculated by PERFORM. Choose the response spectrum from the list. You must have set up one or more spectra, as described earlier in this Chapter. If you wish you can specify scale factors to be applied to the spectral accelerations and periods. If the capacity curve is base shear or base shear coefficient vs. reference drift (i.e., if the curve is not spectral acceleration vs. spectral displacement), you must also choose a method for converting spectral acceleration demand (which is obtained from the response spectrum) to base shear demand. The options are as follows. (1) Use the first elastic mode shape. (2) Use the current deflected shape, and otherwise follow FEMA 356. (3) Use the current deflected shape, but instead of FEMA 356 Equation 3-16, use a more consistent equation. These are the same options as for the case where the capacity curve is spectral acceleration vs. spectral displacement, and the theory is exactly the same. The difference is that it is now necessary to convert spectral acceleration demand to base shear demand, rather than base shear capacity to spectral acceleration capacity. For each option the base shear demand at a trial point is calculated as PERFORM-3D User Guide 28-21
H demand =
S a , demand S a , capacity
H capacity
(3.13)
where S a , demand is obtained from the response spectrum, H capacity = base shear capacity at the trial point, and S a , capacity is calculated as in Section 3.3.4. Also choose the option for Lines of Constant Period This affects only the sensitivity information contained in the demand curve. It does not affect the displacement demand. The options are (a) lines of constant period are vertical and (b) lines of constant period are radial. The difference is explained in the next section.
28-22
In Figure 28.10(a) the capacity curve is changed by changing both the strength and the stiffness, in the same proportion. In this case lines of constant period are vertical. This figure shows how much the strength (and stiffness) of the structure would have to be increased to reduce the displacement demand from its calculated value to 1. The figure also shows how much the strength could be decreased if the displacement demand could be increased to 3. In Figure 28.10(b) the capacity curve is changed by changing only the strength, keeping the stiffness constant. In this case lines of constant period are radial. You can assess the sensitivity to both types of change by selecting the vertical or radial options for Lines of Constant Period. You can also explore the effects of strength and stiffness changes more directly, as explained in the next section.
28-23
To study the limit state usage ratios in more detail, make a note of the load case and the drift demand, then go to the Usage Ratio Graphs task. For the same load case, enter the drift demand as the maximum reference drift, and draw the usage ratio graph. From this graph you can see how the usage ratios vary for all limit states, up to the drift demand.
28.5 Consistency
28.5.1 General
As noted earlier in this Chapter, FEMA 356 Equation 3-16, which converts spectral acceleration to base shear, is approximate. This can affect the consistency of the results. This section considers this aspect in more detail.
(3.14)
where is the modal mass participation factor along the push-over direction, given by
=
(3.15)
FEMA 356 does not explicitly specify this equation. However, this equation is specified by ATC 40, and is implied by FEMA 440. If the displaced shape is {r} , it is arguably more consistent to use
Sd =
1 r
(3.16)
28-24
where
r =
(3.17)
It is, however, not necessarily correct to use either of these equations. The reason is that the following relationship should exist between S a and S d :
S a 4 2 = 2 Sd T
(3.18)
where T is period. For a point on a push-over curve, T is the secant period. For a point on a push-over curve, if S a is calculated using Equation 3.1, S d is calculated using Equation 3.14, and T is calculated using Equation 3.9 (based on stiffness ratios), then Equation 3.18 is generally not satisfied. The main reason is that S a and S d will be consistent only if the push-over load at each point on the push-over curve is proportional to [M ]{r} , where {r} is the deflected shape at the point. In general this condition is not satisfied. A secondary reason is that T may not be given accurately by Equation 3.9 or 3.10. As a consequence, if you do a performance evaluation using the pushover curve in terms of base shear and reference drift, then repeat the evaluation in terms of S a and S d , you may not get the same result. For example, if the displacement demand for one form of the capacity curve is exactly at a limit point, the displacement demand for the other form of the curve generally will not be at that limit point. The difference tends to be larger when the push-over load pattern differs substantially from the deflected shape (e.g. for a uniform load pattern). This is the main reason for using adaptable push-over analysis, where the push-over load pattern is adjusted at each step to match the deflected shape. Adaptable push-over analysis is currently not available in PERFORM.
28-25
The spectral displacement is not particularly useful as a displacement measure, and the response spectrum is no simpler if lines of constant period are radial, so there is no inherent advantage in using the ADRS. However, there can be an advantage to using the spectral acceleration vs. spectral displacement form of the push-over curve. The reason is that the spectral displacement is an overall effective displacement of the structure, not just the displacement at one point (e.g., the roof). Hence, push-over plots in terms of spectral acceleration and spectral displacement tend to be better behaved. As noted in an earlier section, one case where this can be important is where a structure has components that lose strength. In this case, the push-over curve in terms of base shear and reference drift (usually based on the roof displacement) can be badly behaved. A spectral acceleration vs. spectral displacement tends to give a smoother curve.
28-27
28.11(a). In most cases, however, there will be stiffness degradation, and the loop might be as shown in Figure 28.11(b) or (c). For the loop in Figure 28.11(a) the energy ratio is 1.0. For the loop in Figure 28.11(b) the energy ratio is 0.5 for all ductility ratios if Kh = 0. If Kh > 0 the ratio increases somewhat as the ductility ratio increases. The loop in Figure 28.11(c) also has an energy ratio of about 0.5. There are many possible loops that give the same energy ratio. Other ratios can be obtained by changing the details of the loop.
Figure 28.11 Hysteresis Loops The energy ratio applies for full amplitude deformation cycles. The shaded bands in Figure 28.11 show loops for small amplitude cycles. If the energy ratio for a small amplitude cycle is the ratio of the degraded area to the non-degraded area for the same deformation range, this ratio is not necessarily the same as for a full amplitude cycle. Also, it is not the same in Figures 28.11(b) and (c). This illustrates the inherent difficulty in accounting for stiffness and energy degradation.
(27.1)
28-28
This equation is used in the Capacity Spectrum Method to convert inelastic dissipated energy to an equivalent damping ratio. The equation is not used in the Coefficient Method or the Linearization Method. For the ATC 40 Capacity Spectrum Method (Figure 28.4), the damping ratio is calculated at the trial displacement. The dissipated energy is the area of the hysteresis loop, and the maximum strain energy is the area under the secant stiffness line, or 0.5H. For the Modified Capacity Spectrum Method (Figure 28.5), the damping ratio is calculated at the effective displacement. In both cases, the area of the hysteresis loop, and hence the damping ratio, depends on the energy ratio. The procedures for specifying the energy ratio for the Capacity Spectrum Method are described in the next section.
For each behavior type the ratio decreases as the non-degraded energy increases. The energy ratios are largest for Type A, and decrease for Types B and C. PERFORM-3D adds a User type, where the energy ratios are specified by the user. (5) In the Modified Capacity Spectrum Method the damping ratio is calculated at the effective displacement, using Equation 3.19. There are three options for the energy ratio. One option is to use the ATC 40 ratios. The second option is to specify the energy ratio as a function of the ductility ratio. This is similar to the ATC 40 procedure, since the non-degraded energy increases as the ductility ratio increases. The third option is to estimate the degraded energy from the properties of the structural components and their deformations, and to calculate the energy ratio directly. This is the PERFORM method. It is described in the next section.
you wish, you can account for this additional damping. The method is very approximate, but it may be useful for preliminary design. To use the method you must do two main things, as follows. (1) Specify static pushover properties when you define the properties for fluid damper components (in the Component Properties task). The default properties are zero. (2) Use the Capacity Spectrum Method. This is the only method that explicitly considers the amount of damping. The other methods consider damping only implicitly, and can not account for additional damping due to fluid dampers. In the Component Properties task for Fluid Damper components, choose the Static Pushover page. On this page, specify a viscous coefficient, C, and a damping exponent, n. For energy dissipation calculations in a static push-over analyses the force, F, in the component is calculated as
& F = C n
(3.20)
where & is the deformation rate. The deformation rate is calculated as follows. During a push-over analysis, PERFORM-3D calculates the axial deformation, , of each viscous bar element, at each point on the capacity curve. All of this deformation is assumed to be concentrated in the fluid damper component. That is, the elastic bar component that acts in series with the damper is assumed to be very stiff. PERFORM3D then assumes that the structure is vibrating sinusoidally with a constant amplitude, and that the period of vibration is the current secant period. Hence, the deformation rate also varies sinusoidally, and the force variation in the damper can be calculated (it is sinusoidal only if n = 1). Hence the dissipated energy for one cycle of vibration can be found. This energy is summed for all viscous bar elements, and converted to a damping ratio, using Equation 3.19. When the capacity curve is plotted for a structure that has viscous bar elements, the damping ratio from the fluid dampers is shown on the horizontal axis. PERFORM-3D User Guide 28-31
When the demand curve is calculated, the additional damping is considered. The effect of this damping on the displacement demand can be seen by specifying a value for the effectiveness factor for fluid dampers in the Details page. To ignore the additional damping specify 0 for this factor. To use the full damping specify 1. Since the method is very approximate, experience may show that a factor between 0 and 1 gives a more accurate estimate.
28-32
(3.21)
Where W is the structure weight. For a multi-DOF structure, FEMA 356 specifies the equation
H demand = Cm
W S a , demand g
(3.22)
where Cm is the effective mass factor for the first elastic mode. For the general 3D case this means the mode that has the largest effective mass factor along the push-over direction. As noted earlier in this Chapter, this equation is accurate only for certain special cases. To show this it is necessary to review some theory. One of the important aspects of the dynamic response to an earthquake is that there are no actual external forces on the structure. Instead, the earthquake excites a dynamic response, and the forces on the structure are the inertia forces associated with that response. The same type of behavior is implied when push-over analysis is used. In this case the dynamic response is approximated by applying static external forces. There is implied vibration of the structure, and hence implied inertia forces. These forces are not necessarily the same as the applied external forces. This is an important aspect of the theory.
(1) The elastic mode shape of the structure is { } . (2) The external load {R}is proportional to [M ]{ } , where [M ] is the mass matrix. In PERFORM this is a diagonal matrix. (3) The displaced shape, {r} , is proportional to { } . This will be the case if the structure remains elastic. In general, as the structure yields the displaced shape will change. For this section assume that the displaced shape does not change. If the spectral acceleration demand is S a , demand , its effect is similar to that of a uniform, horizontal gravitational field of this magnitude. In this gravitational field the forces on the structure are
(3.23)
where {d } = matrix of direction cosines for the push-over direction. If the push-over direction is along the H1 axis, matrix {d } has a unit value for each H1 mass in [M ] , and a zero value for all other masses. Similarly, if the push-over direction is along the H2 axis, matrix {d } has a unit value for each H2 mass in [M ] , and a zero value for all other masses. The gravity forces are not the dynamic inertia forces on the masses. In effect, the structure is deformed in its mode shape, { } , and is vibrating with some period, T, with a modal amplitude (i.e., the displaced shape at peak amplitude is { } ). The peak accelerations are
{&&} = 42 {} r
T
(3.23)
(3.25)
To obtain the modal amplitude, equate the work done by the gravity and inertia forces acting through a displacement { } : 28-34 PERFORM-3D User Guide
(3.26)
(3.27)
(3.28)
({ }T [M ]{d }) 2
{}T [M ]{}
(3.29)
or
H I = S a , demand .M * where
M* =
(3.30)
({ }T [M ]{d }) 2
{}T [M ]{}
(3.31)
is the effective mass. For push-over analysis it is usual to use the dimensionless effective mass factor, Cm , equal to the effective mass divided by the total mass. That is,
Cm = M* = ({ }T [M ]{d }) 2
T
(W / g )
{} [M ]{} (W / g )
(3.32)
where W is the structure weight. Hence the inertia force base shear demand is
28-35
H I = S a ,demand .Cm
W g
(3.33)
In this special case, the applied push-over loads are proportional to [M ]{} , and hence have the same distribution as the inertia forces. Hence, the inertia force base shear is equal to the actual base shear in the push-over analysis. That is,
H demand = H I = S a , demand .Cm W g
(3.34)
In this case, FEMA 356 Equation 3-16 gives the correct base shear demand.
(3.35)
where
Cmr =
({r}T [M ]{d }) 2
{r}T [M ]{r} (W / g )
(3.36)
Again, FEMA 356 Equation 3-16 gives the correct base shear demand.
28-36
(3.37)
Again, these are not the dynamic inertia forces on the structure. In this case the structure is vibrating with an effective mode shape {r} , a period T and a modal amplitude (i.e., the displaced shape at peak amplitude is {r} ). Hence the maximum inertia forces are
{RI } = 42 [M ]{r}
T
(3.38)
To obtain the modal amplitude, equate the work done by these forces acting through the displacement {r} . The work equation is
(3.39)
(3.40)
28-37
(3.41)
({r}T [M ]{d }) 2
{r}T [M ]{r}
W g
(3.42)
or
H I , demand = S a , demand .Cmr .
(3.43)
where
Cmr =
({r}T [M ]{d }) 2
T
{r} [M ]{r} (W / g )
(3.44)
This is the inertia base shear demand, not the required base shear for the analysis, which is the base shear for the push-over loads {R} . To calculate the required base shear demand, consider the relationship between the push-over loads, {R}, and the inertia forces, {RI } , at a trial point. These are the base shear capacities at the trial point. The base shear capacity from the push-over loads is
H capacity = {R}T {d }
(3.45)
{RI } = 42 [M ]{r}
T
(3.46)
(3.47)
28-38
The ratio between these two base shear capacities applies to force demands as well as capacities. Hence
H demand = H capacity H I ,capacity H I ,demand
(3.48)
or
H demand =
{R}T {d }
4 {r}T [M ]{d } 2 T
2
S a ,demand Cmr
W g
(3.49)
The effective period at the trial point is the secant period. From the Rayleigh quotient, this period is given by
T = 2
(3.50)
(3.51)
If {R} is proportional to [M ]{r} , the terms in parentheses = 1.0, and Equation 3.51 reduces to the equation for the special case. Equation 3.51 is rather complex. A simpler method is as follows. From Equation 3.44
Cmr =
({r}T [M ]{d }) 2
{r} [M ]{r}
T
1 (W / g )
(3.52)
28-39
H demand = S a , demand
(3.53)
(3.54)
(3.55)
or
H demand = S a , demand S a , capacity H capacity
(3.56)
where
S a ,capacity =
(3.57)
28-40
29-1
In Figure 29.1 the calculated target drift is larger than the estimated drift. A new estimate must be made, until the estimated and calculated drifts are close to each other. This defines the target drift. The key parts of the method are as follows. (1) The bilinear approximation. The FEMA 356 approximation is shown in Figure 29.1. The areas under the capacity curve and the bilinear approximation are equal at the estimated target drift. (2) The calculated target drift. This is as follows.
= C0 C1C 2 C3 S
where:
29-2
29.1.4 Factor C0
This factor converts spectral drift to reference (roof) drift. The spectral drift is essentially an average drift value, and the roof drift is numerically larger. For a simple lollipop the values are the same. For a tall building the roof drift is about 1.5 times the spectral drift. The actual value depends on the mode shape. You have the option of using the mode shape or the deflected shape at the estimated target displacement. You can also specify a user value.
29.1.5 Factor C1
This factor converts the drift for an elastic structure with stiffness Ke to the drift for an inelastic structure with bilinear behavior as shown in Figure 29.1. This factor is largely empirical. For details see FEMA 356.
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Chapter 29. Target Displacement Plot You have the option of the FEMA 356 formula or a user value.
29.1.6 Factor C2
This factor accounts for the quality of the structure and the desired performance level. You can choose from two structure types, namely Type 1 (worse, with more stiffness degradation) and Type 2 (better, with less stiffness degradation). You can choose from three performance levels, namely Immediate Occupancy, Life Safety and Collapse Prevention.
29.1.7 Factor C3
If there are substantial P- effects the tangent stiffness of the capacity curve can become negative before the target drift is reached. For static load this means that the structure is unstable and would collapse. For dynamic load this is not necessarily the case, but the possibility of serious damage is increased. This factor accounts for this effect. It depends on the hardening stiffness, Ke, in the bilinear approximation. For details see FEMA 356. You can also specify a user value. There can also be negative stiffness because of strength loss, independent of any P- effects.
(1) Define an elastic design spectrum. A diagram in the form shows the required data. (2) Choose the framing type. (3) Choose the performance level. (4) Choose the curve type (base shear vs. reference drift or base shear coefficient vs. reference drift). (5) Press the Check button to check the data. It everything is OK the capacity curve will be plotted. Next complete Step 2 as follows. (1) Choose the limit points that you want to show on the plot. A plot with limit points is much more useful than one without. (2) If you wish, click on any limit point in the plot. Its color changes to blue and the name of the corresponding limit state is shown in the box. You can return to this step to do this at any time. (3) Press OK to go to Step 3. Complete Step 3 as follows. (1) Estimate a target drift and draw a bilinear approximation. To do this follow the Step 3A instructions in the form. This may take some practice. Press Clear to start over. (2) Choose options for the C factors. If you choose the User option for any factor, input the value. (3) Press Calculate to calculate and plot the target drift. (4) Repeat from Step (1) until the calculated drift is close to your estimate. The instructions for Step 3A are for the "click-and-drag" method for constructing a bilinear approximation (see Chapter 28, General PushOver Plot, Section 28.3.5). For a FEMA 356 bilinear approximation you can also use the quicker "right-click" method. You can judge the performance of the structure by comparing the target drift with the limit point drifts. To get usage ratios in more detail, use the Usage Ratio Plot task, and plot usage ratios at the target displacement. To change the limit states, or to show the limit state for any limit point, return to Step 2. PERFORM-3D User Guide 29-5
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TIME (sec)
End of earthquake
In this figure there are three limit states (there will usually be more). The upper line is the maximum usage ratio, considering all three limit PERFORM-3D User Guide 30-1
Chapter 27. Usage Ratio Graphs states. The usage ratio lines for the individual limit states are also shown (see below for how to do this). Up to a time of about 6 seconds, Limit State B governs, and after that Limit State A governs. Limit State C is never critical. The maximum usage ratio at the end of the analysis is less than 1.0 for Limit States B and C, indicating that the structure satisfies the performance criteria for these limit states. However, it is larger than 1.0 for Limit State A, indicating that the structure does not satisfy the performance criteria for the complete limit state group.
30.2 Procedure
To start a usage ratio plot press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Usage Ratio task. In the Usage Ratio form choose the analysis series from the Series list and the load case from the Case list. To draw the graph choose the limit states that are to be considered, then press the Plot button. The maximum usage ratio line is drawn, and at the end of the plot the usage ratios for all limit states in the group are shown as horizontal red lines. Click on any of these lines to draw the usage ratio line for the corresponding limit state, and to show the name of the limit state in the box. You can save the usage ratios at the end of the graph by pressing the save to file button at the right end of the toolbar.
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31.1 Overview
31.1.1 Main Steps
The main steps in the process are as follows. (1) Run a number of dynamic earthquake or static push-over analyses. For dynamic earthquake analyses it will be usual to consider several earthquakes and possibly to apply each earthquake in two horizontal directions. For 7 earthquakes and 2 direction this is 14 analyses. For push-over analysis it will be usual to consider two or more lateral load distributions and to push the structure in two or more horizontal directions. For 2 lateral load distributions and 2 directions this is 4 analyses. For each analysis the usage ratios will be calculated for a number of limit states. For dynamic analyses the usage ratios are at the end of the analysis. For push-over analyses they are at the estimated displacement demand (the target displacement or performance point) for each analysis. (2) Specify one or more Load Case Combinations. A combination can consist of just a set of load cases, for example the 7 earthquake cases in one horizontal direction. In this case there would be 2 combinations, each with 7 load cases. Alternatively, a combination can consist of a number of groups of load cases, for example 7 groups of 2 load cases each, with each group containing the PERFORM-3D User Guide 31-1
Chapter 31. Load Case Combinations and Envelopes analyses for 2 horizontal directions. In this case there would be a single combinations, with 14 load cases in 7 groups of 2. (3) If the combination includes load case groups, choose a combination method to be applied within each group. The options are Maximum, SRSS (square root of sum of squares) and Sum. (4) Choose a combination method to be applied across groups (or across load cases if there are no groups). The options are MaxMax, Mean-Max, Max-Mean and "Max-(Mean+NSigma)", as explained later. The end result is a combined usage ratio for each limit state. These usage ratios can be displayed in a diagram that is somewhat similar to that used in the Usage Ratio Graphs task, except that final usage ratios are shown, not graphs of usage ratio vs. time or load. Usage ratios for individual elements can also be displayed in a color-coded drawing similar to that in the Deflected Shapes task.
Chapter 31. Load Case Combinations and Envelopes consist of 2 groups of 3 load cases. Within each group (3 modal load cases) the usage ratios would be combined using the SRSS method. Across groups (2 directions) the usage ratios would be combined using the Max-Max method.
The limit state usage ratio for the structure is calculated as follows, for each of the four combination methods. (1) Max-Max. For each element, usage ratio = Max over all load cases. For structure, usage ratio = Max over all elements. Element 1 usage ratio = Max (0.91, 0.77, 0.87) = 0.91 Element 2 usage ratio = Max (0.67, 0.83, 0.75) = 0.83 Structure usage ratio = Max (0.91, 0.83) = 0.91 (2) Mean-Max. For each element, usage ratio = Max over all load cases. For structure, usage ratio = Mean over all elements. Element 1 usage ratio = Max (0.91, 0.77, 0.87) = 0.91 Element 2 usage ratio = Max (0.67, 0.83, 0.75) = 0.83 Structure usage ratio = Mean (0.91, 0.83) = 0.87 (3) Max-Mean For each element, usage ratio = Mean over all load cases. For structure, usage ratio = Max over all elements. Element 1 usage ratio = Mean (0.91, 0.77, 0.87) = 0.85 PERFORM-3D User Guide 31-3
Chapter 31. Load Case Combinations and Envelopes Element 2 usage ratio = Mean (0.67, 0.83, 0.75) = 0.75 Structure usage ratio = Max (0.85, 0.75 ) = 0.85 (4) Max-(Mean+NSigma) For each element, usage ratio = Mean + N times the standard deviation (sigma) over all load cases. For structure, usage ratio = Max over all elements. Element 1 usage ratio : Mean = 0.85, Sigma = 0.059 Element 2 usage ratio : Mean = 0.75, Sigma = 0.065 For N = 1, structure usage ratio = Max (0.909, 0.835 ) = 0.909 The Max-Max method is the most conservative. This method is required by FEMA 356 if fewer than 7 earthquakes are considered. The Max-Mean method is the least conservative. This method is allowed by FEMA 356 if 7 or more earthquakes are considered. The Mean-Max method is between the Max-Max and Max-Mean methods. It is not included in FEMA 356. The Max-(Mean+NSigma) method is also not included in FEMA 356, but it may be appropriate for strength-based limit states when capacity design is used. In this case, strengths based on the Max-Mean method may not be sufficiently large to ensure essentially elastic behavior. The procedure is similar for limit states based on drift, deflection or structure section results, rather than element results. For example, if a drift limit state has several drifts, in the above table replace Element 1 by Drift 1, etc.
31.2 Procedure
31.2.1 Load Combinations
Press the toolbar buttons for the Analysis phase and the Combinations and Envelopes task. The required analyses must have been run. They do not all have to be in the same Analysis Series. The steps for setting up or editing a Load Case Combination are as follows. (1) To start a new combination, press New. Specify the combination name, specify the number of load cases per group (1 if there are no groups) and choose the combination method within groups. 31-4 PERFORM-3D User Guide
Chapter 31. Load Case Combinations and Envelopes (2) Set up a list of load cases in the combination, by choosing the Analysis Series and Load Case Name from the lists on the toolbar, and pressing Add. Each load case group is assigned a number as the load cases are added. You can delete load cases, a group at a time, by clicking in the table to highlight the group and pressing Delete. (3) When the list is complete, press Save. You can edit an existing combination at any time, using Delete and Add.
The results are plotted as shown in Figure 31.1. In this case there are 7 load cases, with only one case per group (i.e., no combination within groups). For each load case there is a blue vertical line, with a short horizontal line for each limit state, showing the limit state usage ratios for the load case. On the left side there is a red vertical line, also with a short horizontal line for each limit state, showing the limit state usage ratios for the load combination. If you click on any of the limit states on the red line, a horizontal red line is drawn showing the usage ratio for the load combination (as shown in the figure), a blue line is drawn connecting the usage ratios for the separate load cases (as shown in the figure), and the name of the limit state is shown in a box at the bottom of the form (not shown in the figure).
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The drawing is similar to that for the Deflected Shape task, but deflections are not shown. To zoom in, use the two zoom buttons directly below the Plot button.
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A key point is that nodes must be identified by their H1, H2, V coordinates, not by node numbers. For example, if you are importing element data for 4-node wall elements, the text file must have 12 coordinate values for each element, 3 each for nodes I, J, K and L of the element.
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(a) Single node element (e.g., a panel zone element). Each line must contain the H1, H2 and V coordinates of the node, separated by commas. (b) Two-node element (e.g., a beam element). Each line must contain the H1, H2 and V coordinates of the node at End I, followed by the H1, H2 and V coordinates of the node at End J. For a frame type element (beam, column or brace/other) there can be two additional items if desired, describing the orientation of the local 2, 3 axes for the element (the 1 axis is along the element). The first item is the global reference axis for the element. If this item is 1, local Axis 2 of the element is basically parallel to the global H1 axis; if it is 2, local Axis 2 of the element is basically parallel to the global H2 axis; and if it is 3, local Axis 2 of the element is basically parallel to the global V axis. The second item is the twist angle, for cases where local Axis 2 is not along a global axis. This item is the twist angle to the inclined axis, in degrees, measured clockwise about the element Axis 1. (c) Four-node element (e.g., a shear wall walls). Each line must contain 12 items, namely the H1, H2 and V coordinates at the element nodes. You have two options for ordering the nodes. The first option is I, J, K, L, where I is usually bottom left, J is bottom right, K is top left, and L is top right. In this case the nodes are ordered zigzag fashion, not around the element. The second option is I, J, L, K, which is counterclockwise around the element. The length unit for the coordinates must be the same as the global length unit for the PERFORM-3D structure. You can import only the basic element geometry. You must specify the element properties in PERFORM-3D. You must also specify the local axis orientations of single-node and four-node elements in PERFORM3D.
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If the file contains a node that does not exist (i.e., if the coordinates do not match the coordinates of an existing node), the masses are not imported. The tolerance for whether a node exists is equal to the minimum spacing between nodes for the PERFORM-3D model. This spacing is typically 6 inches or 15 cm, but you can set it to a different value for the import operation if you wish. You will be warned if there are some nodes that do not match. If a node already has mass, the imported masses are added to the existing masses. If a node appears two or more times in a file, the masses at that node are added. You can also use these files for importing nodes only (using the node coordinates but ignoring the mass data). When you use a nodal mass file, this option is available. It can be convenient to use this option to read nodes first, then read masses, using the same file.
and V moments, all separated by commas. The length unit for the coordinates must be the same as the global length unit for the PERFORM-3D structure. The force and length units for the loads must be the same as the global force and length units for the PERFORM-3D structure. If the file contains a node that does not exist (i.e., if the coordinates do not match the coordinates of an existing node), the loads are not imported. The tolerance for whether a node exists is equal to the minimum spacing between nodes for the PERFORM-3D model. This spacing is typically 6 inches or 15 cm, but you can set it to a different value for the import operation if you wish. You will be warned if there are some nodes that do not match. If a node already has loads, the imported loads are added to the existing loads. If a node appears two or more times in a file, the loads on that node are added. You can also use these files for importing nodes only (using the node coordinates but ignoring the load data). When you use a nodal load file, this option is available. It can be convenient to use this option to read nodes first, then read loads, using the same file.
general wall and slab/shell elements. Elements of these types must be in separate groups. Hence, a file may contain elements that you want to assign to different element types. These situations can be handled as follows.
Beams and Columns in One File
If you have Beam and Column elements together in a file, the steps are as follows. (1) In the Elements task create the element groups that you need, with no elements. (2) In the Import/Export Structure Data task, import all of the elements into one of these groups. (3) In the Elements task, choose the Change Group tab and move elements into the required groups. PERFORM allows you to move elements from Beam element groups to Column element groups and vice versa. There is an alternative method, which may be easier if the elements in the text file are well organized. This is to edit the text file, splitting it into two or more files where each file contains only elements that you want to be of Beam or Column type. You can then import each file into a separate element group.
Shear Wall and General Wall Elements in One File
The steps are the same as for beams and columns. PERFORM allows you to move elements from Shear Wall element groups to General Wall element groups and vice versa.
Elements of Incompatible Types in One File
Suppose you have a file that contains a number of diagonal brace elements, and you want to model some of them as Brace/Other Frame elements and the rest as BRB elements. You can not use the preceding method, because PERFORM does not allow you to copy elements from a Brace/Other Frame element group to a BRB element group. In this case you may be able to edit the file to divide the elements. If this is not convenient you can use the following procedure. This procedure is more complex than that for separating frame or wall type elements. Since you can not use the Change Group operation, you must use the Import/Export task.
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First consider the case where you want to move all of the elements from a Brace/Other Frame group to a BRB group. The steps are as follows. (1) In the Elements task create the BRB element group that you need, with no elements. (2) In the Import/Export Structure Data task, export the Brace/Other Frame element group to a file. Be sure not to include the element orientation data, otherwise you will get an error message in Step (4). (3) Delete the Brace/Other Frame element group. (4) In the Import/Export Structure Data task, re-import the elements into the BRB element group. Second, consider the case where you have a file with elements that you want to divide into different types. Suppose that you want to divide the elements into Brace/Other Frame and BRB groups. The steps are as follows. (1) In the Elements task create two element groups, both of Brace/Other Frame type. (2) In the Import/Export Structure Data task, import all of the elements into one of these groups. (3) In the Elements task, choose the Change Group tab and move those elements that you want to be BRB elements into the second group. (4) Using the above procedure, export the elements in the second group and re-import them as BRB elements. (5) If you wish, use the Elements task and Change Group tab to divide into smaller element groups.
may wish to do other operations such as adding supports or defining frames. For a very large structure it may be better to use a larger number of files. For example, you might have a separate file for each element group, and a separate file for each load pattern. To start an import operation, choose the Modeling phase and the Import/Export Structure Data task. Choose the Import option and the Elements, Nodes, Masses or Loads page, and follow the instructions. For each import operation you must specify the name of the text file. If the file is in the standard USER folder you need to give only the name (including any extensions such as ".txt"). If the file is in some other location you must give the complete path. You can browse to do this. You must then specify the number of lines to be skipped at the start of the file, and the number of lines to be read. You must always skip any description lines at the start of the file, and you may choose to skip other lines. For example, suppose that you have a file that has 3 description lines, followed by all of the elements in a structure. Suppose that you want to put the first 100 elements into element Group 1, the next 100 into element Group 2, and the remainder into element Group 3, and that you have already created these three groups (with no elements). This requires three import operations. In the first, skip 3 lines and read 100 lines into Group 1. In the second, skip 103 lines and read 100 lines into Group 2. In the third, skip 203 lines and read the rest of the file into Group 3. For each operation, after you have specified the file name, the numbers of lines, and possibly some import options, use the Test, Cancel, OK and Undo buttons in the usual way.
32.3.2 Export
You can export data into the same text files as described in the preceding sections.
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To start an export operation, choose the Modeling phase and the Import/Export Structure Data task. Choose the Export option and the Elements, Nodes, Masses or Loads page, and follow the instructions.
First create the components. If you want to set up a library of standard components you can set up a new structure, define components but no nodes or elements, then export those components. As shown below, it is easier to export and import a complete set of components than selected components, but you can export and import selected components if you wish. This will require careful organization to keep track of the files.
2. To export a complete set of components :
(1) In the Modeling phase choose the Component Properties task. (2) At the bottom of the form choose the Export Components tab and the Components of all types option. 32-10 PERFORM-3D User Guide
(3) Press the Export button and follow the instructions. You must create a new file for each set of components that you export. The file will be assigned a ".PF3CXX" extension.
3. To import a complete set of components :
(1) In the Modeling phase choose the Component Properties task. (2) At the bottom of the form choose the Import Components tab and the Components of all types option. (3) Press the Import button and follow the instructions. You must read a complete file, with a ".PF3CXX" extension. Usually you will use this import option only for a new structure, where you have not yet defined any components. If you have already defined any components for the current structure, these components will be overwritten by the imported components. Also, if you have assigned component properties to any elements, the assignments will all be changed to NONE.
4. To export selected components :
(1) In the Modeling phase choose the Component Properties task. (2) Choose the component type that you want to export from the component type list. (3) At the bottom of the form choose the Export Components tab and the Components of this type only option. (4) Press the Export button and follow the instructions. You can export all components of the current type, or only selected components. You can either create a new file or add components to an existing file. The file will be assigned a ".PF3CMP" extension. You can export components of several types to a single file if you wish.
5. To import selected components :
(1) In the Modeling phase choose the Component Properties task. (2) Choose the component type that you want to import from the component type list. You may or may not already have components of this type. (3) At the bottom of the form choose the Import Components tab and the Components of this type only option. (4) Press the Import button and follow the instructions.
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You can import all of the components of the current type from the file, or only selected components. If you have already defined some components, be sure to specify whether you want components with duplicate names to be imported (over-write current component) or ignored (keep current component). The file can contain components of several types (see preceding section). An important consideration is that some components can depend on others. For example, a plastic hinge component may depend on a cross section component, and a fiber section component will depend on one or more material components. If you want to import a component (say Component A) that depends on another component (Component B), before you can import Component A you must first import Component B. If Component B does not exist, Component A will not be imported (you will get a warning message).
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