Igcse Bio

ZNOTES.
ORG
UPDATED TO 2020-21 SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY (0610)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY (0610)
Cell Function Adaptation(s) Diagram
1. Organization of the
Ciliated Move and push Tiny hairs called
Organism cell mucus cilia
1.1. Cell structure and Organization

Elongated shape
Root Absorb minerals
All living things are made of cells. for more surface
hair cell and water
All typical cells have: area
Cell membrane: differentially or partially permeable
No cytoplasm so
to allow
certain substances to enter and leave the cell.
water passes
Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
freely
Nucleus: contains DNA and controls the cell
Mitochondria: organelle where aerobic respiration Transport water No cross walls so
Xylem
happens and support cells connect to
vessel
Ribosome: makes protein and can be found floating plant form tube
within the
cytoplasm
A typical animal cell (e.g. the liver cell) has all above Lignin makes it
Only plant cells have: strong and
Vacuole: stores food & water & helps to maintain waterproof
shape of cell Regular shape so
Cell wall: rigid to keep shape of cell many can fit in a
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light Palisade Photo- small space
energy
for photosynthesis cell synthesizes
A typical plant cell (e.g. the palisade cell) has all the above Many
things. chloroplasts
respiratory system
1.3. Size of Specimens

size of drawing image I
M agnif ication = = =
size of specimen actual

2. Characteristics and
Classification of Living
1.2. Levels of Organization Organisms
Cell Function Adaptation(s) Diagram 2.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
Biconcave shape
Red Movement: action by an organism or part of an organism
Transport of No nucleus
blood causing a
change of position or place
oxygen Flexible
cell Respiration: the chemical reactions that break down
Has haemoglobin
nutrient
molecules in living cells to release energy
Long Sensitivity: ability to detect or sense changes in the
Many protein environment (stimuli) and to make responses
Contracts to get
Muscle fibres in Growth: permanent increase in size and dry mass by an
structures closer
cell cytoplasm to increase
in cell number or cell size or both
together
shorten cell when Reproduction: processes that make more of the same
energy available kind of organism
Excretion: removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
waste
products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
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including
respiration) and substances in excess of spreading of spores
in moist/dark/warm environment,
requirements saprotrophs (feed off dead
organisms) or parasites
Nutrition: taking in of nutrients which are organic Prokaryotes: Single celled organism with no true nucleus
substances
and mineral ions, containing raw materials or Protocist: Single celled organism with a nucleus
energy for growth and
tissue repair, absorbing and
assimilating them 2.4. Vertebrates
2.2. Concept & Use of a Classification MR FAB
System Mammals
Fur/hair on skin
Organisms can be classified into groups by the features Can live on land and in water
that they
share 4 limbs
Classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary Lungs to breathe
relationships
(change of adaptive features of a population Give birth to live young
over time, as a result
of natural selection) Reptiles:
Species: organisms which can reproduce successfully Scales on skin
Classification is traditionally based on studies of Usually 4 legs
morphology and
anatomy Lungs to breathe
Morphology: the overall form and shape of their bodies Hard eggs
e.g.
wings or legs Fish:
Anatomy: the detailed body structure determined by Wet scales
dissection External fertilization and soft eggs
Binomial system: a system of naming species in which the Gills to breathe
scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts Amphibians:
showing the genus (starting with a capital letter) and Smooth, moist skin
species (starting with a lower-case letter), written in italics External fertilization and soft eggs
when printed (therefore underlined when written) Gills/lungs to breathe so can live on land and in water
e.g. Homo sapiens 4 legs
Birds

Feathers on body and scales on legs
KING PHILIP CAME OVER FOR GOOD SPAGHETTI
Have 2 legs and 2 wings
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species Lungs to breathe
Kingdom --> Species = Similarity increases Hard eggs
DNA is the chemical from which chromosomes are made
Each DNA molecule is made up of strings of smaller 2.5. Arthropods (Invertebrates with
molecules
containing four bases
Biologists compare the sequences of the bases in the
Legs)
DNA of
organisms from two different species
CAMI
The more similar the base sequence, the more closely
related the
species are to one another Crustaceans: (e.g. crabs)
Organisms which share a more recent ancestor have Have an exoskeleton
base sequences in
DNA that are more similar than those 1 pair of compound eyes
that share only a distant
ancestor 2 body segment – cephalothorax and abdomen
The sequences of bases in DNA and of amino acids in More than four pairs of legs
proteins are
used as a more accurate means of 2 pairs of antennae sensitive to touch and chemicals
classification (cladistics) Arachnids: (e.g. spiders)
2 body segment – cephalothorax and abdomen
2.3. Kingdoms Four pairs of legs
Pair of chelicerae to hold prey
Animal: Multi-cellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living Two pedipalps for reproduction
organisms) Simple eyes
Plant: Multi-cellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make Myriapods: (e.g. centipede)
their own
food) organism with a cellulose cell wall. Segmented body
Fungi: Single celled or multi cellular heterotrophic Additional segments formed
organism
with cell wall not made of cellulose, spread by One pair of antennae
70+ pairs of legs – 1 or 2 pairs on each segment
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Fused head and thorax and segmented abdomen

Simple eyes
Insects: (e.g. bees)
3 body segments – head, thorax and abdomen
3 pairs of legs
1 pair of antennae
1 or 2 pairs of wings
Compound and simple eyes
2.6. Classifying Plants

Ferns:
Do not produce flowers
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Have leaves called fronds
Reproduce by spores
Flowering plants:
2.8. Dichotomous Keys
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds Dichotomous key: uses visible features to classify
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower organisms. It
is which gives you a choice of two features
and you follow the one
that applies: each choice leads to
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
another choice until the organism
is narrowed down to its
One cotyledon Two cotyledons genus and finally species.
Parallel veins Veins netlike
Fibrous root Taproot present
Floral parts in 3s Floral parts in 4s or 5s
3. Movement in and Out of
Cells
2.7. Viruses and Bacteria
Virus Bacteria
3.1. Diffusion
Covered by: Protein coat Cell wall This is the movement of molecules from a region of high
Cell concentration to a region of low concentration down the
No Yes
membrane: concentration gradient.
Cytoplasm: No Yes This results in random movement of molecules until
Genetic DNA or RNA – only a DNA – enough for equilibrium is
reached
The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
material: few genes several 100 genes
it,
molecules which are needed for life, for example
Living or Non-living unless in
Living glucose and oxygen
for respiration, would not be able to
not? host
get to the places they are
needed. Water is needed as a
solvent

Factors influencing faster diffusion:
Two examples of virus structure Larger concentration gradient
Higher temperature
Smaller surface area
3.2. Osmosis
Movement of water molecules from a region of
high-
water potential to a region of
low water potential,
through a
partially permeable membrane
Conc. of solute outside cell = conc. inside cell → no
change in size
Conc. of solute outside cell > conc. inside cell → cell
shrinks
(Plasmolysis)
Conc. of solute outside cell < conc. inside cell → cell swells
(Turgid)
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In animals: Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled

Increasing solute concentration inside of cell can DNA
cause cell to
explode as a result of it having too much Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
water, crenation. Each strand contains chemicals called bases
In plants: Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
Increasing solute concentration inside of cell causes The bases always pair up in the same way:
cell to
become turgid, vacuole fills up. A and T
Decreasing solute concentration inside of cell causes C and G
cell to
become flaccid, losing water and vacuole gets
smaller. Cell body
shrinks, pulling away from cell wall
5. Enzymes
3.3. Active Transport
Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
Movement of particles through a cell membrane, from a and is
not changed by the reaction
region of
lower concentration to a region of higher Enzymes: proteins that function as biological catalysts
concentration against a
concentration gradient, using Enzymes lowers amount of energy needed for reaction to
energy released during respiration take place
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for reaction
optimize the
amount of nutrients it can take up - ion to take
place
uptake by root hairs and
uptake of glucose by epithelial Lock and key theory:
cells of villi.
4. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
(CHO) Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction
Nitrogen and
sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S}) Catabolic reaction: molecules are broken down
Anabolic reaction: molecules are combined
Basic units (monomers) Larger molecules (macromolecules)
Simple sugars Starch and glycogen
5.2. Effect of Temperature on Enzymes
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the
temperature at which they
work best giving the fastest
reaction ≈ 37°C in animals
4.2. Chemical Tests When temperature increases, molecules move faster so
collide with an
enzyme in less time
Starch: Add few drops of iodine, +ve result = blue-black
Having more energy makes them more likely to bind to
colour
active site.
Reducing sugars: Add Benedict’s reagent, then mixture is
If temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate too
heated
in water bath for 2 to 3 minutes. +ve result =
vigorously
and enzyme is denatured; it loses its shape
brick-red
precipitate, -ve result = remains blue
and will no longer bind
with a substrate.
Proteins: Add few drops of Biuret reagent, +ve result =
When the temperature is too low there is not enough
mauve
colour
kinetic energy
for the reaction so it reacts too slowly.
Fats: Emulsion test; ethanol is added to mixture, and this
is
poured into a test tube with an equal amount of
distilled water, +ve
result = milky-white emulsion 5.3. Effect of pH on Enzymes
Vitamin C: Decolourisation of DCPIP shows that a vitamin
C is
probably present. Enzymes are sensitive to pH
Some enzymes work best in an acid and others in an
alkaline
4.3. Structure of a DNA
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH
If the pH is changed then the enzyme will denature and
Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
will no
longer fit with substrate- no reaction takes place
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Warmed in ethanol until leaf is colourless to extract

5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
chlorophyll,
which would mask observation
Activity Dipped in water briefly: to soften leaf
Leaf is placed on a white tile and iodine is added. If starch
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH is
present, colour will be blue-black and if absent, it will
remain
orange
5.5. Enzymes and their Uses

Seeds to germinate: the enzymes turn insoluble food 6.3. Light Is Necessary for
stores to
soluble. Photosynthesis
Biological washing powders: enzymes are added to
washing powders
to help remove stains for example: Destarch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48hrs
Lipase for lipids from fatty foods and greasy Place a stencil over part of a leaf
fingerprints Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Protease for proteins from blood stains Remove the stencil and test for starch
Food industry: +ve result = parts which received light turn black
Isomerase converts glucose to fructose which is -ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain
sweeter, so less
is needed to give a sweet taste yellow/brown
Pectinase helps break down cell walls in fruit juice
production
so it increases yield, lowers viscosity and
reduces cloudiness
6. Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis: process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from
light. 6.4. Carbon Dioxide is Necessary for
CarbonDioxide + Water
light+cholorophyll

Photosynthesis
Glucose + Oxygen
light+cholorophyll Take two destarched potted plants.
6CO2 + 6H2 O +C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them as A

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of and B.

the leaf of
a plant and water is taken up through roots. Inside A, keep N aHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate). It

Chlorophyll is a dye, which traps light energy and produces CO2 .
converts it into
chemical energy for the formation of Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium hydroxide). It absorbs
carbohydrates and their
subsequent storage. CO2 .
Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.

Perform the starch test on both plants.
6.2. Chlorophyll Is Necessary for
Photosynthesis
Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
about 48
hours.
Expose the plant to the sunlight for a few days.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain orange/brown after
walls,
denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
starch test
by ethanol.
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Stomata: little holes that opens and closes to allow

6.5. Limiting Factors
gaseous
exchange to take place. The stomata close to
Limiting factor: something present in the environment in prevent water loss and
open to let gases come in and out.
When guard cells lose water, the
stoma close (at night),
such short supply that it restricts life processes.
while the stoma open when guard cells gain
water & swell
Light intensity (during the day).
As the amount of light

increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases (a-
b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of
light after a certain point has
no effect on the rate (c)
The limiting factor is now
carbon dioxide or
temperature
6.6. Glasshouse Systems

6.8. Xylem
To increase the crop yield, farmers control the limiting
factors:
CO2 enrichment: paraffin is burnt to increase

CO2
concentration by three times the original amount and
doubling the yield
Optimum temperature: thermostatically controlled
heaters make the
temperature right for enzymes to work Unidirectional vessel which transports water and
Optimum light: light has a high intensity for more
dissolved minerals.
photosynthesis,
the correct wavelengths (red and blue
Walls are made out of waterproof lignin.
not green) and duration
controls production of fruit
Water moves up due to transpiration and osmosis
6.7. Leaf Structure 6.9. Phloem
Bidirectional vessel
Cuticle: waxy layer that prevents water loss from top of Contains sieve elements which allow sugars to pass from
the
leaf one cell to
next downwards
Epidermis: transparent cell that allows sunlight to pass Contains companion cells which provide energy for active
through
to the palisade cell transport
of sugars all over plant.
Palisade: found at the top of the cell and contains many Translocation moves organic molecules (sugars, amino
chloroplasts which absorbs sunlight. acids) from
source to sink.
Spongy mesophyll layer: irregularly shaped cells which Phloem vessels still have cross walls called sieve plates
create
air spaces to allow gaseous exchange to take that
contain pores.
place; do not contain
many chloroplasts Companion cells actively load sucrose into the phloem.
Vascular Bundle: made up of xylem and phloem Water follows high solute in phloem by osmosis. A
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved positive pressure
potential develops moving mass of
minerals and
has lignified walls made of cellulose phloem sap forward.
Phloem: vessel which transports nutrients Phloem still contains small amount of cytoplasm along
the walls but
the organelle content is greatly reduced.
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Companion cells actively unload (ATP used) the organic

7.4. Uses
molecules
Nutrient Uses
6.10. Mineral Requirements Carbohydrates Energy
Source of energy, building materials,
Nitrogen Magnesium
Fats energy store, insulation, buoyancy,
Needed for chlorophyll making hormones
Needed for protein synthesis
synthesis
Energy, building materials, enzymes,
Deficiency: small plant, slow Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
Deficiency: plant lack
growth, top leaves pale, (muscle), hormones, antibodies
chlorphyll, leaves yellow but
bottom leaves dead and
normal roots Protect cells from ageing, production of
roots slightly affected Vitamin C
fibres
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium
Nitrogen fertilizers: provide nitrogen in the form of
nitrate
ions, nitrite ions or ammonium ions. But using Development and maintenance of
Calcium
fertilisers can lead
to eutrophication, which is when the strong bones and teeth
fertiliser is transported by
rain and leaches into stagnant Iron Making haemoglobin
water e.g. pond or river Provides bulk for faeces, helps
Fiber
peristalsis
7. Human Nutrition Water

Chemical reactions, solvent for
transport
Balanced Diet: getting all the right nutrients in correct

proportions 7.5. Deficiencies
Diet related to age/sex/activity:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
Teenagers: Highest calorie Intake Vitamin D: Rickets; weak bones and teeth
Adults: Balanced meal with less calories Calcium: Rickets; weak bones and teeth, also poor clotting
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium and folic acid of
blood, spasms
Males: Generally, require more energy Iron: Anaemia: Fatigue (less iron → less haemoglobin →
less
oxygen transported → less respiration → less energy)
7.2. Malnutrition
7.6. Human Alimentary Canal
A condition caused by eating an unbalanced diet. Several
forms:
Overnutrition: balanced diet but eating too much of
everything
Undernutrition: having too little food
Eating foods in incorrect proportions
7.3. Effects of Malnutrition

Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the
Starvation: losing strength & finally dying because of lack body
through the mouth.
of
food Egestion: passing out of food that has not been digested,
Coronary heart disease: eating too much fats which are as
faeces, through the anus.
rich in
saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, may lead to Digestion: the break-down of large, insoluble food
heart attack molecules
into small, water soluble molecules using
Constipation: lack of roughages in food causes mechanical and chemical
processes
constipation
because roughages are indigestible and Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical digestion,
form bulks. Friction between
bulks and walls of intestine area where
food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
stimulate the peristalsis ingestion takes place
Obesity: Eating too much fats and carbohydrates leads to Salivary glands: produce saliva which contains amylase
their
storage in the body mainly in the forms of fats and and helps
food slide down oesophagus
causing an increase in body weight. This can cause; heart Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ which uses peristalsis to
attack,
stroke, joint pain, mobility impairment, high blood transport food from mouth to stomach
pressure Stomach: has sphincters to control movement into and
also has
pepsin (a protease) to break down proteins into
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
peptides, it also
kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They Incisor Canine Premolar Molar
also have elastic walls. Rectangular
Small intestine: tube shaped organ composed of two Sharp-pointed Blunt for Blunt chewing
shape, sharp
parts the: for holding chewing and and crushing.
for cutting
Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile, and digested and cutting crushing Two roots
and biting
by
pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Pancreatic
amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
down starch and peptides
into maltose and amino 7.9. Structure of a Tooth
acids
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
is where
absorption takes place; adapted by having
villi and microvilli.
Pancreas: produces pancreatic juice which contains
amylase,
trypsin and lipase and hydrogencarbonate.
Liver: produces bile, stores glucose as glycogen,
interconverting them to keep glucose concentration
constant. Also
carries out interconversion of amino acids
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from
(transamination),
deamination and removal of old red
calcium salts
blood cells and storage of their
iron. Also, site of
Cement: helps to anchor tooth
breakdown of alcohol and other toxins.
Pulp cavity: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels,
Gall bladder: stores bile from liver
and
nerve endings which detect pain.
Bile: produced by liver and stored in gall bladder, its role
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
is
to emulsify fats, to increase surface area for the action
collagen
fibres
of
enzymes.
Large intestine: tube shaped organ composed of two Neck: in between crown and root, it is the gums
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins,
and
reabsorbing water from waste to maintain body’s
7.10. Tooth Decay
water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: ring of muscle which controls when faeces is
released.
7.7. Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea: when not enough water is absorbed from the
faeces 7.11. Prevention
To cure this is to give oral rehydration therapy
One of these infectious by a bacterium causing the Eating food with low sugar content
diseases
cholera (spreads rapidly) Regular and effective teeth brushing to remove plaque
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes Finishing a meal with a crisp vegetable and a glass of
secretion of
chloride ions into the small intestine, causing water
osmotic movement of
water into the gut, causing
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts
from the blood 7.12. Chemical Digestion
7.8. Teeth Where enzymes are used to break down large insoluble
substances such
as proteins into smaller soluble
Incisor Canine Premolar Molar substances like amino acids so that
they can be
absorbed.
Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose, it is produced
in the
pancreas (but also in the salivary gland)
Protease: breaks down proteins to peptides (done by
pepsin) then
into amino acids (done by trypsin). Pepsin
comes from the stomach
and trypsin comes from the
pancreas.
Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
produced by the pancreas.
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Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:

Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms in
food
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
7.13. Absorption
Movement of digested food molecules through wall of the

intestine
into the blood or lymph.
The small intestine is the region for absorption of
digested food.
The small intestine is folded into many villi which increase
the
surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny
folds on the
cells on its outside called microvilli.
More surface area means more absorption can happen
Capillary: transports glucose and amino acids
Vein: delivers absorbed products to liver via hepatic
portal
vein.
Gland: produces enzymes
Lacteal: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Epithelium: only one cell thick for faster transport. The
8.2. Root Hair Cell
cells
of the epithelium are folded to form microvilli.
Small intestine and colon absorb water
The small intestine absorbs 5–10 dm3 per day
The colon absorbs 0.3–0.5 dm3 per day
8. Transport in Plants Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
They have an elongated shape for more surface area
8.1. Xylem and Phloem which increases
the rate of absorption of water by
osmosis and ions by active
transport
Functions of xylem and phloem
To transport substances from source, where they are 8.3. Pathway Taken by Water
taken in or
made, to the sinks, where they are used
To support the stem
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Light intensity: high light intensity causes stomata to

open (to
allow more photosynthesis) which causes
increase in transpiration
8.7. Translocation
Movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem; from
regions of
production (sources) to regions of storage or to
regions of
utilization in respiration or growth (sinks).
Translocation in different seasons:
Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing
leaves to root stores,
Water enters root hair cell from moist soil via osmosis
because
water potential is higher in soil than in 9. Transport in Animals
cytoplasm.
Water passes through the cortex cells by osmosis but Circulatory system: system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
mostly by
“suction”. arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and
Water and minerals are forced to cross the endodermis. veins) to
ensure one-way flow of blood.
Water enters xylem then leaves when it gets to mesophyll
cells 9.2. Transport Systems
8.4. Transpiration Single circulation system (fish):
Two heart chambers
Transpiration: evaporation of water at surfaces of the Blood absorbs oxygen in gills
mesophyll
cells followed by loss of water vapour from Released in body cells then back to heart
plant leaves, through
stomata. Double circulation system:
Water leaves mesophyll cells, into air spaces created by Four heart chambers
irregular
shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then diffuses Blood passes through heart twice
out of the stomata. Oxygenated in lungs, to heart, to body, back to heart
Wilting: occurs if water loss is greater than water uptake – Advantage: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
cells become flaccid, tissues become limp and plant no around the body as the heart pumps the oxygenated
longer
supported blood to it
from the lungs
8.5. Uptake of Water 9.3. The Heart

Caused by water loss in leaves which lowers its water
potential
Water moves from xylem to leaf tissues via osmosis
Water moves up the stem in the xylem due to tension
(because of
cohesion of water molecules to each other)
caused by water loss from
the leaves
Ends with the gain of water through roots
This upward flow of water is called the transpiration
stream
8.6. Factors Affecting Rate of

Right atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to
Transpiration right
ventricle
Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Temperature: higher temperatures increase water- Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from right
holding capacity
of air and increases transpiration rate ventricle to lungs
Humidity: low humidity increases water potential gradient Septum: separates left and right sides of the heart
between leaf and atmosphere ∴ increasing transpiration Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from lungs to
rate left atrium
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Left atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to left Treated by aspirin and surgery (stents, angioplasty and
ventricle by-pass)
Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via
the aorta 9.7. Arteries, Veins and Capillaries
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle to rest
of
body
Vessel Function Structure
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves: prevent backflow of blood
Elastic walls expand and
into
the atria when ventricles contract (atria ventricular
valves) relax as blood is forced
Pulmonary and aortic valves: prevent backflow of blood out; causes pulse
from the
arteries into the ventricles (semi-lunar valves) Transport high pressure Thick walls withstand
Artery
blood away from heart high pressure
9.4. Cardiac Cycle Rings of muscle narrow

or widen artery to
control blood flow.
Valves prevent backflow
of blood.
Blood is at low pressure,
but nearby muscles
Transport low pressure
Vein squeeze veins and help
blood to the heart
push blood to the heart
Large diameter and thin
walls reduce resistance
Atrial diastole, to flow of blood
Cardiac diastole: Atrial systole,
ventricular systole: One cell thick wall for
all chambers are ventricular diastole:
after atria relax, easy diffusion
relaxed, and atria contract,
ventricles contract, Highly branched; large
blood flows into pushing blood into
pushing blood out Allow substances to surface area
the heart the ventricles Capillary
of heart diffuse into cells Capillary beds constantly
supplied with fresh
Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and blood, so diffusion
more deeply,
for an increased circulation of blood so that occurs
more oxygen and
glucose can get to the muscles.
9.5. ECG Trace 9.8. Lymphatic System

Circulation of body fluids, and the production of
The electrical activity of the heart can be monitored by
lymphocytes.
the
electrocardiogram, pulse rate and listening to the
Lymph node contains many lymphocytes which filter
sounds of the
valves closing
lymph.
Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
Tissue fluid: made when plasma is squeezed out of
more deeply,
for an increased circulation of blood so that
capillaries.
more oxygen and
glucose can get to the muscle
Substances diffuse between cells and tissue fluid.
Lymph vessels collect lymph and return it to the blood.
9.6. Coronary Heart Disease Tissue fluid returns to the capillaries by osmosis.
Coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting the

supply of blood to
the heart muscle.
9.9. Blood
The heart muscle cells are deprived of oxygen & glucose,
Red blood cells: haemoglobin and oxygen transport
and
poisonous wastes such as lactic acid build up.
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody formation
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
Platelets: causing clotting
heart attack
Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients,
Caused by stress, smoking, poor diet, poor lifestyle &
hormones,
carbon dioxide, urea and plasma proteins
genetically
Can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food and
exercising
regularly
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted which

kills many
of the bacteria in food
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
defences
are usually destroyed by white blood cells:
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
by
phagocytosis
9.10. Immune system Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the
pathogen
Phagocyte Lymphocyte Vaccination against disease helps antibodies to
Phagocyte has lobed nucleus produce very
quickly
Lymphocytes are found in
and vesicles containing
blood and in lymph nodes
digestive enzymes. 10.3. The Immune System
Phagocytosis: engulf
pathogen, vesicles fuse with Large nucleus and they An antibody is a protein molecule which fits into another
vacuole, enzymes digest produce antibodies, molecule
bacteria. Pathogen molecules are called antigens.
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be
Antigen: protein/
made which are
exactly the right shape to fit into
carbohydrate on surface of Antibodies: Y-shaped protein,
molecules (antigens) on the
outside of the pathogen.
pathogen which provokes bind to label pathogens.
Antibodies lock onto antigens leading to destruction of
immune system
pathogen /
marking of pathogens for destruction by
Then either destroyed by phagocytes
being ingested by If a pathogen enters the body, it meets a large number of
phagocytes, or the antibodies lymphocytes. One of these will recognize the pathogen
may do it.
and divide
rapidly by mitosis
These lymphocytes then secrete antibody, destroying the
9.11. Blood Clotting pathogens
Active immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out production in the body.
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), and forms Active immunity is gained after an infection by a
a mesh
to trap red blood cells, which eventually dries to pathogen or by
vaccination.
form a scab. Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
pathogens
Process of vaccination:
10. Diseases and Immunity Harmless pathogen given which has antigens
Antigens trigger an immune response by lymphocytes
which produce
antibodies
10.1. Pathogens
Memory cells are produced that give long-term
immunity
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
In controlling the spread of disease, it is important to
Transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen
consider
hygienic food preparation, good personal
can be
passed from one host to another.
hygiene, waste disposal and
sewage treatment
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
Passive immunity: short-term defence against a pathogen
transmitted either:
by
antibodies acquired from another individual, e.g.
Direct contact e.g. through blood, body fluids
Indirectly e.g. from contaminated surfaces/food, from mother to infant
Memory cells are not produced in passive immunity
animals,
from air
Babies get passive immunity by breast feeding.
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother
10.2. Body Defences which are passed
on to her baby.
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
The human body has many natural defences against
well
developed and so the mother’s antibodies can
pathogens. protect it against
any diseases to which she is immune
Mechanical barriers: for the first few months of
its life
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust Some diseases are caused by the immune system
Skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
targeting and
destroying body cells (Type 1 diabetes)
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
11. Gas Exchange in Humans
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This is measured with a spirometer to produce a

11.1. Gas Exchange
spirogram.
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate, the
Property of surface Reason
change in
breathing volume and rate helps to keep CO2
Thin (one cell thick) Short distance to diffuse concentration
and pH at safe levels.
Many molecules can diffuse at
Large surface area
once
11.4. Breathing
Moist Cells die if not kept moist
Concentration gradients for Breathing In Breathing Out
oxygen and carbon dioxide are External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles
Well ventilated
kept up by regular fresh supplies contract – pulls rib cage relax – rib cage falls
of air upwards and outwards downwards and inwards
Gases can be carried to/from the Diaphragm muscles contract
Close to blood supply Diaphragm muscles relax –
cells that need/produce them – diaphragm moves
returns to dome shape
downwards
11.2. Structure Lung volume increases – and Lung volume decreases – and
pressure falls pressure increases
Air rushes in to equalise
Air is forced out
pressure
Cartilage (in trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing
during absence of air and also to protect it
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and
expands and
contracts (and efficient breathing)
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
between the
ribs that create and move the chest wall
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in
Internal intercostal muscles: are used in coughing and
the thorax
leading to the ventilation of the lungs
sneezing.
Inspired Air Expired Air Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
and
eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
Oxygen 21% 16%
Ciliated cells have cilia: little hairs which sweep back and
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4% forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the
Nitrogen 78% 78% lungs into the
mouth
Water Varies to climate Saturated water vapour
Temperature Varies to climate Always warm
12. Respiration
Test for CO2: Blow CO2 through limewater.
+ve result =
Chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in
turn cloudy
living
cells to release energy.
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle
11.3. Effect of Physical Activity on contraction, protein
synthesis, cell division, active
Breathing transport, growth, the passage of
nerve impulses and the
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells
breaths per
minute, and the tidal volume – more air per
breath 12.2. Aerobic Respiration
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Release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by

the
breakdown of food substances in the presence of
oxygen.
Glucose + oxygen → carbondioxide + water
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration

Release of a relatively small amount of energy by the
breakdown of
food substances in the absence of oxygen.
In muscles:
Glucose → Lactic Acid Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
C6 H12 O6 → 2C3 H6 O3

Ureter: carries urine from kidney to bladder

In yeast (single-cell fungi): Medulla: contains loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide Loop of Henlé: selectively absorbs water/solutes
C6 H12 O6 → 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2
Collecting ducts: reabsorbs water into blood and store
Disadvantages of anaerobic respiration: wastes
until they are passed into ureter
Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose Urethra: carried urine from bladder to the outside.
molecule that
aerobic respiration would Bladder: stores urine
Produces poisonous lactic acid Renal capsule: filters from blood: water, glucose, urea
Lactic acid: and
salts.
Transported in blood to heart, liver and kidneys, Tubule: (yellow) reabsorbs 100% of glucose, most of the
which oxidize
it water
and some salts back into the blood (red), leading to
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do concentration
of urea in the urine as well as loss of
this which
causes you to continue breathing heavily excess water and salts into
the tubule.
after exercise. Renal artery: brings wastes and water from blood
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt. Renal vein: reabsorbs water and useful molecules and
leaves
wastes behind
13. Excretion in Humans 13.3. Structure of the Kidney

Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials,
the
waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in
cells including
respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.
Substances should include carbon dioxide, urea and salts.
13.2. Function of Kidney

Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
of glucose
and some salts 1. Ultrafiltration: blood from renal artery enters the
Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids glomerulus.
Water, urea, salts and glucose are forced
Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver into the Bowman’s capsule.
Blood cells and large
proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the proximal tubule two
thirds of the
salt and water and all the glucose moves
out of the nephron, by
active transport. These
substances are reabsorbed back into the
blood
capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part of the loop of Henlé is
permeable to water but not salt. Water is drawn out
of the filtrate in the nephron by osmosis because of
the low water potential of the medulla tissue fluid.
4. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to salt but not
water. The
loss of water from the filtrate in the
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
previous stage increases the

salt concentration. Some
salt passively diffuses out of the loop
here.
5. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move
through the
second coiled tubule (distal tubule), into
the collecting duct. The
permeability of this part of the
nephron to water is controlled
13.4. Dialysis Sensory Neurone:
When a kidney machine takes a patient’s blood and

cleans it, then
returns the blood to circulation.
This is how it works:
Blood enters machine from patient
The pump passes the blood through the dialysis
tubing which is semi-permeable therefore acting as a
filter
The surrounding liquid contains some salts, glucose
but no urea
so waste materials pass from blood by
Relay (connector) neurone:
diffusion;
The ‘cleaned' blood returns to patient's
circulation/body
Dialysis Transplant
More expensive in the long Less expensive in the long
run run
Very disruptive (three 6-8 hrs Not very disruptive (only have
sessions per week) to take medication)
Do not need to find kidney Need a kidney
Need a machine & must live
Can go anywhere, anytime
near one
Risk of rejection
14. Coordination and 14.3. Reflex arc

Response A reflex action is an involuntary, quick action to respond
to a
stimulus, in order to protect the body from danger
E.g. quickly removing your hand from hot metal surface
14.1. Nervous Control in Humans They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, relay
neurone and
motor neurone.
The nervous system consists of two parts: The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
Central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain How the reflex arc works:
and
spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) made up of nerves converts a
stimulus into an electrical impulse)
and
neurones, which coordinate and regulate bodily A sensory neurone carries impulse from the receptor
functions. to the CNS
Involuntary actions: not under conscious control e.g. Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
reflex action (because it has
no myelin sheath) across the spinal
Voluntary actions: are done if we decide to carry them chord
out Motor neurone carries impulse from the CNS to the
effector
14.2. Types of Neurons Effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out the
response
Nerve impulse: an electrical signal that passes along
nerve
cells called neurones
Motor Neurone:
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Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters pupil
Lens: focuses light onto retina
Reflex action: means of automatically and rapidly
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
integrating
and coordinating stimuli with the responses of
effectors (muscles
and glands) different colours
Optic nerve: carries impulses to the brain
14.4. Synapses
14.7. Accomodation
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of
Adjusting for near and distant objects.
a gap
across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
Synaptic cleft: small gap between each pair of neurones
Inside the neurones axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles
(vessicles each contain a chemical called
neurotransmitter)
When an impulse arrives, the vessicles move to the cell
membrane and
empty their content into the synaptic cleft
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
and
attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay
neurone
This can happen because the shape of the
neurotransmitter molecules
is complimentary to the
shape of the receptor molecule
Many drugs e.g. heroin act upon synapses
14.5. Antagonistic Muscle

Near Object Distant Object
A muscle that opposes the action of another; e.g. biceps Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax
and triceps
are antagonistic muscles or circular and radial Ligaments relax Ligaments are tight
muscles in the eye
Lens becomes short and fat Lens becomes long and thin
Agonist: a muscle that contracts while another relaxes;
e.g. when
bending the elbow, the biceps are the agonist
Antagonist: a muscle that relaxes while another contracts; 14.8. Pupil Reflex
e.g. when
bending the elbow, the triceps are the
antagonist
Sense organ: groups of receptor cells responding to
specific
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature and
chemicals. Adjusting for high and low light intensity
Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity

14.6. The Eye Radial muscles (straight lines)
Circular muscles (circular
contract and become shorter
The sense organ responsible for sight lines) contract and become
to pull the pupil (black dot)
shorter to reduce the size of
making it wider, to let more
the pupil to protect retina
light enter, to form a clear
from bleaching.
image on retina
14.9. Rods and Cones
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Rods Cones Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system

Provide low detail, black & Localized response Widespread
Provide detailed, coloured
white images, good for seeing Area of response (only one area response (in many
images; they work in high
in low intensity light (at usually) organs)
light intensity.
night). Development of
Example of process Reflexes such as
Packed most tightly around Most tightly packed at centre reproductive
controlled blinking
edge of retina so you can see of retina, so objects are seen system
things most clearly when not most clearly when being
looking directly at them. directly looked at. Hormones are used in food production, for example
oestrogen is used
to boost growth rate of chickens.
Fovea: Advantage: chickens grow quickly meaning more profit.
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed Disadvantages: this may cause human males to develop
most
closley together feminine
characteristics, and it is unnatural.
Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object 14.13. Homeostasis
14.10. Hormones The maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within
A chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by set limits
the blood,
which alters the activity of one or more specific
target organs and
is then destroyed by the liver. 14.14. Negative Feedback
14.11. Adrenaline Feedback controls the production of hormones – the
hormones regulate
their own production.
A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. A negative feedback control is when the change in
It increases pulse rate, makes the glycogen in muscles is hormone level acts
as a signal to cancel out that change,
converted to glucose and released into blood, makes you so when blood hormone level
is low, hormone production
breathe deeper and more rapidly, airways become wider, is stimulated, when it is high, it is
inhibited.
and makes skin become pale as blood is diverted away.
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
14.15. Glucoregulation
Adrenaline is secreted for example: while bungee
jumping or riding a
rollercoaster Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
pancreas
Gland Hormone Function
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
Prepares body for vigorous depending on
the blood glucose level
Adrenal gland Adrenaline
action Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
Reduces conc. of glucose in the liver
stores excess glucose as glycogen
Pancreas Insulin
blood Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
Causes development of male the liver
converts stored glycogen into glucose and
Testis Testosterone releases it into the blood
sexual characteristics
Causes development of female
Ovary Oestrogen
sexual characteristics
14.12. Nervous and Hormonal Systems

Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Chemical When the control of blood glucose does not work, a
person is said to
have diabetes
Electrical impulses, messenger
Nature of message travelling along (hormones) Type 1 diabetes is caused by the death of the cells that
secrete
insulin
nerves travelling in
bloodstream Symptom: hyperglycaemia (feel unwell, dry mouth,
blurred
vision and feel thirsty) or hypoglycaemia
Duration of Usually within May take years
(tired, show confusion
and irrational behaviour)
response seconds (puberty)
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large Lungs: regulate gas exchange
amount
of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce Intestines: supply soluble nutrients and water to blood
blood glucose
concentration Liver: regulates blood solutes and removes toxins
14.16. Thermoregulation 14.18. Tropic Responses

Auxin:
Plant hormones or growth substances
Controls tropisms
It is produced by cells at the tip of roots and shoots of
plants
Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity.
Auxins’ role in gravitropism:
Constant body temperature is maintained by: Tend to settle at the bottom end of the root.
However, this does not make the cells of the tip of the
Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs root
grow longer; auxins prevent cells at bottom tip of
become
erect to trap warm air by contracting erector root from
growing, making cells at top of root grow
muscles and vice
versa. faster.
Vasodilatation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply When cells of top of the root grow faster, they push
blood
to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become root deeper
into soil and root gets longer.
wider) to allow more
blood near to skin surface to The root grows in direction of the gravitational pull.
increase heat loss (face redder) Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply (positive) or away (negative) from the direction from
blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become which light is
coming.
smaller) to
allow less blood near to skin surface to Auxins’ role in phototropism:
decrease heat loss If sun shines on right side of a plant’s shoot, auxins
Sweating: the water evaporates giving a cooling effect will
accumulate on dark opposite left side.
Skin receptors: sense heat and sensory neurons send Auxins accumulating makes cells on left side grow
impulses to
the hypothalamus faster than
cells on right side.
Shivering: muscular activity generates heat When left side of shoot starts growing faster than
Thermoregulatory centre: in the hypothalamus, it right side,
shoot will start to bend to right side
controls the
use of corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating towards sunlight.
and shivering). Hormones can be used as weed killers: spraying with high
concentrations of hormone (2,4-D) upsets normal growth
patterns. It
affects different species differently so might
only kill one species
not the other (this is good).
15. Drugs
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies
or affects chemical
reactions in the body.
15.2. Antibiotics
Antibiotics work by stopping a metabolic practice
14.17. Homeostatic Organs performed by the
bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but
not performed by human
cells.
Cells: change composition of blood as they remove Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics which reduces
nutrients and O2
and add wastes and CO2 the
effectiveness of antibiotics
Heart: keeps blood pressure constant to deliver oxygen Development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can be
and nutrients
around body minimised by
limiting use of antibiotics only when
Skin: to maintain heat exchange with external essential and ensuring
treatment is completed
environment Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they are not
Kidneys: regulate water and salt levels (osmoregulation) really living
and they make the host cell perform the tasks
and the
removal of wastes like urea (excretion) for them.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
High blood pressure

15.3. Heroin
Kidney failure
Increased risks of prostate cancer (male)
Effects of the abuse of heroin: a powerful depressant
Inconsistencies of menstrual cycle (female)
Problems of addiction Changes in blood cholesterol
Severe withdrawal symptoms (vomiting, restlessness)
Malnourishment as drug depresses appetite
Financial problems – stealing, loss of job 16. Reproduction
Infection from sharing needles e.g. HIV/AIDS
Heroin affects the nervous system by its effect on the 16.1. Asexual Reproduction
function of
synapses
The process resulting in the production of genetically
15.4. Alcohol identical
offspring from one parent.
Bacteria:
Effects of excessive consumption of alcohol –a depressant: Reproduce by binary fission, each bacterium divides
into two.
Causes coronary heart diseases The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
Reduced self-control divide into
2.
Depression Fungi:
Effect on reaction times Single-celled yeast reproduces by binary fission.
Damage to liver – cirrhosis All other fungi produce via spores.
When the sporangium bursts it spreads the spores.
15.5. Smoking Spores land and grow mycelium (roots) for example
mushrooms
Some effects of tobacco smoke: Potatoes:
The shoot from a potato goes back underground and
Drying effect and heat irritate lungs – destroys cilia the stem
swells to form a new genetically identical
Nicotine is addictive, it is also a stimulant, it increases potato.
pulse
rate and narrows blood vessels which can cause The swollen stem acts as a storage organ.
damage
Tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive Advantages Disadvantages
pulmonary disease
(COPD), lung cancer and coronary Fast: no need to find mate,
heart disease No variation
fertilise etc.
Tar causes cancer, and is an irritant so causes coughing.
Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
There are other irritants in tobacco smoke including:
smoke
particles, ammonia, and sulphur dioxide
Overcrowding- fighting for
Emphysema: walls between alveoli break making large
food
sacs, reducing
surface area massively and making you
breathless after a couple of
steps 16.2. Sexual Reproduction
Loss of limbs due to poor circulation, CHD and lower
sperm-count Sexual reproduction: process involving the fusion of the
Carbon monoxide irreversibly bonds with haemoglobin nuclei
of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
which can lead
to oxygen starvation production of
offspring that are genetically different from
Cancer of the stomach, pancreas and bladder etc. each other
Liver is the site of breakdown of alcohol and other toxins Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
Nuclei of gametes are haploid and that the nucleus of a
15.6. Hormones and Sports zygote is
diploid
Hormones: can be used to improve sporting performance Advantages Disadavnatges

Testosterone Produces genetically different
Takes lots of time and energy
Improved hand-eye coordination offspring
Improved body-fat composition don’t all die from change in Good characteristics can be
Increased muscle mass the environment lost
Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Energy on improving
Affects limbic system appearances or pollen
Mood swings volume for pollination
Impaired judgement (plants)
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Structure of non-endospermic seed:

16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Insect pollinated, dicotyledonous flowering plant:
foxglove
Formation of a seed: the zygote divides many times by

Wind pollinated flower structure: grass mitosis to
form and embryo. The cotyledon is the food
store. The testa stops
drying out of embryo.
Wind and animal dispersal are used by plants to colonise
new areas;
done because new areas have less
competition for light, space and
nutrients, so seeds are
more likely to develop.
Wind Dispersed Seed Animal Dispersed Seed
16.4. Functions Dandelion

Apple (internal)
Sepal: protect the flower bud.

Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
nectarines
which are all used to attract insects, petals in
wind pollinated
flowers are tiny, and used for pushing the
bracts (leaf-like
structures) apart to expose stamens and Sycamore Bur (external)
stigma
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains which contain
the
male nucleus (male gamete).
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.
16.5. Pollination
16.6. Germination
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of
the
plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the A process controlled by enzymes
plant (stigma). Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and
into
soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
wind the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
water),
and is used in aerobic respiration.
Large colourful petals – attract Dull petals Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
Sweetly scented No scent optimum
temperature).
Nectaries No nectaries
Moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen 16.7. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Anther & stigma inside flower Anther & stigma hangs out Male reproductive system:
Stick stigma Stigma hairy

Flowers have stripes which act
as guide-lines for insects
Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on stigma and creates a

tunnel
down the style, through the micropyle, to the
ovules.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Testes: have many coiled tubes which produce sperm,

and the
cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
Urethra: carries semen from sperm duct to tip of penis
Penis: male sex organ, used to transfer semen to the
female.
Female reproductive system:
Day 1 to 5:
In the ovary, FSH secreted by
the Pituitary Gland to
stimulate the maturation of ONE
follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium
breaks down;
menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
In the ovary the follicle keeps maturing
In the uterus, oestrogen is
secreted by follicle and the
ovarian tissues to prepare the
endometrium
Day 13/14/15:
In the ovary, LH is also
secreted by the Pituitary
Gland
to trigger the release of
the egg from follicle into the
fallopian tube
Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers formation of
Corpus Luteum
Ovary: contains follicles which develop into the ova and In the uterus: progesterone is
secreted by Corpus
produces progesterone and oestrogen Luteum to
keep endometrium thick, waiting
for
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to uterus possible embryo implant.
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops. Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilized
Cervix: neck of uterus: a strong rigid muscle, moist by No implantation takes place, the Corpus
Luteum
mucus
with a small opening degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
Vagina: receives penis during intercourse, and way out for This means that endometrium is
no longer thick, back
baby
at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and secretes to Day 1
mucus Day 28 – Scenario 2: Egg is fertilized
Implantation occurs.
16.8. Menstrual Cycle This makes the hormones to keep the
Corpus Luteum
maintained which
means that progesterone is
high.
This keeps the Endometrium
thick for pregnancy
16.9. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH being Change in diet:

produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle and it More proteins → growth of foetus
stimulates
the pituitary gland to release hormone LH. Slightly more fat → the new cells’ cell membrane
Progesterone is a hormone secreted by ovaries. It More vitamin C and D → blood vessel walls and bones
maintains the
lining of the uterus during the middle part Iron → haemoglobin
of the menstrual cycle
and during pregnancy. Calcium → growth of bones and teeth
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the Guidance on motherhood
pituitary
gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary Checks on foetus and mother including: weight check,
and it stimulates
ovaries to release hormone oestrogen blood tests,
urine tests, blood pressure checks,
Luteinizing hormone (LH): is also secreted by pituitary ultrasound scanning etc.
gland
and causes mature egg to be released from ovary.
16.13. Labour and Birth
16.10. Sexual Intercourse
Labour: The uterine muscular wall contract and cervix
Penis fills with blood and becomes erect tries to
relax, then contractions get more frequent.
Vagina walls secrete a lubricant. Contractions cause
amniotic membrane to break and
Rubbing of the glans (end of penis) against the vagina wall release amniotic fluid.
sets of
a reflex action, causes sperm to be released from Expulsion: Powerful Contraction pushes baby out.
the testes, and is
transported by peristalsis along sperm Afterbirth: Placenta is expulsed out. All contraction & pain
ducts and urethra, where
seminal fluid is added to make gone
semen.
The exit of semen from the penis is called ejaculation. Gamete Size Mobility Number
Sperm then swim through the cervix and oviducts to the Many more
Sperm Smaller Very mobile – use its tail
first third
of the oviduct (from the ovary) where one (300,000,000)
combines with the egg. Immobile – moved by Fewer and
Egg Larger
peristalsis limited
16.11. Fertilization
| Damage beauty |
| No additives /preservatives | |
| Builds
The fusion of an ovum and a sperm to form a zygote. mother-child bond | |
| No cost/preparation | |
| Causes
Development of zygote: decline in uterus size | |
One sperm penetrates Bottle feeding:
Ovum membrane alters to form barrier against sperm Advantages Disadvantages
Head of sperm (male nucleus) approaches and then
Less painful More likely to develop illness
fuses with the
nucleus of the ovum.
Other people can feed baby Risk of wrong mixture
Zygote divides over and over, to make a ball of cells
called an
embryo. May contain supplement
Expensive
It implants itself in the wall of the nucleus vitamins and minerals
(implantation)
which is followed by conception
Development of foetus: zygote is changed through 16.14. Sex Hormones
growth
(mitosis) and development (organization of cells
into tissues and
organs) At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
Umbilical cord: contains umbilical artery which carries primary sex
organs; the testes in males and the ovaries in
deoxygenated blood and waste products from foetus to females.
placenta and
umbilical vein which carries oxygenated Sex hormones – testosterone in males and oestrogen in
blood and soluble food from
placenta to foetus. (Contains females are
released into the bloodstream.
foetus’ blood) They only affect the target organs which have receptors
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as which can
recognize them.
foods,
wastes and oxygen between mother and foetus; Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
physical attachment
between uterus and foetus. growth of pubic
hair and maturation of sexual organs.
(Contains mother’s blood)
Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
broken at
birth.
16.15. Methods of Birth Control
Amniotic fluid: protects foetus against mechanical shock,
Natural:
drying
out and temperature fluctuations
Abstinence: don’t have sex
Rhythm method: don’t have sex during the fertile
16.12. Antenatal Care: period, only
during the safe period
Chemical:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Progesterone-only pill: pill which affects the uterus

17.2. Chromosome
and makes
implantation difficult
Spermicide: a chemical applied as a gel, cream or Chromosome: a thread-like structure of DNA, made up of
foam which
kills sperm. It is very unreliable on its own
a string of genes
but makes barrier
methods of contraception more
Gene: a length of DNA that is the unit of heredity and
effective.
codes for
a specific protein. A gene may be copied and
Mechanical: passed on to the next
generation
Condom: thin rubber covering over penis, it protects
Allele: any of two or more alternative forms of a gene
from
impregnation and STDs, used by man
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
Diaphragm: used by woman, prevent sperm entering
unpaired
chromosomes (e.g. sperm and egg)
uterus,
reliable, must stay in place 6 hours after sex,
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
needs a correct
size
chromosomes
(e.g. in body cells)
Femidom: closed end, has a ring which gets pushed Inheritance of gender in humans: woman’s gamete can
through cervix
and open end’s ring lies against the
only carry
an “X” chromosome, and a male gamete can
labia
carry either an “X” or “Y”
chromosome; females are “XX”
IUD: plastic-coated copper coil, can be left inside for while males are “XY”. There is always a
50% chance of
months
or even years, has a string which is used to
getting a boy and vice versa.
remove it out of
the vagina, reliable, it irritates uterus
wall preventing
implantation
Surgical: 17.3. DNA & Protein Synthesis
Vasectomy: sperm ducts are cut and tied
Female sterilization: oviducts are cut and tied DNA: control cell functions by controlling production of
proteins, antibodies and receptors for neurotransmitters
DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG
16.16. Artificial Insemination How proteins are made:
Made from long chains of amino acids (20)
By donor: man’s sperm has a problem, making
DNA bases are read as triplets
impregnation
impossible, so a donor gives his sperm.
DNA is found in the nucleus
In vitro fertilization: an ovum is fertilized outside a
Protein synthesis happens on ribosome in cytoplasm
woman’s
body. The fertilized ovum is implanted into the
mRNA carries information from DNA to ribosome
uterus. When a protein is made, mRNA is made in the
Fertility drugs: drugs which enhance reproductive fertility. nucleus, copying the
base sequence
For
women, fertility medication is used to stimulate
mRNA moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm
follicle
development of the ovary. The side effect is
and attaches to
the ribosome
multiple pregnancies.
They contain varying amount of
ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
FSH and LH. molecules
the specific order of amino acids is determined by the
16.17. Human Immunodeficiency Virus sequence
of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
(HIV)
many genes
in a particular cell are not expressed because
the cell only makes
the specific proteins it needs
Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
transplant
or sharing needle with infected person
Prevention: 17.4. Mitosis
Avoid intercourse with many partners
Use a condom The nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical
Don’t come in contact with other people’s blood cells in
which the chromosome number is maintained by
How it affects the immune system: the exact duplication
of chromosomes.
Infects and destroys lymphocytes Mitosis is needed for:
Decreases efficiency of immune system Growth: in animals each tissue provides its own new
Body becomes liable to infection by other pathogens cells
when they are needed.
Repair of damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
your
skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cut.
17. Inheritance Replacement of worn out cells
Asexual reproduction: in plants
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from Stem cells: unspecialized cells that divide by mitosis to
generation to
generation produce daughter cells that can become specialized for
specific
functions
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
17.5. Meiosis
Reduction division in which the chromosome number is
halved from
diploid to haploid
Gametes are the result of meiosis
Meiosis results in genetic variation so the cells produced
are not
all genetically identical.
17.6. Monohybrid Inheritance

Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the
alleles
present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Phenotype: physical or other features of an organism due
to both
its genotype and its environment (e.g. tall plant or
green seed)
genotype + environment + random variation →

phenotype 3:1 Monohybrid Crosses
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular

gene
(e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed
together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene
(e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
no
dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Pedigree diagrams:
Co-dominance: when neither of two alleles is dominant to

each
other.
There are three alleles for blood group given by the
symbols
IA, IB and IO.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group
AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to
IO.
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the
gene
responsible is located on a sex chromosome and
Genetic diagrams: that this makes it
more common in one sex than in the
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses other
Colour blindness as an example of sex linkage
18. Variation & Selection

18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and
environmental
factors
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Continuous variation is influenced by genes and Hydrophytes: live in wholly or partly submerged in water.
environment,
resulting in a range of phenotypes between Their
features are:
two extremes, e.g. height
in humans Leaves are highly divided to create large surface area
Discontinuous variation is caused by genes alone and for
absorption and photosynthesis
results in
a limited number of distinct phenotypes (e.g. Very little cuticle formation
you are either blood
group O, A, B or AB, nothing else) Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
Mutation: genetic change Stomata is in the upper surface, has a thick waxy layer
Gene mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA to repel
water and to keep the stomata open and
Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed clear
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate Roots are often reduced and root hairs are often
of mutation absent
Mutation is a source of variation e.g. in Down’s syndrome,
where a
parent’s chromosomes are unevenly distributed 18.4. Natural Selection
in meiosis. In
fertilisation, a zygote with a number of
chromosomes that is not 46
is created (e.g. 23 + 24). The greater chance of passing on of genes by the best
Characteristics: broad forehead, short
neck, downward- adapted
organisms.
sloping eyes, short nose and mental retardation. Variation is natural or random changes in all living
organisms.
18.2. Sickle Cell Anaemia Variation leads to survival of the fittest since the
variations in
certain organisms allow that organism to
Disease in which the red blood cell has a sickle shape have an advantage over the
others in its species in that
instead of a
round biconcave shape, controlled by a area
recessive allele, which
causes weakness, aching joints and The surviving organisms reproduce, since they don’t get
poor circulation. eaten up, so
variation has caused the species to evolve.
The fact that it is recessive means that a heterozygous Evolution is caused by natural selection which is caused
person can
be a carrier: they have the allele but it is not by a change
in the environment
expressed.
Being a carrier of sickle cell anaemia makes you resistant 18.5. Artificial Selection
to
malaria
In equatorial Africa, having sickle cell anaemic causes Is breeding organisms with valued characteristics
death. Malaria also causes death. But the carriers have together in order
to try to produce offspring which shares
immunity to malaria and have some symptoms of those useful
characteristics (selective breeding).
anaemia, in severe cases, they are very weak Can be used to produce organisms which are more
economically valued
18.3. Adaptive Features For example: cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
easier to
separate from grain, dogs which have better
Adaptive feature: appearance
inherited feature that helps an organism to survive Selective breeding:
and
reproduce in its environment Selecting by humans of individuals with desirable
the inherited functional features of an organism that features
increase
its fitness Crossing three individuals to produce the next
Fitness: the probability of an organism surviving and generation
reproducing in the environment in which it is found
Xerophytes: live in deserts where water is scarce and 18.6. Resistant Antibiotic
evaporation is rapid, or in windy habitats. Their features
are: Strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria are developing as
Deep roots to reach water far underground the use
of antibiotics is increasing.
Leaves reduced spines with minimum surface area for In a group of many bacteria, one might mutate to be
transpiration resistant to the
antibiotic, as a result it reproduces and
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain the others die making a
new strain of bacteria, which is
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits to resistant to antibiotics.
trap moist
air The susceptible (weak) bacteria are killed first
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable water Only resistant (strong) bacteria are left
Stomata opening at night and closed at midday when
evaporation
is highest
E.g. cactus and marram grass
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal,

19. Organisms and their but to have
meat we must feed the animal a lot of plant
material in order to get
far less meat.
Environment In the process of raising an animal, plants lose energy to
environment, then animal loses energy to environment
19.1. Food Chains and Food Webs and does not
use up all the plant material so it is very
inefficient.
The sun is the principal source of energy input to
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass
biological
systems.
Energy flow is not a cycle; it starts from the sun and then
that
energy is harnessed by plants which are eaten by
animals which are
eaten by other animals.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.
Food chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food)
from one
organism to the next beginning with a
producer, for example: Shows number of each Pyramid which shows the
organism in a food chain biomass
Mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk When moving up pyramid,
(number of individuals × their
number of individuals’
Food web: showing the transfer of energy from one individual mass)
decreases
organism to
the next, beginning with a producer
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food
chain by
ingestion 19.2. Carbon Cycle
Producer: an organism that makes its own organic
nutrients,
usually using energy from sunlight, through
photosynthesis
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on
other
organisms
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste
organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Ecosystem: a unit containing all of the organisms and
19.3. Nitrogen Cycle
their
environment, interacting together, in a given area
e.g. decomposing
log or a lake
Trophic level: position of an organism in a food chain,
food web
or pyramid of biomass, numbers or energy
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels,

because
energy transfer is inefficient:
Sun produces light, less than 1% of the energy falls onto

leaves. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy, because of: plants, these
may exist in the root nodules where they
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength. live in symbiosis with the
plants (nitrogen fixation), or this
Primary consumer only gets between 5-10% because can happen because of lightning,
or microorganisms
some parts are
indigestible (e.g. cellulose) and not eating provide them through decomposition.
the whole plant. Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing
Secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because substances into
better nitrogen-containing substances for
animal matter is more
digestible & has higher energy the plants
(nitrification).
value Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
At each level heat is lost by respiration. proteins
Primary consumers eat the plants and can make their
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating own proteins,
secondary consumers eat primary
animals
because… consumers and so on.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Death and decay happens at each trophic level leading to

stage one
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they
convert
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric
nitrogen
19.4. Water Cycle Lag phase: number of mature, reproducing individuals is

low and
they may be widely dispersed
Log phase: exponential growth occurs, the conditions are
ideal
and maximum growth rate is reached. Limiting
factors do not limit
growth much.
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as
population has
reached “carrying capacity” of its
environment; when mortality rate =
birth rate; curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum
population size.
O2 conc. CO2 conc.
Methods Why?
in air in air
19.8. Human Population Growth
Burning uses up
Combustion of oxygen, and Factors favouring growth Factors controlling growth
Decreases Increases
fossil fuels produces carbon
Lower infant mortality Disease
dioxide
Higher life expectancy famine
Fewer trees means
less photosynthesis Better nutrition War
Trees are usually Better housing

Deforestation Decreases Increases burnt (combustion) Better sanitation
Decomposition of Medicine
tree trunks Vaccination
(respiration)
The human population is becoming stable (stagnation)
due to:
19.5. Population
better education (particularly for women), so they
work instead
of getting married and having children
Population: a group of organisms of one species, living in
better living conditions, fewer people die, fewer births
the
same area at the same time
Community: all of the populations of different species in needed
cities, reduced need for physical labour on farms
an
ecosystem
family planning
Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms
But overall the population is still increasing.
and
their environment, interacting together, e.g. a
decomposing log, or
a lake Social implications of human growth:
demands for roads as there is an increases number of
cars
19.6. Factors Affecting Rate of greater expectation for a variety of foods all year
Population Growth round
smaller families increase demand for housing
Food supply: quantity and quality, for example snails greater demand for leisure and recreation space
need
calcium to reproduce to make a shell (food quality).
Predation: if predator population falls, the prey
population
will rise
20. Biotechnology & Genetic
Disease: causes organisms to die so a high death rate
partly
cancels out birth rate meaning less population
Engineering
growth, especially if
the organism dies before giving birth,
or even population decline Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic
engineering due to
their rapid reproduction rate and
their ability to make complex
molecules
19.7. Sigmoid Curve Why are microorganisms used:
Bacteria and fungi are small and easy to grow in a lab
They reproduce quickly and don’t take up much space
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
No ethical issues involved Lactase:

Genetic code is the same for bacteria as it is for
human Enzyme that breaks down lactose (sugar found in milk)
Bacteria have loops of DNA called plasmids which are People can stop making lactase naturally, therefore can’t
easy to
transfer from one cell to another digest
lactose
Milk can be treated with lactase to break down lactose
before a
person drinks it
20.2. Making Biofuel Also produces glucose & galactose, used in sweets
Use plants to make sugars which yeast then breaks down

to make
ethanol 20.5. Making Penicillin
Ethanol can then be used as a fuel
Maize is treated with amylase enzyme (starch to
glucose)
Add yeast (glucose used in respiration) and make it
respire
anaerobically
Ethanol that is produced is extracted by distillation
Mixed with gasoline to increase energy and can be
used in cars
20.3. Bread Making

Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
the dough. penicillium.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and Stainless steel fermentation vessel is filled with medium
glucose. This is
used by yeast in respiration containing
sugars and ammonium salts.
The dough is kept in a warm, moist environment (28°c). Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
Yeast
ferments sugar making carbon dioxide which for
respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
creates bubbles, so bread
rises nucleic acids
Cooking (at 180°c) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and The fermentation vessel consists of PAWS
hardens
outer surface. Probes monitor temperature and pH
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
20.4. Uses of Enzymes Water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain
temperature of
24C.
Pectinase: Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing
access
to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an
Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down even temperature.
pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together Filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized to
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from make
capsules.
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear not 20.6. Genetic Engineering
cloudy
Genetic engineering: changing the genetic material of an
organism by removing, changing or inserting individual
Washing powders:
genes
Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzyme Examples of genetic engineering:
that help
remove stain the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce
human
insulin
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in
the wash
releasing the enzyme the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier resistance to
herbicides
for
detergents to remove the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
Proteases break down proteins in stains e.g. grass, blood resistance to
insect pests
Lipases break down stains containing fats and oil the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional
vitamins
Carbohydrases break down carbohydrate-based stains,
such as
starch

Human Insulin in Bacteria
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using Monoculture is the continuous production of one type of
restriction
enzymes, forming sticky ends crop
that is often genetically uniform.
Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same Negative Impacts of Monoculture
restriction enzymes,
forming complementary sticky ends If a natural disaster were to occur, the whole crop
Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using could be
wiped out.
DNA ligase
to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of If pests & disease attacked crop, it could harm it easily
plasmid into bacteria Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety of
Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids species. This hinders biodiversity.
which make
human protein as they express the gene
Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
Welfare issues for the livestock
20.7. Genetically Modified Crops Diseases can spread easily among them
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
Advantages Disadvantages
Uniform in shape – easy to
Natural species may die 21.2. Habitat Destruction
transport/ appeal consumers
Growing season shorter Taste often not as good Reason for habitat destruction
Lead to development of Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
Drought resistant – less water super weeds – stronger than production and
housing
GM Extraction of natural resources
No one knows long term Marine pollution
Higher yields Through altering food webs, and food chains, humans
effect on humans
can have a
negative impact on habitats
Effects of deforestation
21. Human Influences on Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
Ecosystems warming
Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil, goes into
rivers making the water dirty & causes blockages, soil
21.1. Food Supply becomes
less fertile
Flooding: usually 75% of water is absorbed by foliage,
Food production has increased because: root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
accumulates in valleys
Improved machinery means less labour is needed
Fertilizers help crops to grow better
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects 21.3. Pollution
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
Artificial selection and genetic modification means that Water and air pollution:
yields are improved: cows produce more milk, cows are
more muscular
giving more meat, plant crops can resist Chemical waste and sewage in rivers results in water not
insects and cold weather being
drinkable and eutrophication can occur
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in rain, causing acid rain which
increases
acidity of lakes and leaches aluminium out of
World Food Supplies the soil causing:
The fishes’ gills are damaged, eventually killing them.
Not enough food available in a country to feed its people This is
fixed by adding calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
because: Destroys top of trees and aluminium damages tree
Fast increase in population roots = dead
tree, important nutrients leached away
Increasing use of crops for fuel SO2 poses health hazards for humans (asthma
Decrease of farming = Climate change/Urbanization sufferers)
Famine: Wide spread scarcity of food Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
The main causes of famine: Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field (fixed by
The rapid rate of population increase adding
lime)
Long term climatic change
Soil erosion and desertification
Economic pressure Pollution due to pesticides:
Unequal distribution of food
Drought Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat
Flood crops, but can kill other, useful insects such as bees
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
which are
pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and
in dose of toxin
from one level of the food chain to the decreasing the O2
concentration
next) Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which
eat the
plants

Nuclear fall-out:
Radioactive particles are sprayed into the atmosphere in

a nuclear
accident or bombing; 21.4. Conservation
These particle “rain” back to earth from clouds,
sometimes far from
the accident site; Sustainable resource: one which is produced as rapidly as
The radioactivity damages DNA and causes cancer and it is
removed from the environment so that it does not
radiation
illness at every level of the food chain. run out
Sustainable development: development providing for the
needs of
an increasing human population without
Non-biodegradable plastics: harming the environment
Sustainable development requires:
Choke birds, fish and other animals
Management of conflicting demands
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food
Planning and co-operation at local, national and
Collect in rivers, and get in the way of fish
international
levels
Some resources can be maintained, limited to forests and
Acid rain: fish
stocks.
They can be sustained using:
Caused by sulphur dioxide (burning fossil fuels) and Education
nitrogen oxides
(nitrogen reacting hot engines), as they Legal quotas
dissolve and cause acid
rain Re-stocking
Damages trees and plants, and kills fish and other river
life Natural resources:
Prevention: catalytic converters, in factories slaked lime
Water: used to grow food, keep clean, provide power,
neutralizes these acidic oxides and use of flue-gas
control
fires and to drink. We get water constantly
desulfurization
through rainfall but we
are using up planet’s fresh water
faster than it can be replenished.
Global Warming: Fossil fuels: need to be conserved as they will soon run
out,
they should be therefore replaced with green forms
Increase in average temperature of the Earth of energy.
Started at the same time as humans began burning fossil
fuels Recycling:
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven
Water: water from sewage can be returned to
yet
environment for
human use by sanitation and sewage
Increase in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations
treatment
in the
atmosphere cause an enhanced greenhouse effect
the leads to climate
change Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
Negative impact of female contraceptive hormones in raw
materials for industry
water
courses: Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Metal: mining takes a lot of energy so recycling saves
Reduced sperm count in men and feminisation of aquatic
organisms energy
Species and habitats: need to be conserved because:

Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
nutrients.
Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
Fertilisers put in soil by farmers new drugs)
Fertilisers with nitrates / detergents with phosphates Genetic resources are useful to humans as well and are
leach into
rivers and lakes after rain lost when
species disappear (DNA for genetic
Water plants grow more than usual engineering)
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
They die and sink to bottom then
the whole ecosystem could collapse
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Endangered species: Conservation programmes include:

reducing extinction
How they become endangered: climate change, habitat protecting vulnerable environments
destruction,
hunting, pollution and introduced species maintaining ecosystem functions, by nutrient cycling
If the population size drops, variation decreases and
resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
Endangered species can be conserved by: monitoring and genes
protecting
species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes and
seed banks
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE
Biology (0610)
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ZNOTES.

UPDATED TO 2020-21 SYLLABUS

Cell Function Adaptation(s) Diagram

1.1. Cell structure and Organization

1.3. Size of Specimens

Fused head and thorax and segmented abdomen

2.6. Classifying Plants

In animals: Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled

Warmed in ethanol until leaf is colourless to extract

5.5. Enzymes and their Uses

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of and B.

Chlorophyll is a dye, which traps light energy and produces CO2 . ​

Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.

Stomata: little holes that opens and closes to allow

As the amount of light

6.6. Glasshouse Systems

CO2 enrichment: paraffin is burnt to increase

6.7. Leaf Structure 6.9. Phloem

Companion cells actively unload (ATP used) the organic

7. Human Nutrition Water

Balanced Diet: getting all the right nutrients in correct

7.3. Effects of Malnutrition

Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:

Movement of digested food molecules through wall of the

Light intensity: high light intensity causes stomata to

8.5. Uptake of Water 9.3. The Heart

8.6. Factors Affecting Rate of

9.4. Cardiac Cycle Rings of muscle narrow

9.5. ECG Trace 9.8. Lymphatic System

Coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting the

In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted which

This is measured with a spirometer to produce a

Cartilage (in trachea): prevents the trachea from

Release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by

Glucose + oxygen → carbondioxide + water

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration

Ureter: carries urine from kidney to bladder

13. Excretion in Humans 13.3. Structure of the Kidney

13.2. Function of Kidney

previous stage increases the

13.4. Dialysis Sensory Neurone:

When a kidney machine takes a patient’s blood and

14. Coordination and 14.3. Reflex arc

Cornea: refracts light

14.5. Antagonistic Muscle

Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity

14.9. Rods and Cones

Rods Cones Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system

14.12. Nervous and Hormonal Systems

14.16. Thermoregulation 14.18. Tropic Responses

High blood pressure

Hormones: can be used to improve sporting performance Advantages Disadavnatges

Structure of non-endospermic seed:

Formation of a seed: the zygote divides many times by

Wind Dispersed Seed Animal Dispersed Seed

16.4. Functions Dandelion

Sepal: protect the flower bud.

Stick stigma Stigma hairy

Chlorophyll is a dye, which traps light energy and produces CO2 .