The Cell Theory; A Timeline

Hans and Zacharias Janssen (Late 1500’s), Dutch lens grinders, father and son
produced first compound microscope (2 lenses)
Robert Hooke (1665) used light microscope to look at thin slices of plant
tissues – cork, looked empty, like monk’s chamber Called tiny chambers “cells”
Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1673) looked at pond water organisms, first to see
living microscopic organisms, made careful sketches.
Matthias Schleiden (1838) German Botanist (studied plants), viewed plant
parts under a microscope, discovered that plant parts are made of cells, he
concluded: “All plants are made of cells.”
Theodore Schwann (1839) German scientist who studied animals – zoologist,
saw that all animals he studied were cellular so concluded: “All animals are
made of cells.”
Rudolf Virchow (1855) German physician who studied cell reproduction
“Where a cell exists, there must have been a preexisting cell.”
Cell is the smallest unit that can perform all the functions necessary for life, all
living things are made up of cells, some living things are made up of only one cell
(single cellular), other living things are made up of many cells (multicellular).
The Cell Theory
 all living things are composed of one or more cells,
 the cell is the basic unit of life in all living things,
 new cells are produced from existing cells.
Cell Similarities
 come in many shapes and sizes
 All are surrounded with a cell membrane
 All cells have hereditary material (DNA)
 All have cytoplasm and organelles. Cytoplasm is the fluid within a cell
which provides a safe environment for the organelles. Organelles are the
structures within the cell that have specific duties to make the cell a
functioning unit.
 Types of Cell
Eukaryotic are complex and of different types, have a nucleus and many
organelles, contain more DNA due to different jobs within the cell. DNA is
linear (in a line), possess a cell membrane or a cell wall, all living things other
than bacteria.
Prokaryotic contain no nucleus, have no membrane covered organelles, but do
have ribosomes to make protein, possess circular DNA, are bacteria.

Chemical Context of Life

Biology is a multidisciplinary science

Organisms are composed of matter,
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass, made up of element
Element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by
chemical reactions
Compound is a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio and
has characteristics different from those of its elements

Essential Elements of Life

About 25 of the 92 elements are essential to life,

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter
Most of the remaining 4% consists of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and
sulfur
Trace elements are those required by an organism in minute quantities
Each element consists of unique atoms
Atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element,
composed of subatomic particles, Neutrons (no electrical charge), Protons
(positive charge), Electrons (negative charge)
Neutrons and protons form the atomic nucleus
Electrons form a cloud around the nucleus
Neutron mass and proton mass are almost identical and are measured in
Daltons
Atoms of the various elements differ in number of subatomic particles
An element’s atomic number is the number of protons in its nucleus
An element’s mass number is the sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus
Atomic mass, the atom’s total mass, can be approximated by the mass number
Isotopes are two atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons
Radioactive isotopes decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy
Applications of radioactive isotopes
 Dating fossils
 Tracing atoms through metabolic processes
 Diagnosing medical disorders

The Energy Levels of Electrons

Energy is the capacity to cause change
Potential energy is the energy that matter has because of its location or structure
The electrons of an atom differ in their amounts of potential energy
An electron’s state of potential energy is called its energy level, or electron shell
 Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties
Distribution of electrons the chemical behavior of an atom
Periodic table of the elements shows the electron distribution for each element
Valence electrons are those in the outermost shell, or valence shell, determines the
chemical behavior of an atom
Elements with a full valence shell are chemically inert

Electron Orbitals
Orbital is the three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90% of the
time, each electron shell consists of a specific number of orbitals
Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or transfer valence electrons
with certain other atoms
Chemical bonds these interactions usually result in atoms staying close together,
held by attractions
Covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms, the
shared electrons count as part of each atom’s valence shell
Molecule consists of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
Single covalent bond, or single bond, is the sharing of one pair of valence
electrons
Double covalent bond, or double bond, is the sharing of two pairs of valence
electrons
Structural formula notation used to represent atoms and bonding, can be
abbreviated further with a molecular formula (H2O)
Compound is a combination of two or more different elements
Bonding capacity is called the atom’s valence
Electronegativity is an atom’s attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond
The more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons
toward itself
Nonpolar covalent bond, the atoms share the electron equally
Polar covalent bond, one atom is more electronegative, and the atoms do not
share the electron equally
Unequal sharing of electrons causes a partial positive or negative charge for each
atom or molecule
A charged atom (or molecule) is called an ion