Chapter 13

Organisms and Populations

Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the interactions

among organisms and between the organism and its physical (abiotic)
environment . Study of ecology is important to strike a balance
between development and maintenance of natural environmental and
biotic communities, use and conservation of resources, solve local ,
regional and global environmental problems.

 It is basically concerned with four levels of biological

organisation – organisms, populations, communities and
biomes.
 Ecological hierarchy or ecological level of organization
connected with ecological grouping of organisms.


 Organism and its Environment

 The sum total of all biotic and abiotic factors, substances and
conditions that surround and potentially influence organisms
without becoming their constituent part is called environment.At
organism level, physiological ecology tries to understand how
different organisms are adapted to their environment in terms of
survival and reproduction. The variation in the intensity and
duration of temperature along with annual variations in
precipitation results in formation of major biomes like desert,
rain forest and tundra.

 Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the

formation of different kinds of habitats like tropical rain forest,
deciduous forest, desert, sea coast etc.
 The habitat includes biotic components like pathogens,
parasites, predators and competitors of the organism with which
they interact constantly.Major Abiotic Factors
a) Temperature- is the most important ecological factor to
determine the bio-mass of a place. Average temperature on land
 varies seasonally and decreases progressively from the equator
towards the poles and from plains to mountain tops.
Temperature affects the kinetics of enzymes and basal
metabolism along with physiological functions of the organisms.
 The organisms that can tolerate wide range of temperature are
called eurythermal ,for example cat , dogs , tigers etc.
 The organism which have the ability to tolerate only a narrow
range of temperature are called stenothermal ,for example
Penguin, fishes,crocodile.etc.b) Water- life on earth is
unsustainable without water. Productivity and distribution of
plants is heavily dependent on water. For aquatic organisms the
quality (chemical composition, pH) of water becomes important.
The salt concentration (measured as salinity in parts per
thousand), is less than 5 in inland waters, 30-35 in the sea and >
100 in some hypersaline lagoons
 The organisms that can tolerate wide range of salinities are
called euryhaline ,for example salmon , hierring etc.
 The organism which have the ability to tolerate only a narrow
range of salinities are called stenohaline, for example goldfish
( freshwater ) and haddock ( marine water )etc.c) Light- plants
produce food through photosynthesis in presence of sunlight.
Some plants are adapted to low light conditions because they are
overshadowed by tall canopied trees. Flowering in some plants
occurs only in presence of critical day light called
Photoperiodism. The availability of light and land is closely
 linked that of temperature as the sun is the source of both. UV
component of sunlight is harmful to plants and animals.d) Soil-
Types of soil depends upon climate, weathering process,
whether soil is transported or sedimentary and how soil
development occurred. Soil composition, grain size and
aggregation determine the percolation and water holding
capacity of the soils along with pH, mineral, composition and
topography determine the vegetation in any area.

 Responses to Abiotic Factor : In the course of evolution, many

species have evolved constant internal environment to permits
all biochemical reactions and physiological functions to work
with maximum efficiency to have over all fitness of species.
Organisms try to maintain the constancy of its internal
environment (homeostasis)inspite of varying external
environment. There are various ways to establish hemostasis-


 Regulate- all birds and animals are capable of maintaining
homeostasis by physiological means which ensures constant
body temperature, constant osmotic concentration etc.
Thermoregulation and osmoregulation is the source of success
of mammals in all the environmental conditions. In summer,
when outside temperature is more than our body temperature,
we sweat oftenly, resulting evaporative cooling, which brings
down the body temperature. In winter  we start to shiver, a kind
of exercise which produces heat and raises the body
temperature.
 Conform- most of animals and plants, their body temperature
change with ambient temperature. In aquatic animals osmotic
concentration of the body fluid change with that of the ambient
water osmotic concentration. These animals are called
conformer. Conformer are not able to bear the energetic
expenses to maintain the constant body temperature.Heat loss or
heat gain is a function of surface area. Since small animals have
a larger surface area relative to their volume, they tend to lose
body heat very fast when it is cold outside; then they have to
expend much energy to generate body heat through metabolism.
This is the main reason why very small animals are rarely found
in polar regions.
 Migrate- the organism move away for time being from the
stressful unfavorable habitat to more suitable habitat and return
back when stressful period is over. Many birds undertake long-
 distance to migrate to more hospitable areas. Siberia birds
migrate to Keolado National park, Bharatpur, India.
 Suspend- in microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and lower
plants a thick walled spores is formed which help them to
survive unfavorable conditions. These spores germinate on
return of suitable conditions. In higher plants, seeds and some
other vegetative reproductive structures serves the means to tide
over periods of stress and help them in dispersal also. The
metabolic activities are reduced to minimum during this
dormant period.a)Hibernation – the condition or period of an
animal or plant spending the winter in a dormant state e.g bear
b)Aestivation – the condition or period of an animal or plant
spending the summer to avoid heat and dessication in a dormant
state e.g snails .
c)Diapause – a stage of suspended development in zooplankton
species in lakes and ponds.
Adaptation is the attribute of organism morphological, physiological
and behavioral changes that enables the organism to survive and
reproduce in its habitat.

 Kangaroo  rat in North American deserts fulfill the water

requirement by internal oxidation of fat in absence of water.It
also has the ability to concentrate its urine so that minimal
volume of water is used to remove excretory products.
  Thick cuticle in many plants also prevents loss of water. CAM
plants open their stomata during night to reduce the loss of
water during photosynthesis.
 Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to
minimize heat loss. This is called Allen’s Rule.
 In polar seas aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of
fat called blubber, below their skin that acts as an insulator and
reduces loss of body heat.
 Altitude sickness is observed at higher altitude that includes
symptoms like nausea, fatigue, heart palpitations due to less
oxygen and atmospheric pressure. The person gradually get
acclimatized and stop experiencing altitude sickness. This is
type of physiological adaptation.
 A number of marine invertebrate and fish live in temperature
always less than zero and some lives in greatdepth in ocean
where pressure is very high by array of biochemical adaptations.
 Some organisms like desert lizard lack the physiological ability
that mammals have but deal with high temperature of their
habitat by behavioral means. They bask in the sun and absorb
heat and when their body temperature drops below the comfort
zone, but moves in shade when the ambient temperature starts
increasing.
Populations: Individuals of any species live in groups in well-defined
geographical area, share or compete for similar resources, potentially
interbreed and constitute a population.
Population Attributes: A population has certain attributes that an
individual organism does not such as an individual may have births
and deaths, but a population has birth rates and death rates.
 The birth and death rates are referred as per capita births or
deaths respectively, which is increase and decrease with respect
to members of the population.
 Sex ratio is another attributes of population. An individual may
be male or female but population has sex ratio.
 A population at given time composed of different individual of
different ages. If the age distribution is plotted for the
population, the resulting structure is called age pyramids. The
shape of pyramids reflects the shape of growth status of
population. Which may be
(i) Expending
(ii) Stable
(iii) Declining

§ Population size or population density (N) is measured in terms of

number but it may sometime not appropriate.
Population Growth: The size of population is not static. It keeps
changing with time, depending upon food availability, predation
pressure and reduces weather. The main factors that determine the
population growth are-

o Natality (number of birth during a given period in the population)

o Mortality ( number of death during a given period in the population)

o Immigration (individual of same species that have come into the

habitat)

o Emigration ( individual of population that have left the habitat )

If ‘N’ is the population density at a time‘t’, then its density at time t+1
is

Nt + 1 Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population density will increase if the number of births plus the
number of immigrants (B + I) is more than the number of deaths plus
the number of emigrants (D + E), otherwise it will decrease.

Growth model

Growth of population takes place according to availability of food,

habit condition and presence of other biotic and abiotic factors. There
are two main types of models-

i. Exponential Growth- in this kinds of growth occurs when food and

space is available in sufficient amount. When resources in the habitat
are unlimited, each species has the ability to realise fully its innate
potential to grow in number .The population grows in an exponential
or geometric fashion. If in a population of size N, the birth rates as
represented as ‘b’ and death rate as ‘d’. Then increase and decrease in
N during unit period time ‘t’ will be

dN / dt = (b – d) × N

Let (b – d) = r, then

dN / dt = rN

Then, the r in this equation is called ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’.

ii. Logistic Growth- there is a competition between the individuals of
a population for food and space. The fittest organism survives and
reproduces. In this types of growth initially shows a leg phase
followed by phases of acceleration and de-acceleration.

Where N = Population density at time t

R = Intrinsic rate of natural increase

K = Carrying capacity
Since resources for growth for populations are finite and become
limiting , the logistic growth model is considered a more realistic one.

Population interaction
All animals, plants and microbes in a biological community interact
with each other. These interactions may be beneficial, detrimental or
neutral to one of species or both. Following types of interaction is
seen-
a. Predation

b. Competition

c. Parasitism

d. Commensalism

e. Mutualism

PREDATION : It is an Interspecific Interaction where one animal

kills and consumes the other weaker animal.
Roles of Predators
 Transfer energy from plants to higher trophic levels (position of
organism in food chain)
 Control Prey population – Prickly pear cactus- moth
 Biological control of Agricultural pest
 Maintain species diversity by reducing intensity of competition
among competing prey species
  Over exploitation of prey by the predators results in extinction
of prey and predator.
 Defense to lessen impact of predation
a)Insects and frog – camouflage
b)Monarch butterfly – poisonous
PLANTS MORPHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL DEFENCES
 Thorns- cactus and Acacia
 Produce and store chemical – Calotropis
 Nicotine, Caffeine, Quinin, Strychnine, opium – against grazers
& browsers
COMPETITION
Interaction either among individuals of same species or between
individuals of different species.
Occurs among closely related species but not always true

1. Unrelated species also compete- flamingo & fish compete for

zooplankton
2. Feeding efficiency of a species reduce due to other species even if
resources are plenty – Abingdon tortoise.

Evidence for competition

Competitive release – species distribution restricted to small areas due
to competitively superior species.

GAUSE’S COMPETITION EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

“Two closely related species competing for same resources cannot
coexist as the competitively inferior one will be eliminated.”

Resource partition– Two competing species avoid competition by

diff. feeding and foraging patterns-Mc Arthur (warblers foraging
activities)
PARASITISM
It is the interaction where one species (parasite) depends on the other
species (host) for food and shelter, host is harmed.

 Parasites and host self-evolve.

 Adaptations of parasites
– Loss of unnecessary sense organs
– Hooks and sucker
– Loss of digestive system
– High Reproductive capacity

 Parasites-
(i) Reduce the survival of host
(ii) Growth and reproductive rate are reduced
(iii) Render the host vulnerable to its predators by making them weak

Types of parasite
ECTOPARASITES–depend on external surface of host
Example – head lice on humans, ticks on dogs
ENDOPARASITES–take shelter within the body of the host
organism
Example – Liverfluke, Plasmodium
MUTUALISM
It is interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited
Examples
1. Lichen – fungi and algae
2. Mycorrhizae – fungi and roots of higher plants
3. Pollination of plants by insects
4. Mediterranean orchid- sexual deceit for pollination- appears as
female bee

AMENSALISM: Interaction between two different species, in which

one species is harmed and the other species is neither harmed nor
benefited. Example.  Bacterial culture, after few days fungus growth
will be there on it like Pencillium, and its secretions of chemical will
kill bacteria, but no benefits to fungi.

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