PERSPECTIVE OF

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
M.A/M.Ed ELEMENTARY TEACHER EDUCATION

Course Code: 625 Units: 1-9

Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher

Education Department
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

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 COURSE TEAM

Chairman: Prof Dr Nasir Mahmood

Chairman, Dean/Faculty of Education
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Course Coordinator: Dr. Muhammad Athar Hussain

Assistant Professor
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Writers: 1. Dr. Muhammad Athar Hussain

Assistant Professor
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad
2. Dr. Rehmatullah Bhatti
Assistant Professor
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad
3. Dr. Aishah Siddiquah
Assistant Professor
Lahore College for Women University
4. Dr. Maliha Nasir
Assistant Professor
University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir
5. Mubeshera Tufail
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad
6. Sajjad Hussain
Lecturer, University of Swat
7. Muhammad Irfan
PhD Scholar (Education), Assistant Registrar,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
8. Miss Abida Latif
PhD Scholar (Education)

Reviewers: 1. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

2. Prof. Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani

Editor: Fazal Karim

Proof Reading 1. Abdul Majeed

2. Azhar Abbas

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 ACKNOLWEDGEMENT

Elementary education holds a fundamental status in education system of a country. In the

last few years the government of Pakistan has taken various measures to improve the
status and quality of elementary education. The elementary schools are achieving fast
growth in terms of new students’ enrollment, increased attendance rate and other factors
as well.

Elementary education forms the foundation for gaining basic knowledge without which
the dream of children will become impossible; therefore, the competency in perspective
of elementary education is very essential to achieve milestones set in the education
policies. To meet this demand, the department of Early Childhood and Elementary
Teacher Education offers the course “Perspective of Elementary Education” for
future/working teachers. This book is intended to equip the students of M.A. / M.Ed with
knowledge of development of elementary education and elementary teacher education
programs.

This book reflects the efforts of many people. The Department of Early Childhood
Education and Elementary Teacher Education is grateful to all the members of the course
team for writing units and giving comments and feedback to improve the materials.

I am highly grateful to Prof Dr Shahid Siddiqui, Vice-Chancellor, Allama Iqbal Open

University for providing facilities and encouragement for writing the book.

Special thanks go to Dr Muhammad Athar Hussain, course development coordinator for

efforts and committed work in a short time. Finally I am personally thankful to all, who
helped in developing this course “Perspective of Elementary Education”.

Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Chairman/Dean F/o Education

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 OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

After successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:

1. explain historical development of elementary education in Pakistan.

2. describe philosophical foundations of education

3. comprehend Islamic system of elementary education.

4. understand educational thoughts of Muslim Philosophers and Western Philosophers.

5. explain problems and challenges in elementary education.

6. know role of professional organizations in education.

7. comment on elementary teacher education in comparative perspective

8. state elementary teacher education programs in Pakistan

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 INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE

Elementary education refers to the first phase of compulsory education that children
obtain during the few years of school education. This phase has specific objectives that
tend to meet special needs of the elementary school children. This phase goes for a period
of eight years once children have begun schooling from grade one.

Many countries give special focus on investing in other sectors whereas the elementary
education is given minimal attention. This is specially common in developing countries.
Consequently, there is a rapid increase in number of illiterates who cause many other
social evils.

The national education policy (2009) has given attention on two large and critical
problems facing the elementary sector, that is, (i) low participation and narrow base of
the sector, and (ii) weak quality of provision.

Despite some progress in recent years, access rates remain low, NER at 66% for primary
are the lowest compared to the selected reference countries. Even though these 2005 rates
have improved in 2006-07, Pakistan could not achieve EFA 2015 targets. The narrow
base is further attenuated through high dropout rates. The survival rate to Grade 5 is 72%.
Of those who succeed in completing Grade V, there is a further loss to the system
through those not making the transition to the secondary level. Pakistan cannot afford to
live with the narrow base in the perspective of long term economic and social
development of the nation. These are curriculum, textbooks, assessments, teachers, the
learning environment in an institution and relevance of education to practical life/ labor
market. It also states that elementary schooling is facing many deficiencies in each of the
input areas , that, textbooks, assessments, teachers, learning environment and then
relevance of education to practical life / labour market, that would need to be improved;
the most significant action is required in improving the teaching resources and the
pedagogical approaches teachers employ in elementary classes.

There are a number of various aspects of elementary education which will be explored in
this course. This course is not only focused to produce students who are well aware of
pedagogical skills but also to help them understand various themes related to elementary
education. Moreover this course intended at assisting students to enhance curriculum and
professional development as educators.

Dr. Muhammad Athar Hussain

Course Development Coordinator/
Program Coordinator

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 CONTENTS

Unit–1 Development of Elementary Education in Pakistan ---------------------------- 13

1.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.3 Quaid-e-Azam’s Concept of Education ------------------------------------------------- 14
1.4 Educational Policies ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14
1.4.1 First Education Conference (1947)---------------------------------------------- 14
1.4.2 National Education Commission (1959) -------------------------------------- 15
1.4.3 Educational Policy (1972-80) ---------------------------------------------------- 16
1.4.4 National Education Policy (1972-80) ------------------------------------------- 17
1.4.5 National Education Policy (1992) ----------------------------------------------- 19
1.4.6 New Educational Policy (1998-2010) ------------------------------------------ 20
1.4.7 New Educational Policy (2009) ------------------------------------------------- 22
1.5 Self Assessment Questions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 23
1.6 References ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24

Unit–2 Philosophical Foundations of Education ------------------------------------------ 25

2.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
2.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
2.3 Concepts of Education ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
2.3.1 School of Thoughts in Education ----------------------------------------------- 28
Perennialism ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
2.3.2 Perennialism in Classroom Teachers ------------------------------------------- 31
Summary ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
2.3.3 Essentialism------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Essentialist Philosophy------------------------------------------------------------ 32
Notion and History of Essentialist Education --------------------------------- 34
Systematic View of Essentialist Education ------------------------------------ 35
2.3.4 Progressivism ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Progressive Philosophy ----------------------------------------------------------- 38
Progressive Education ------------------------------------------------------------ 40
Progressive Beliefs about Learning -------------------------------------------- 41
2.3.5 Reconstructionism ----------------------------------------------------------------- 44
2.4 Exercise --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
2.5 References ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 48

Unit–3 Islamic System of Elementary Education ---------------------------------------- 49

3.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
3.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50

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3.3 The Concept of Knowledge in Islam ----------------------------------------------------- 50
3.3.1 Sources of Knowledge ------------------------------------------------------------ 51
3.3.2 Significance of Knowledge------------------------------------------------------- 52
3.4 The Concept of Education in Islam ------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.4.1 Aims of Education ----------------------------------------------------------------- 54
3.5 Teacher’s Role ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.6 Teaching Methodology --------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
3.7 Educational System and Ideology of Pakistan ------------------------------------------ 57
3.8 Some Desirable Measures ------------------------------------------------------------------ 59
3.9 Self Assessment Questions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 60
3.10 Bibliography ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60

Unit–4 Educational Thoughts of Muslim Philosopher/Thinkers ----------------------- 61

4.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
4.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
4.3 Sheikh Ahmed Sirhind (Mujaddad Alif Sani -------------------------------------------- 62
4.3.1 Significant Works ------------------------------------------------------------------ 62
4.3.2 Objectives of Education ---------------------------------------------------------- 63
4.3.3 Teaching Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------- 63
4.3.4 Curriculum -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
4.4 Shah Wali Ullah ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 64
4.4.1 Major Works ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 65
4.4.2 Aims of Education ----------------------------------------------------------------- 65
4.4.3 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
4.4.4 Teaching Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------- 65
4.5 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
4.5.1 Some Most Significant Works --------------------------------------------------- 66
4.5.2 Objectives of Education ---------------------------------------------------------- 67
4.5.3 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 67
4.6 Allama Mohammad Iqbal ------------------------------------------------------------------ 68
4.6.1 Major Works ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 70
4.6.2 Objectives of Education ---------------------------------------------------------- 70
4.6.2.1 Ideological and Religious Educaiton --------------------------------- 70
4.6.2.2 Amalgamation of Matter and Spirit ----------------------------------- 71
4.6.2.3 Tolerance and Love for Humanity ----------------------------------- 72
4.6.2.4 Creativity and Dynamism ---------------------------------------------- 72
4.6.3 Curriculum -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
4.6.4 Teaching Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------- 74
4.7 Farabi ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74
4.7.1 Major Works ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 74
4.7.2 Aims of Education ----------------------------------------------------------------- 75

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 4.7.3 Teaching Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------- 75
4.7.4 Curriculum -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
4.8 Imam Ghazali --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
4.8.1 Significant Works ------------------------------------------------------------------ 78
4.8.2 Educational Philosophy ----------------------------------------------------------- 78
4.8.3 Educational Aims ------------------------------------------------------------------ 79
4.8.4 Curriculum -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 79
4.8.5 Teaching Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------- 79
4.9 Qazi Ibn-e-Jamaa ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
4.9.1 Significant Works ------------------------------------------------------------------ 80
4.9.2 Educational Aims ------------------------------------------------------------------ 80
4.9.3 Teaching Methodology and Qualities of a Teacher -------------------------- 80
4.9.4 Code of Ethics for Students ------------------------------------------------------ 81
4.10 Iban-e-Khaldoon ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81
4.10.1 Al-Muqaddima --------------------------------------------------------------------- 81
4.10.2 His Contribution to Different Field of Education ----------------------------- 82
4.10.2.1 Economics -------------------------------------------------------------- 82
4.10.2.2 Sociology --------------------------------------------------------------- 82
4.10.2.3 History ------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
4.10.2.4 Science and Philosophy ---------------------------------------------- 83
4.10.2.5 Learning of Arts ------------------------------------------------------- 84
4.10.3 Pedagogical Principles ------------------------------------------------------------ 84
4.11 Self-Assessment Questions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 85
4.12 Bibliography ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85

Unit–5 Western Educationists ---------------------------------------------------------------- 86

5.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
5.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
5.3 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-17787 ----------------------------------------------------- 88
5.3.1 Major Works ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 89
5.3.2 Education of Nature --------------------------------------------------------------- 89
5.3.3 Aims of Education ----------------------------------------------------------------- 90
5.3.4 Methods of Teaching and Nurturing of Kids ---------------------------------- 90
5.3.5 Child Centered Education -------------------------------------------------------- 91
5.3.6 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
5.3.7 Eclectic Approach ----------------------------------------------------------------- 92
5.3.8 Criticism on Rousseau ------------------------------------------------------------ 92
5.4 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1946-1827) ------------------------------------------------- 93
5.4.1 Major Works ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 94
5.4.2 Principles of his Educational Philosophy -------------------------------------- 94
5.4.3 Aim of Education ------------------------------------------------------------------ 95

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 5.4.4 Curriculum -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
5.4.5 Teaching Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------- 96
5.4.6 His Legacy for Modern Educators ---------------------------------------------- 97
5.5 Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) ------------------------------------------------------------- 97
5.5.1 Major Works ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 98
5.5.2 Educational Theory of Froebel -------------------------------------------------- 99
5.5.3 Major Aspects of His Educational Philosophy -------------------------------- 99
5.5.4 Kindergarten ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
5.5.5 Education through Play ---------------------------------------------------------- 100
5.5.5.1 Gifts ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 101
5.5.5.2 Songs of Play for Mothers --------------------------------------------- 101
5.5.6 Aim of Education ----------------------------------------------------------------- 102
5.5.7 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 102
5.5.8 Teaching Methodology ---------------------------------------------------------- 102
5.5.9 Contribution of Froebel to Modern Education ------------------------------- 103
5.5.10 Criticism ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
5.6 John Dewey (1859-1952) ------------------------------------------------------------------ 103
5.6.1 Pragmatism and Education ------------------------------------------------------ 104
5.6.2 Laboratory School: Combining Theory with Practice ---------------------- 105
5.6.3 Aims of Education ---------------------------------------------------------------- 106
5.6.4 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
5.6.5 Teaching Methodology ---------------------------------------------------------- 107
5.7 Robert Maynard Hutchins (1899-1977) ------------------------------------------------- 108
5.7.1 Major Works ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 109
5.7.2 Principle Aims of Higher Education ------------------------------------------- 109
5.7.3 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 110
5.7.4 Teaching Methodology ---------------------------------------------------------- 112
5.7.5 Evaluation System ---------------------------------------------------------------- 112
5.8 Self-Assessment Question ----------------------------------------------------------------- 113
5.9 Bibliography --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113

Unit–6 Problems/Challenges in Elementary Education --------------------------------115

6.1 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 116
6.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 116
6.3 Institutions Involved in Elementary Education ---------------------------------------- 116
6.3.1 Punjab------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 116
6.3.2 Sindh -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 117
6.3.3 Khyber Pakhtunkhuwa ----------------------------------------------------------- 118
6.3.4 Balochistan------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118
6.3.5 Baltistan Region and Azad Jammu & Kashmir ------------------------------ 118
6.4 Analysis of the Present Scenario about Education------------------------------------- 118

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6.5 Challenges of Elementary Education ---------------------------------------------------- 119
6.5.1 Accessibility ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 120
6.5.2 Drop Out --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 121
6.5.3 Gender ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 122
6.5.4 Rural-Urban Disparity ----------------------------------------------------------- 123
6.5.5 Equity/Equality -------------------------------------------------------------------- 123
6.6 Problems in Elementary Education ------------------------------------------------------ 124
6.6.1 Insufficient Financial Resources ----------------------------------------------- 124
6.6.2 Lack of infrastructure ------------------------------------------------------------ 125
6.6.3 Lack of Trained Teachers-------------------------------------------------------- 125
6.6.4 Curriculum ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 126
6.6.5 Socioeconomic Factors ---------------------------------------------------------- 126
6.6.6 Multiple System of Education -------------------------------------------------- 126
6.7 Solutions of Problems in Elementary Education --------------------------------------- 127
6.7.1 Spend More on Education ------------------------------------------------------ 127
6.7.2 Build More Schools & Train More Teachers --------------------------------- 127
6.7.3 Make Primary Education free and Compulsory of Both Girls & Boys --- 127
6.7.4 Introduce Flexible School Timings & Region Specific School Calendars ----- 127
6.7.5 Improve Advocacy---------------------------------------------------------------- 127
6.7.6 Establish a Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanism ------------------------- 127
6.7.7 Improve Coordination ------------------------------------------------------------ 127
6.7.8 Ensue Policies Supporting Equal Opportunities for Education,
Employment and Equal Wages ------------------------------------------------- 127
6.8 Activity --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
6.9 Self-Assessment Questions ---------------------------------------------------------------- 128
6.10 Exercises ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
6.11 Bibliography --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128

Unit–7 Role of Professional Organization in Education --------------------------------131

7.1 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 132
7.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 132
7.3 Professional Organization in Education ------------------------------------------------- 132
7.4 National Education Association (NEA) ------------------------------------------------- 133
7.5 Teaching Education Institutions ---------------------------------------------------------- 136
7.5.1 University of Education ---------------------------------------------------------- 136
7.5.2 Directorate of Staff Development ---------------------------------------------- 138
7.5.3 Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) ------- 145
7.5.4 Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (Sindh) --------------------------- 147
7.5.5 Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (Baluchistan) ------------------- 149
7.6 Activities ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 151
7.7 Exercise -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 151

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7.8 Bibliography --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 152

Unit–8 Elementary Teacher Education ----------------------------------------------------153

8.1 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 154
8.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 154
8.3 Elementary Teacher System in Pakistan ------------------------------------------------ 154
8.4 Elementary Teacher Education in Turkey ---------------------------------------------- 156
8.5 Elementary Teacher Education in UK --------------------------------------------------- 159
8.6 Elementary Teacher Education in Japan ------------------------------------------------ 160
8.7 Elementary Teacher Education in Malaysia -------------------------------------------- 161
8.8 Self-Assessment Questions ---------------------------------------------------------------- 164
8.9 References ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 164

Unit–9 Elementary Teacher Education Programs in Pakistan ------------------------167

9.1 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 168
9.2 Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 170
9.3 Different Teacher Education Programs-------------------------------------------------- 170
9.4 Curriculum of Teacher Education Programs ------------------------------------------- 171
9.5 Accreditation Issues in Teacher Education --------------------------------------------- 173
9.6 Self-Assessment Questions ---------------------------------------------------------------- 175
9.7 Bibliography --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 176

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Unit 1

DEVELOPMENT OF
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN
PAKISTAN

Written By: Dr. Muhammad Athar Hussain

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

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1.1 Introduction
An education policy is a policy initiative, a statement, a directive, or a document issued
from time to time by the government for the development of education in the country. It
is brief, succinct in content but board in concept and deep in the spirit. The policy plays a
pivotal role in influencing the education system of a country. It occupies the critical
phase during which fundamental choices are to be made by the state, keeping in view the
emerging trends and developments in the country and around the world.

The policy is the result of a long strenuous deliberations, and discussions and thoughts
made on various forums. It provides a conceptual framework, sometimes, also a plan of
action for the type of education to be implemented in the country.

1.2 Objectives
After studying this unit thoroughly, the student would be able to:
1. understand the provisions for elementary education in education policies of
Pakistan.
2. explain the deficiencies and weaknesses as pointed out in education policies for
elementary education.
3. be aware of the nature of goals and objectives of education set by various
governments in their education policies from time to time in Pakistan.
4. be familiar with priorities for elementary education set by various governments in
their education policies.
5. understand the efforts made by the governments for expansion and improvement of
elementary education
6. know targets and actions sent for elementary education in the education policies.

1.3 Quaid-e-Azam’s Concept of Education

The father of the National in his historic message to the All Pakistan Education
Conference 1947 provided guidelines for the restructuring of education system in future.
He stressed upon the need of having a system of education inspired by the culture and
ideological aspirations of the people and also having regard to the modern conditions and
the vast developments that had taken place around the world. He was of the view that
academic education was not only enough; there was immediate and urgent need of
scientific and technical education. He also emphasized the need of building up the
character of the future generation.

1.4 Educational Policies

1.4.1 First Education Conference (1947)
When Pakistan came into being in August 1947, the overriding concern of the
government was the speedy rehabilitation of millions of refugees and restructuring of the
administrative machinery, but it was equally aware of the importance of education as the
most essential sector and the integral part of the development of the new born country.
The first All Pakistan Education Conference was therefore, called at Karachi from
November 27, to December 1, 1947.

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The deliberations in the Conference were focused on several important issues relating to
education such as:
a) Integration of moral, social and vocational elements in the system of education.
b) Compulsory primary education,
c) Compulsory physical education.
d) Compulsory military training in colleges,
e) Training of citizenship.
f) The problem of literacy.
g) The problem of medium of instruction.
h) Technical and vocational education.
i) Education for women.
j) Establishment of advisory Board of education.
k) Establishment of inter-Universal Board.
l) Promotion of Scientific Research and
m) Establishment of Overseas Scholarship Scheme.

Important Recommendations
The following are the recommendations forwarded by various subcommittees constituted
to work on, especially related to elementary education in the conference.
a) Six-year free and compulsory education should be provided and should be
gradually raised to eight years in future.
b) Private agencies are encouraged to provide pre-primary education to children
between ages of 3-4 years.
c) Education should be based on Islamic conception of universal brotherhood, social
democracy and social Justice.
d) Provinces should take necessary steps for the training of teachers.
e) The common language of the country should be Urdu.
f) As a transitional measure English should be retained as compulsory language at
school level.
g) Physical nativities should receive special emphasis in educational instructions.
h) Steps should to take to bring materials into line with the existing system of
education.
i) Provincial governments and States should introduce special classes for adults, and
school teachers should be trained for this purpose.
j) Primary schools should be co-educational or otherwise according to the local
needs.

Ways and means should be undertaken for introducing free and compulsory primary
education in the tribal and backward areas of Pakistan.

1.4.2 National Education Commission (1959)

The commission on National Education was evolved through a resolution adopted by the
government on 30th December, 1958. The main reason was that the existing system of
education was not adequate to meet the requirements of the nation. It was inaugurated by
the President Mohammad Ayub Khan on January 5, 1959. Addressing on the occasion,

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the President stressed the need for a re-organization and re-orientation of the existing
educational system, which would better reflect out spiritual, moral and cultural values
and to meet the challenges of the growing needs of the nation in the field of science and
technology. The commission analyzed all the previous reports and the prevailing
situations of the country and the reforms movements in other societies and submitted a
comprehensive report to the government after one year in 1960.

The salient features of the report on primary education are briefly described as:

Primary Education
a) In view of the commission, compulsory education at elementary level was
indispensable for skilled manpower and intelligent citizenry. For this purpose at
least eight years schooling was required. The commission recommended achieving
5-years compulsory schooling within the period of 10 years and 08 years
compulsory schooling within a total period of 15 years.
b) The main objectives of primary education should be to make a child functionally
literate, to develop all aspects of his personality, to equip him with basic
knowledge and skills and to develop in him habits of industry, integrity and
curiosity.
c) The curriculum should be adapted to the mental abilities of the children. It must be
designed to develop basic skills. Teaching methods should be activity-oriented.
Religious education should be made compulsory and due emphasis should be given
to the teaching of national language.
d) School buildings and furniture should be simple, inexpensive, and clean and
adapted to local style and material.
e) Training facilities should be provided to teachers to meet the requirements of
compulsory primary education. Refresher courses should also be arranged for un-
trained teachers.
f) The commission recommended that land, building, furniture, teaching materials
and residential accommodation for teachers should be provided b the community
and government may however, give financial assistance to the backward areas.
g) The administrative recommendations by the Commission should be entrusted to
local bodies. It should be organized on district level in West Pakistan and on sub-
division level in East Pakistan.

1.4.3 Educational Policy (1972-80)

The president of Pakistan Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, in his address to the nation on 15th March
1972, presented the salient features of Education Policy 1972-80. He observed that the
education system imposed in the part was much rigid unwarranted, inflexible and was
availed only by the privileged few who constitute the elite in the country. The
expenditure on education was mostly incurred on “bricks and mortars” as compared to
that on teachers and books. Therefore, the government expresses edits commitment to
clear the jungle weed out of the complexities and put the nation out of the sloth without
losing the spirit of religion, finer tradition and culture.

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Objectives of the Policy
The principal objectives of the policy were:
a) Ensuring the preservation, promotion and practice of the ideology of Pakistan.
b) Building up national cohesion through conscious use of educational process.
c) Mobilizing the youth for leadership role through participation in various social
service programmes.
d) Eradicating illiteracy in the shortest possible time.
e) Equalizing access to education through provision of special facilities for women,
under privileged groups, mentally retarded and physically handicapped.
f) Designing curricula relevant to the nations changing social and economic needs.
g) Providing a comprehensive programme of studies for integrating general and
technical education.
h) Providing academic freedom and due autonomy to educational institutions.
i) Ensuring active participation of teacher, students and representatives of parents and
the community in educational affairs.

Free and Universal Education

The policy had forwarded the following statement on free and universal education.
a) Education will be free and universal upto class X. this would be achieved in two
phases.
(i) In the first phase from 1st October 1972, education upto class VIII would be
made free for boys and girls in all types of school
(ii) In phase second, starting from 1st October 1979, free education would be
provided to class IX and X in all schools.

Elementary Education (Class VI-VIII)

a) According to the policy it was anticipated that primary education would become
universal for boys by 1979 and for girls by 1984.
b) To accommodate the increased enrolment 38000 additional rooms for primary
classes and 23000 rooms for middle classes would be constructed.
c) In providing school facilities, priority would be given to rural and backward areas.
d) The universalization of elementary education would require 2.25 lakh additional
teachers.
e) Text books and writing materials would be provided free to primary school
children.
f) Curricula, syllabus and text-books would be revised to eliminate overloading and
to emphasize the learning of concept, skill and encourage observation,
experimentation, practical work and creative expression.

1.4.4 National Education Policy (1972-80)

Background
An education conference in 1977 was held at Islamabad, which provided both spirit and
substance to the National education Policy 1978, by Martial Law Regime. The factors
which led to the formulation of policy are better reflected in the statement of Mr.
Mohammad Ali H, Hoti, Minister of education on the Policy while presenting its salient

17
features in the cabinet meeting on 12th October, 1978. He said that the sporadic efforts
made by various governments in the past were mainly confined to lip service and left
much to be desired. The nation was still without any clear direction/grouping in the midst
of divergent views and confusion.

There was, therefore, need to clearly set the direction, define objectives and develop
practical plans through the process of education. Both population and illiteracy were
growing at alarming rate. The participation rate of at primary and secondary levels was
low and the wastage was colossal. There were disparities and the curriculum was not
relevant and the system of higher education was not geared to support development.

Aims of the Policy

The following aims were set for the policy:
a) To foster in the hearts and minds of the people of Pakistan in general and the
students in Pakistan, in particular, deep and abiding loyalty to Islam and Pakistan
b) To create awareness in every student that he as a member of Pakistani Nation as
well as a part of Muslim Ummah and is expected to contribute towards the welfare
of fellow Muslims.
c) To produce citizens who are fully conversant with the Pakistan Movement and its
ideology, foundation, its history and culture.
d) To develop and inculcate in accordance with Holy Quran and Sunna. The character,
conduct and motivation expected of a true Muslim.
e) To provide and ensure equal educational opportunities to all citizens of Pakistan
and to safeguard the rights of minorities.
f) To impart quality education to and develop the creative and innovative facilities of
the people.
g) To provide minimum acceptable level of functional literacy and fundamental
education to all citizens of the country.
h) To create interest and love for learning and discipline among the youth.
i) To promote and strengthen scientific, vocational and technological education,
training and research in the country.

Primary Education
(i) Development and improvement
The policy envisaged that primary school enrolment would be increased that all
boys of school age were enrolled by 1982-83. Universal enrollment for boys would
be attained by 1986-87.
In case of girls, universalization would be achieved by 1992. Necessary provision
in the form of physical facilities, instructional materials and preserves and in-
service education of teachers would be made to achieve the target. A number of
non-formal means would also be used to achieve universalization of primary
education opening of nearly five thousand mosques schools was a step in that
direction.

18
(ii) Other programmes for the development of primary education in the policy were
related to:
a) Wastage would be eliminated to achieve 60 percent literary rate by 1982-83
and 100 percent thereafter.
b) About 17000 new primary schools would be setup.
c) Nearly 1300 new primary schools would be opened mainly in the rural areas.
d) About 5000 mosque schools would be established for boys.
e) Equipment would be provided to strengthen 12000 existing schools.
f) Text books would be supplied to all students at primary level.
g) About 100 supplementary Readers would be provided to each new primary
school.
h) All primary schools would be provided teaching kits,
i) A nationwide school Mapping exercise would be earned out to evolve a
process of school location planning.
j) Fund budgeted for primary education would not be used for other purposes.
k) Community resources and participation would be effectively mobilized.
l) The policy initiated to recognize, institutionalize and strengthen “Mohalla
schools” to provide educational facilities to female children, youth, and
adults in the community.
m) The policy for adults also provided to establish Village Workshop schools
under phased programmes to impart useful skills to dropped out and other
left out children.

1.4.5 National Education Policy 1992

Background
The edifice of the National Education Policy 1992 had been structured on the basis of
“guide-lines” provided by the Prime Minister’s Directive on 10th February, 1991, on the
basis of the input received from contract educationists, administrators and members of
the Standing Committees of the National Assembly and the senate. The Federal Minister
of Education announced the policy on 20th December, 1992.

The depressing situation which warranted its formulation was the then prevailing system
of education, which despite its several times expansion, had not been able to evolve an
educational system which could take cognizanal of the challenge of almost “convulsive
changes” engulfing mankind all over the world.

Keeping in view the weaknesses in the system alongside the aspirations of the nation to
develop as a productive and progressive society, the fabric of the entire system of
education was intended to be re-examined, the priorities to be refixed, the parameters of
the policy to be re-stated and the strategies to be revised to make the system capable of
meeting the demands of a progressive economy and the social, cultural and political
development of an egalitarian Muslim society.

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Policy Focus
The Main focus of the policy was:
a) To restructure the continuing education system on modern lines in accordance with
the principles of Islam so as to create a healthy, forward looking and egalitarian
society.
b) To improve the quality of education and intensity research activities in the
universities, especially in the modern fields of science and technology.

Primary Education
(i) Status of Primary Education
Primary education had been recognized in the policy as fundamental right of every
Pakistani child and it would be made compulsory and free so as to achieve
universal enrollment of children by the end of the decade. The medium of
instruction would be determined by the provinces. Special efforts would be made
for improving the quality of education. Development of primary education in
private sector would be encouraged but its commercialization would be
discouraged through strict control and supervision.
(ii) Important provisions laid down in the policy for development of primary education were:
a) About 26500 new primary school teachers would be trained.
b) About 107000 new primary and mosque schools would be opened.
c) One room each would be added in 20000 existing one room schools.
d) About 24750 shelters less primary schools would be provided with two
rooms each.
e) The pay structure and service conditions of primary school teachers would be
improved.
f) Primary curricula from class I-III would be developed in integrated form.
g) Quran Nazira would start from class I and would be completed in the
terminal years.
h) The contributing factors of drop out would be studied and appropriate special
input would be designed to reduce wastage.
i) In areas where female participation is low, special incentive oriented
programme, would be introduced to encourage the enrolment and relaxation
of female students in schools.
j) “Primary Directorates” would be created at Dederal and Provincial levels.
k) Teachers would be given training on the new concepts, introduced in
curricula.
l) The Teaching kit would be upgraded.

1.4.6 New Educational Policy (1998-2010)

Background
The Prime Minister of Pakistan asked the Ministry of Education to formulate a “National
Education Policy” that would smoothly lead the nation into the next century. The
Ministry embarked upon a comprehensive process of consultation with scholars,
administrators, leaders of public opinion and representatives of NGO have to design an

20
initial draft. The main features of the policy were received by the cabinet on 21 st January,
1998. The cabinet appointed a subcommittee of Ministers of various departments.
Finally, the Prime Minister, in a National Convention on education, announced the salient
features of the policy on 21st February 1998.

Specific Objectives of the Policy

The Following are the Specific Objectives of the Policy:
a) Attaining acceptable level of literacy by universalization of basic education.
b) Arranging for providing quality education.
c) Encouraging private investment in education.
d) Making education purposeful and job oriented.
e) Ensuring the quality of higher education.
f) Reforming the examination system.
g) Evolving an effective decentralized management.
h) Creating relationship between supply and demand of teachers.
i) Raising the quality of teacher education.
j) Achieving universal primary education by using formal and non-formal
approaches.
k) Making curriculum a continuous process.
l) Developing technical and vocational education in the country.

Elementary Education
Elementary Education is the fundamental right of the people. It is bedrock and a
foundation of the entire educational pyramid as compared to other sectors. Therefore, the
government had attached greater importance in the policy to the problems of eradicating
illiteracy and promoting primary education all over Pakistan in collaborating with foreign
agencies.
1. Issues and constraints in Elementary Education
Some major issues and challenges in elementary education which had been pointed
out in the policy were as:
a) More than 5, 5 million primary schools age (5.9 years) children were left out.
b) About 45 percent children were dropping out of schools at primary level.
c) Teacher’s absenteeism was a common malady in primary schools.
d) International supervision was weak.
e) Learning materials were inadequate.
f) Above one fourth of primary school teachers were untrained.
2. Programme forward in Policy for Important and Development of Elementary
Education.
a) Quality of elementary education would be improved.
b) Character building on Islamic lines would be assigned top priority.

21
 c) Teachers’ competence would be improved through ensuring relevant training
programmers.
d) All types of disparities and imbalances would be eliminated.
e) Out of school children would be given high priority.
f) Financial resources base of elementary education would be diversified.
g) Non-formal system would be adopted as a complement of formal system.
h) Management and supervision would be improved through decentralization
and accountability.

1.4.7 New Educational Policy (2009)

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2009 (“the Policy”) comes in a series of education
policies dating back to the very inception of the country in 1947. The review process for
the National Education Policy 1998-2010 was initiated in 2005 and the first document,
the White Paper was finalized in March 2007. The White Paper became the basis for
development of the Policy document. The lag in finalization of the draft owes to lot of
factors including the process of consultations adopted as well as significant political
changes in the country.

Two main reasons that prompted the Ministry of Education (MoE) to launch the review
in 2005 well before the time horizon of the existing Policy (1998 - 2010)1 were, firstly,
the Policy was not producing the desired educational results and the performance
remained deficient in several key aspects including access, quality and equity of
educational opportunities and secondly, the international challenges like Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) , Dakar Framework of Action Education for All (EFA)
Goals and the challenges triggered by globalisation and nation’s quest for becoming a
knowledge society in the wake of compelling domestic pressures like devolution and
demographic transformations have necessitated a renewed commitment to proliferate
quality education for all.

Elementary Education
Primary education is not a strong link in education in Pakistan. The Policy focuses
attention on two large and critical problems facing the sector: (i) low participation and
narrow base of the sector, and (ii) weak quality of provision.

Despite some progress in recent years, access rates remain low, as noted in Annex-_ A,.
NER at 66% for primary are the lowest compared to the selected reference countries.
Even though these 2005 rates have improved in 2006-07, Pakistan still faces the risk of
defaulting on EFA 2015 targets. The narrow base is further attenuated through high
dropout rates. The survival rate to Grade 5 is 72%. Of those who succeed in completing
Grade V, there is a further loss to the system through those not making the transition to

22
the secondary level. Pakistan cannot afford to live with the narrow base in the perspective
of long term economic and social development of the nation.

Policy Actions:
1. All children, boys and girls, shall be brought inside school by the year 2015.
2. Official age for primary education shall be 6 to 10 years. The official age group for
next levels of education shall also change accordingly.
3. Government shall make efforts to provide the necessary financial resources to
achieve the EFA goals.
4. Wherever feasible, primary schools shall be upgraded to middle level.
5. International Development Partners shall be invited through a well-developed plan
for expanding school facilities.
6. High priority shall be paid to reducing the drop-out rates. An important element of
this effort should be to provide financial and food support to children who drop out
because of poverty.
7. Food based incentives shall be introduced to increase enrolment and improve
retention and completion rates, especially for girls.
8. Schools shall be made more attractive for retaining the children by providing
attractive learning environment, missing basic facilities and other measures.
9. Government shall establish at least one “Apna Ghar” residential school in each
province to provide free high quality education facilities to poor students.
10. Every child, on admission in Grade I, shall be allotted a unique ID that will
continue to remain with the child throughout his or her academic career.

1.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Critically analyze the provisions for elementary education in Commission in
National Education 1959.
2. Explain how the national education policy 1998-2010 was different from the
previous policies with reference to elementary education?
3. Policy actions set for elementary education in the national education policy 2009
will solve problems at elementary level. Comment

23
1.6 References

Government of Pakistan. (1947). Proceedings of the Pakistan Education Conference

1947. Karachi.

Government of Pakistan. (1959). Report of the Commission on National Education 1959.

Karachi: Ministry of Education

Government of Pakistan. (1972). The Education Policy 1972-80. Islamabad: Ministry of

Education

Government of Pakistan. (1979). The National Education Policy 1979. Islamabad:

Ministry of Education

Government of Pakistan. (1992). The National Education Policy 1992. Islamabad:

Ministry of Education

Government of Pakistan. (1998). National Education Policy: 1998-2010. Islamabad:

Ministry of Education

Government of Pakistan. (2009). The National Education Policy 2009. Islamabad:

Ministry of Education

24
Unit 2

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
OF EDUCATION

Written By: Sajjad Hussain

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

25
2.1 Introduction
This unit is intended as an introduction to philosophical foundations of education
for students in teacher education institutes/departments of education who have
had little or no previous instruction in philosophical school of thoughts. It aims to
explain as clearly and as accurately as is necessary to understand basic concepts
pertaining to different philosophies. It describes purpose and features of
prennialism and essentialism ad philosophical school of thought and what are
educational implications of these philosophies. The aim of this unit is to provide
prospective teachers with information on a set of topics of different educational
philosophies and how those can be applied in teaching learning.

2.2 Objectives
After successful completion of the unit, the students will be able to:
1. explain philosophical concept of education.
2. discuss prennialism as philosophical school of thought.
3. discuss philosophy of essenialism.
4. describe salient features of progressive school of thought in education
5. compare progressivism and reconstructionism

2.3 Concepts of Education

Knowing the basic meaning of education would enable us to know more about education.
Every inquire needs to adopt a holistic approach. Enquire about education, educational
philosophy, and school of taught and such other questions are secondary to the answer of
what education is? Decisions regarding real, ideal, rotten, modern actual and desirable
will be decided later. Education is an evolving concept. Every individual and groups have
their own concept of education.

Etymologically the education means to lead out, to bring out or to train according to some
predetermine criteria. Man has been endowed with many capabilities but most of them
remain dormant until something awakens them, nourishes them and brings them out for a
full play. Education, therefore, stands for bringing out and developing their full potential
all the faculties that are latent in each individual (Khalid, 2012).

Education is positive, desirable and acceptable change in the behavior of an individual is

a one concept of education. The positivity of education is subjected to the individual as
well as to the society where does he live. A positive change in behavior is beneficial for
the individual and for society in future, as peter in his book ethics and education
presented education as something valuable which is to be transmitted in a morally
accepted manner. He adopted a criterion approach where the members of a society set
some standards for the education of their children. These standards are considered as
highly essential for the future of learners. Changes in the behavior of individuals must be
desirable. In criticizing the essential knowledge concept of education by Peters’ Holt
presented that education is a learning process where a child learns different concepts and
skills and it’s the child, who want to learn what he/she want to learn. This is a child

26
centered approach in learning is called children-learning-what-they-most-want-to-
learning. It reflects that the changes in learning behaviors are desirable to learners and
society has to help in the leaner in learning those changes. Accepting changes behavior as
a result of the educational process is the important element of social changes in societies.
The evolutionary nature of society prepares individuals to make changes and adjust
themselves to the changing scenarios (Dalaganjan, 2004).

R. S. Peter is a famous writer who wrote on the concept of education in his famous work
Ethics and Education. Education has a normative implications, it is something very
important and need to be achieved. Furthermore, it implies the something important and
worthwhile has been intentionally transmitted in a morally accepted manner. It would be
logical contradiction to say that a man had been educated but he wasn’t changed
positively, or while education his children parents ignored the worthwhile components of
education. So it is understood that all the educational activities must of value. Now a
question arise that who will decide that what is valuable and what is not? Which further
needs explorations, the value and worth of leaning materials are different from one
context to another one.

Peter view of education is correct as there will be no one who will spend money and
physical resources just to kill the time, or in the hope that positive harm will result. In
general money is spent on education because people think that education is good for their
children’s future. An objection is made on the Peter’s concept of education in the shape
of rotten education. There are some critiques who view that if valuable concepts and
rotted to students with making any relevance to practical life will not make any sense and
as a result people will get nothing but just the waste of time and money (Barrow &
Woods, 2006).

Peter’s considered that worthwhile things must be transmitted to children, which gives
importance to the process of education. There are numerous means which are used for
transmitting education to children. According to progressivism the process is more
important than the product. It is the process which enables the individual to be
independent. Teaching methodologies used for the process provide opportunities for
students to understand the value and nature of education. Educators and philosophers are
not agreed in one pattern some of them support teacher-centered pedagogies while others
support students and activity based pedagogies. Peter’s hasn’t clarified that which one is
the best, but I think so it is contextual, one may be beneficial for one level/subject/age
children and the other for some other context.

Another component of Peter’s concept of education is that worthwhile things might be

transmitted in a morally accepted manners, which is still far and need more explanation
because every society has its own likes and dislikes which are the basis of morally
accepted and rejected manners. But all will be on one page regarding the interests of
students, futurity of society, and avoiding all sorts of harms. In nutshell, Peter’s concept
of education is to train, and develop and individual in such a style that could enable them
to lead a better life (Barrow & Woods, 2006).

27
Paulo Freire a Brazilian ideologist termed the prevailing education as a Banking concept
of education. He asserted that this education has no value with real life of students, and it
controlling students only to figuratively speaking, receptor and collector of information
which too far from the real life experiences. Freire states;

“Implicit in the banking concept is the assumption of a dichotomy between

human beings and the world; a person is merely in the world, not with the
world or with others, the individual is a spectator, not re-creator. In his view
the person is not a conscious being (corpo conscinte), he or she is rather the
possessor of a consciousness and “empty mind” passively open to the
reception of the deposits of reality from the world outside”.

The banking concept impose a gulf between a person (teacher/student) and the real world,
which results in the failure of true consciousness, since the former can only be realized
through the relationships and connections the individuals draws from the materials to
their life. It just motivates the students to learn whether it is important for you or not, it
gives any help to you in the real life are. That’s why the banking concept of education
indulged the students into meaningless activities. Paulo Freire deemed it necessary to
evolve the education and to direct the educational activities with real life situations,
because life is not for education, education is for life.

For further reading;

http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/171/re-envisioning-paulo-freires-banking-
concept-of-education

2.3.1 School of Thoughts in Education

There are basically four schools of thought in education. These are Perennialism,
Essentialism, Progressivism and Reconstructionism. These schools of thoughts provide a
foundation for the aims of education system, provide guidelines for the curriculum
development and suggest appropriate teaching methodology and pattern of classroom
discipline. These schools are based on different schools of philosophy such as idealism,
realism and constructions Electra.

Perennialism
According to online etymology dictionary the word perennial is derived from Latin word
Perennis means “Lasting throughout the year”. Furthermore, this word is famous for a
plant remains evergreen. This school of thought view that education need to be based on
permanent values. Perennialism has its roots in idealism and realism. It believes that
reality is constant and never changes. Since we are human beings and remains human
being where ever we live, our needs and aspirations remains the same, therefore, it is
important to teach those values and knowledge which remain important for centuries.
These same characteristics stimulates for and lay down a strong foundation for same
education system for all human beings and also give sense for the teaching of same
values. The central focus of perennial education is on personal development rather than

28
skills. Because they view that personal development enable the individuals to be coping
with the situations (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek, & Vocke, 2011).

Perennialism shares many common features with essentialism, such as using subject
matter to transmit the culture heritage across generations. It differs, however, in that
Perennialism is derived from the realist philosophy of Aristotle and Aquinas, while
essentialism is based more on what has worked as a survival skills throughout the history.
Perennialism asserts that education, like the truth it conveys, is universal and authentic
during every period of history and in every place and culture. Neither truth nor education
is relative to time, place or circumstances. The primary purpose of education is to bring
new generation in contact with truth by exercising and cultivating the rationality each
person possesses as a human being.

Perennialist epistemology contents that people because of their common human nature
possess a potentiality to know and a desire to find the truth. This potentiality is activated
when students come in contact with mankind’s highest achievement, especially the great
books and the classics in arts. Music and literature, truth exists in and is portrayed in the
classic, or enduring, work of arts literature, philosophy, science and history created in
each generation and passed on to the next generation as a culture inheritance.

Perennialism derived heavily from realism, is also congenial to idealism. However,

leading Perennialist such as Jacques Martain, Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler based
their educational theories on Aristotle realism. The primary goal of schooling is the
intellectual development of students. Perennialist doesn’t favor school as a multiple
agency for students learning, particularly the economic aspect of schooling is strongly
opposed by them. Although, perennialist doesn’t ignore the importance of vocational
skills of students and they prefer to development students for up-to-date jobs training
efficiently and effectively. Placing nonacademic demands on schools, such as social
adjustment or vocational training, diverts time and resources from the school’s primary
purpose of developing students intellectually (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek, & Vocke, 2011).

Since truth is universal and unchanging, the curriculum should consist of permanent, or
perennial, studies that emphasis the recurrent themes of human life. It should contain
cognitive subjects that cultivate rationality and moral, aesthetic and religious values that
contribute to ethical and socialized behavior. Like idealist, realist and essentialist’s
perennialist favor a subject-based curriculum that includes history, language,
mathematics, logic, literature, the humanities and science. Religious perennialists such as,
Jachue Maritain also includes religion and theology in curriculum. The theories of
Maritain, Rubert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler provide insight into perennialist thinking.

Rubert Hutchins a former presidents of the university of Chicago, describe the idealist
education as “one that develop the intellectual power” and is not “directed to immediate
needs; it is not a specialized education. Or a paraprofessional education; it is not a
utilitarian education. It is an education calculated to develop mind.” He also
recommended discussion of the great books of western civilization to bring each

29
generation into an intellectual dialogue with the great minds of the past. These classic
works, with their reoccurring themes, stimulates intellectual discussion and critical
thinking. With the classic, Hutchins argued the study of grammar, rhetoric, logic,
mathematics and philosophy. This is what Hutchins have been criticized that studying the
western civilization great books only ignores the importance of other civilization such as
Asian and African civilizations (Stenhouse, 1985).

Martin a French philosopher based his perennial thoughts on the work of Aristotle natural
realism and Aquinas theistic realism. He wants religion to be the integral part of
curriculum, rejecting cultural relativisms and existentialism, Martin asserted that
education needed to be guided on the religious principles which can be seen in faith-
based –values of the contemporary American societies. Like Hutchins, Maritain endorsed
the great books as indispensible for the understanding the development of civilization,
culture and science. The teacher is a minister of learning who encourages students to be
use knowledge to find the truth.

For Maritain, elementary education should develop correct language usage, logical
thinking, and an introduction to history and science. Secondary and undergraduate
college education should focus on liberal arts and science.

Mortimer J. Adler’s The Paideia proposal: Perennialism has been revived by an

educational manifesto. Paidia is Greek word, which refers to a person’s complete
educational and cultural life formation. The proponent of the idea opposed different
school’s system for the American learners and strongly supports a same system of
schooling for all secondary school students. The curriculum he advised were includes;
language, literature, history, fine arts, mathematic, natural sciences, geography and social
studies. These subjects are fundamental for the skills development of students in
intellectual abilities such as reading, writing, reading, listening, calculating, observing,
measuring and such other abilities which are indispensible for a successful academic
future (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek, & Vocke, 2011).

Perennialists assert that in democratic societies all citizens of the state have equal right to
high-quality education aimed at the development of students’ intellectual development.
They opposed grouping students into different tracks that reduce their opportunities of
high-quality general education. To track some students into an academic curriculum and
others into vocational curriculum ignores the actually equal educational opportunities.

Perennialists strongly opposed pragmatism and postmodernism’s cultural relativism,

which contends that our “truth” is temporary statement based on how we cope with the
current situation. Perennialists like Allan Bloom in The closing of the American mind
condemn natural relativism for denying universal standards by which certain actions are
consistently either morally right or wrong.

30
2.3.2 Perennialism in Classroom Teachers
According to perennialism the primary purpose of schools is to develop students’ reasoning
capacities. To be successful in this mission teacher in their pre-service trainings and
education need to study liberal arts, science and the study of great books, they also have to
read and discuss learning concepts which will be productive for their reasoning skill
development. As sound professional experts teachers like other professional needs strong
academic background in order to be a role model for their students.

In primary grades the teacher should teach fundamental skills such as reading, writing,
computational and research skills and to stimulate and desire for learning so students are
ready to begin their lifelong search for truth. Secondary school teachers according to
perennialists should focus on the teaching of enduring human concerns explored in the
great works of history, literature, drama, art and philosophy. Like idealists, perennialists
like the classics that speak to people across generations (Erkilic, 2008).

Knowledge of the classics is the base for standardized education in perennialism. They
want that students should be equipped with skills and abilities that are useful throughout
the life of the students. High academic standards can be examined in critical thinking,
reflective work and in liberal arts. If standards and examination reflect knowledge of the
enduring subject, perennial issues, and great books, they would favor them. Electronic
version of great books and other classics are an effective way of transmitting them to a
larger audience. The use of sophisticated networks and Medias for the promotion of great
works and classics are appreciated. However, they never accept technologies as substitute
for reading the classics.

Summary
Hutchins, Adler and Marain are the prominent contributors of Perennialism. The prominent
teaching method that perennialists prefer for the teaching of great books and classic work
are drills and practices. This method is use mastering life skills which is one of the mains
components of perennial education. Recitation is followed in reading skills development of
students and particularly used in the teaching of religious books, problems solving method,
dialogue, discussion, inductive and debates are the prominent teaching methods adopted by
perennial teachers in teaching the perennial curriculum to students.

As the most conservative educational philosophy perennialists believe rigid classroom

discipline. A perennial class is a true reflection of military training center where every
single minute is spends under strict rules and regulations. Students are deals with rigid
classroom regulatory patterns. Besides, regularity, prayers and contemplation are some
major elements of perennial classroom management, with strong hold of teacher on
classroom learning business. Students are assessed through paper pencil following both
types of test-objective and essay.

For further reading;

Ornstein, A. C., Levine, Foundations of Education. Belmont, USA: 157-
D. U., Gutek, G. L., & WADSWORTH. 194
Vocke, D. E. (2011).

31
2.3.3 Essentialism
Perennialism is the World-view of the Middle Ages which was characterized as being
Religious or “other-worldly”. It was mainly a Feudal, village type of civilization, with
narrow horizons. The Authority of both Church and State was very strong. What led to its
break-down? Firstly, there was the Invention of the Printing Press (in 1448) which led to
the spread of Education, and the consequent breaking of the monopoly of Church and
State over it. Gradually their power based on knowledge had to be shared and the result
was a weakening of their authority.

The rise of Humanism and the Renaissance was another factor in the breakdown of the
Medieval world-view. It began after the conquest of Constantinople (1453) by the Turks,
as a result of which the Byzantic scholars immigrated to Europe with Classical literary
treasurer. A third factor was the Rise of the Middle Class. This occurred not only because
of the spread of Education, but also because the discovery of sea routes to America
(1492) and India (1498) led to a greater accumulation and distribution of wealth. The last
factor that accounts for the break-down of Perennialism is the Reformation (1517) where
the authority of the Church was directly attacked.

Once the security of the medieval world-view was lost, it became necessary to have
another world-view to replace it, since human nature abhors a vacuum. Essentialists
Philosophy filled the vacuum (Lobo, 1874).

Essentialist Philosophy
It is based on the belief that there is Order and Stability and Discipline in the World
based on Fixed Laws and Principles. For Idealists, this Order is Spiritual. For Realists,
this Order has a Material basis.

The Essentialist Theory of Reality is that the World and Man is governed by Order and
Regularity. This is held by both Realists and Idealists. The Realists hold that the qualities
of our experience are real, independent facts of the external world. They are unchanged
by entering the mind of the knower, and do not depend on any mind (Finite or Infinite),
for their Existence. Two great Scientists influenced this Realistic Philosophy. One was a
Physicist, Sir Isaac Newton. The other a Biologist Charles Darwin;

Newton (1642 – 1727) is the author of the Mechanistic Theory of the Universe. The
world is a big Machine, like a Clock, Mathematics is the key to knowledge of this
Universe, since all movements and relationships can be expressed in equations nature is
the expression of Law and Order. The Deductive Method is used. Mathematical laws are
applied to general phenomena.

Darwin (1819-1882) taught that there is Evolution in the world from Simple to Complex
Forms. Thus the difference between Matter and Spirit is obscured since both are held to
be on the same level, one following out of the other. Darwin used the Inductive Method.

32
Among British Realists are the Empiricists like Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John
Locke (1632 – 1704) and David Hume (1711-1776). Hobbes felt that men are materialists
and Egoists: “Man is a Wolf to another”. Locke held that Ideas come from Man’s
perceptions, not from Authority. Hume approved of the principle that “Every man should
be held a knave.”

Among American Realists we may include William James (1842-1940) normally classed
as a Pragmatist (see later). Also, we may mention George Santayana (1863-1952) and
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947).

The other Philosophy which blends with realism to forms Essentialism is Idealism. According
to this philosophy, Ultimate Reality is the same substance as Ideas. Behind the phenomenal
World is the Infinite Spirit that is both substructure and Creator of the Cosmos. Realism was
influenced by Scientific Theories, but the Motivating Force behind Idealism was the need to
justify Religion by Natural Reason, since the Authority (of the Church) was rejected, but
there was still need for preserving religion, which undergirds morality.

Most of the Realists were Britishers, but most of the modern Idealists are Germans.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) said that all events and facts are related in a system of pre-
established Harmony and Order. Hegel (1770-1831) propounded a Spiritual Theory of
History which he called: “God’s thinking”. This moves according to the rhythm of Thesis
– Anti thesis – synthesis. God is therefore Immanent in History, not only Transcendent.
Man is Microcosm, which reproduces the Macrocosm.

Kant (1724-1804) held that God’s existence is “noumenon” which cannot be known by
speculative Reason but must be postulated by practical Reason. Schopenhauer (1788-
1860) said that human life is an insatiable longing for satisfactions that cannot be fulfilled
through experience; so they must be obliterated by union with the Eternal Absolute.

Among American Idealists we may mention Ralpha Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) and
also Jonathan Edwards, Josiah Royee, W.E. Hocking and E.S. Brightman.

Spinoza (1632-1677) attempted a synthesis between Realism and Idealism. He said that
the Uniform World of Reality is the same as the Spirit and so a scientific understanding
of the World is the same as Love of God. “Freedom” means to understand the Regularity
of the World (Which Operates under God’s Command) and to conform to it.
The essentialist Theory of knowledge is based on the principle that Man is the
Microcosm of the Universe (which is Macrocosm). So world structures are large scale
reproductions of Mental-Structures, and can therefore be known by the Mind of Man.

Idealists will stress the spiritual aspects of Knowledge as coming from the Mind, Realists
will the material aspects of knowledge as coming from the Senses. Similarly, the
Essentialists Theory of Value is also based on the same principle, Man is Microcosm of
the Universe. Therefore Ethical Laws reflect Cosmic Laws. Idealists will stress Man’s

33
Freedom to make values in so far as he shapes his own self together with other selves
according to the Supreme self (Lobo, 1874).

Notion and History of Essentialist Education

The majority of modern Idealists and Realists are Essentialists. About their theory of
Education we could say that Essentialists Education is transmissive and could be called
the Theory and Practice of Enculturation. We may therefore define Essentialists
Education as the universal human faculty to teach and learn when that faculty performs
the predominant role of maintaining cultural stability and order.

Negatively, Essentialist educational theory seeks to emancipate itself from the

Authoritarianism. “Other-worldly” Education of the Middle Ages i.e., to break with the
Perennialist system of Education. Positively, it seeks to substitute another world view
which is “this worldly” (scular), scientific and humanistic.

Erasmus (1469-1536) was a Humanist, who wanted well trained teachers and schools for
the Middle Classes. It should be remembered that Essentialism is an essentially Middle-
class philosophy.

Comenius (1592-1670) systematized the teaching process. A realist, he held that

“everything must be taught through the senses”. To exploit the sense of sight, he used
Illustrations in his Text-Books. But Comenius was also an Absolutist: he believed that the
world is dynamic and purposeful, and that the chief aim of Education is to shape the
human creature into an image of the Divine.

Locke (1632-1704) said that the Aim of Education was “Adjustment to the Social Order”,
to make the students “gentlemen,” and to “bring all the rest to order”.

Pestalozi (1746-1827) is otherwise a Naturalists, like Rousseau, but he does not deny the
Transcendental Elements. Froebel (1782-1852) is an Idealists. He gives the following
definition: “Education consist in leading man as a thinking, intelligent being, growing
into self-consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious and free representation of the
Inner Law of Divine Unity, and in teaching him means thereto …. This Unity is God”.
Froebel is the founder of “Kindergartens” (Rashid, 1962).

Herbart (1776-1841) said that the Aim of Education is to attune oneself to the “Vision of
the Absolute” from which one may derive one’s faith. “in the ultimate victory of the
good”. Herbart is the first systematical Education Psychologist. He is the Inventor of the
Lesson Plan with its five Mechanical Steps, which are linked together to forms
knowledge as chemical elements are linked together in a compound. The five steps are:
Preparation, Presentation, Association, Systematization and Application. The weakness
of this system is that Critical Evaluation is missing. Among twentieth century
Essentialists are William C. Bagley (a realist, 1874-1946), Michael Demiashkevich
(1891-1938) who coined the term “essentialists”. He was an idealist. Other names are I.L.
Kandel and Robert Hutchins.

34
Systematic View of Essentialist Education
The Essentialists Theory of Knowledge is that we know by correspondence or coherence
between Object and Mind. Realists would say that the Object known is Physical, Material
or Mechanical. But Idealists will say that the object known is Spiritual, Immaterial and
Ideal.

The Nature of Truth is an agreement between Statement and Fact. Truth is not to be
fashioned according to human wants. The Student (said Hume) is a finite personality
growing into the likeness of the Infinite. He must be Receptive a Consumer, a spectator –
not a Producer of knowledge, but a “re-producer”, one who copies or imitates, not
creates.

The Teacher is an organizer of learning situations who transmits elements of Culture and
Science. Learning is Mental Discipline Realists like Thorndike explain it as “response to
stimuli” Skinner says it is “operant conditioning” where in responses are “stamped in”
and “stamped out” by training. The Essentialist Curriculum is “an irreducible body of
knowledge, skills, and attitudes common to democratic culture”. It stresses “adequate
mast-mastery of content”.

The Aims of Education are: “to be guided disciplined, instructed”, “to adjust to the
Existing Culture”; to absorb “the unchanging philosophic faith”; and to promote “the
transmission of tradition”. To summarize, we could, say that the aim is “to assure that a
series of fundamentally durable bodies of knowledge are conveyed to the learner as
expertly and excellently as possible”.

Essentialist style of School Administration is efficient, business-like, and pyramidal –

stressing Authority and Power. This is because the role of the School is restricted to
transmitting habits and practices from generation to generation, or, as Kandel says: “to
reproduce the type, to transmit the social heritage, to adjust the individual to the Society”
Conant (b. 1895) felt that “no radical alteration in the basic pattern of Education is
necessary for the improvement of our School”.

For further reading;

Rashid, M. (1962). Allied Materials on Foundation of Education :
Ornstein, A. C., Levine, Philosophical Foundation of Education (Course
D. U., Gutek, G. L., & code 831). Islamabad: National Book 157-
Vocke, D. E. (2011). Foundation Islamabad . 194
Foundations of Education. Belmont, USA:
WADSWORTH.

2.3.4 Progressivism
Even today; Progressivism is an important philosophy. The dominant outlook is the
technological, experimental and “this-worldly” habits and accomplishments that shape
our twentieth country culture. The fundamental aim of progressive educational

35
philosophy is to education the student according to their interest and needs, a student-
centered approach is adopted by them.

It is characterized by the flexible, curious, tolerant and open-minded disposition. It

creates a liberal attitude in a person leading him into adventurous, exploratory and
continuously developing Experience.

For the Progressivist, the Scientific Method is not only for the laboratory but must be
used in every area of Experience, and must be applicable to personal and social life. One
must approach all pressing problems in a spirit of open inquiry, tireless investigation,
willingness to listen to opposing ideas, giving them a fair chance to prove their worth.
Above all Progressivism is based on the belief in man’s Autonomy in so far as he is able
to face the world with his own skills and solve his problems through his own alert
intelligence.

Though there is too much good and a lot of strength left in Progressivism, it will have to
reckon with a greater force, namely, that of Revolution. Being Evolutionary basically,
Progressivism is under attack by Reconstructionist philosophies which want quick results
and cannot wait for the slow evolution strategy of Progressivism to bear fruit. Those that
hunger and thirst for justice today cannot wait to have their fill.

a) Roots of Progressivism
Negatively, Progressivism is a reaction to ancient (Perennialist) as well as Modern
(Essentialist) forms of Authoritarianism and Absolutism be they religious, political,
ethical or epistemological. Positively, Progressivism is expressive of confidence in
Man – in his own Natural powers, his self-re-generative power to face and to
overcome fears and evils his environment.

According to this Philosophy, we must put our ideas to work. We must think not just for
the sake of thinking, but for the sake of doing. We must apply our minds to the problems
of Life. We must reject all doctrines of man’s helplessness and of mysterious,
overpowering forces. Education is the greatest of all cultural instruments helping us to
change; it is not a passive conditioner of our existence.
In ancient Greece, Heraclitus said Reality is changing and that nothing is permanent.
Socrates was the first to combine Epistemology with Axiology (as Progressivists do) by
declaring that “knowledge is Virtue”. Protagoras held that both Truth and Value are
relative to time and place.

An important influence from European Philosophy is Jean Jacque Rousseau’s Naturalism

(of which we have already spoken elsewhere). But the greatest contribution to this
philosophy is form the Americans: Charles S.Picrce, William James and John Dewey.
These Constitute the “Big Three”.

From Pierce, James obtained his Central Philosophic Principle: Ideas are meaningless
unless they work. Pierce: is thoroughly scientific, naturalistic and empirical in his

36
thinking. He held that the entire function of thinking is to habituate us to action. Fames:
taught that living organisms function through experience, action, flowing feelings and
habit patterns. Dewey: matched the genius of the preceding two American philosophers
and applied this philosophy to Education.

Four Cultural Influences on Progressivism are:

1. The Industrial Revolution,
2. Modern Science,
3. The Rise of Democracy,
4. The American Environment

1. The Industrial Revolution

This begins from the decline of Feudalism to the Rise and Power of Capitalism in
the early Twentieth Century. Beliefs in old values were shattered. Men’s attitudes
and habits changed radically, as men saw their tremendous power over natural
forces. The Security and stability of village life was disturbed by the problems of
urban concentrations. Joy, pride, satisfaction and creativity were no longer
associated with Work – but had to be sought in Leisure. Each required Education
(for work, for leisure). Craftsmanship in the Middle Ages included not only
teaching a trade but music, poetry, and morals. But the Industrial Revolution
destroyed this “whole” Education.

2. Modern Science
Modern science arose because of the refusal of man to accept ready-made answers
from Authority and Dogma (which was not easy as problems were quite different).
The Triumphs and achievements of man emboldened men to examine explain and
control the factors influencing each situation. An experimental inductive approach
to solve human problems began to replace the authoritarian-deductive approach.
This attitude was encouraged by Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory of Natural
Selection and change from old forms to new.

3. The Rise of Democracy

It was due to the previous two factors. There was an abounding confidence in the
ability and right of men to rule themselves, and to direct their own lives. Hence the
definition of democracy “The Government of the people, by the people, for the
people,” and the slogan of “Liberty, Equality and Brotherhood”.

4. A Favorable Environment in America

A favorable Environment in America or “the Frontier Spirit” is the last factor.
America was “virgin soil” in every way. It has no cultural ballast or dead-weight to
get rid-off. One could establish a new industrial order, work scientifically and
practice democracy without strong opposition from vested interests as would be in
the case of an old country in Europe or elsewhere.

37
Kandel calls this “The Frontier spirit” which was strong in the first half of that 19th
Century. The dissolution of the theological and political ties which still bound the country
to European traditions was hastened by the new outlook and new sentiments which arose
out of the new conditions of life imposed by the conquest of the frontier.

“It was in this struggle with nature that there developed an independence, vigour and self-
reliance which in turn resulted in new attitudes towards external control, authority and
government…. The exigencies of the frontier which demanded individual initiative and
resourcefulness, immediate action, rather than theory, cultivated a certain shrewdness and
capacity in the individual to turn his hand to any task, and developed as a consequence, a
certain, faith in the untutored intelligence trained by direct and immediate grappling with
a concrete situation, rather than by the normal agency of the school or books.”

“At the same time, the great variety of activities in which the conquerors engaged
produced a type of versatility and flexibility before which no task appeared too
formidable, and which engendered some skepticism if not actual contempt, for book
learning, intellectual pursuits and academic training. “since American temperament and
character was formed by the Frontier spirit this Philosophy fitted in very well.

Progressive Philosophy
The Progressivists Theory of Reality is against what James called “a block-universe”: a
fixed, unchanging, redesign reality, based on arbitrary, meaningless speculations. They
do not accept any ontology or metaphysics except one that faces directly toward the here
and now, that describes surroundings more fruitfully than absolutist doctrines. The only
reality for the Progressivists is “Immediate human Experience” its sufferings, delights,
sorrows, joys, beauties, ugliness, hatreds, loves. Experience has an Evolutionary quality:
it is a struggle, life in action and change. Chance (or the unexpected or unforeseen and
novel) plays a major role. Man survives because of his intelligence – his ability to solve
problems. But man’s Mind exists within the flow of Experience, not out-side it. It is not
an organ distinct from the body, but behaves in organic relation with the body, its
feelings and habits. The mind is what it does. For the Progressivists, Experience has these
four qualities;
Dynamic: It moves and pauses according to a rhythm of adjustment and re-adjustment. It
is never static but changes.
Temporal: Experience merges and develops over a period of time. It grows.
Spatial: Experience expands in all directions. It is not limited to any place or thing.
Pluralistic: Experience is a vast network of multiple relations, at once spiritual and
material complex and simple, intellectual and emotional.

To understand the Progressivists’ theory of knowledge, we must discuss the difference

between immediate and Mediate Experience. To be myself, relaxing in an armchair,
without expressing what I feel – this is immediate experience which I “undergo”. To
solve a problem of any kind, I leave my state of Equilibrium, attack the problem, and
arrive again at a state of Equilibrium, in between, there is a “Span of Mediation” called
“Mediate Experience”.

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There are five steps, in the Span of Mediation which, taken together, constitute the Act of
Thought.
1. Carry on even when something interrupts the flow of experience.
2. Stop, observe, measure, weigh, take apart estimate the obstacle.
3. One or two or even a dozen or more suggestions cross the mind as to how to
conquer the obstacle. When clarified, these become “ideas”.
4. In our imagination, we weigh the pros and cons of each suggestion; weigh the
consequences by inferring what would happen in each case.
5. We carry out, or infer overtly. We do, and experience the actual effects.

Critique:
This is not the only way of thinking. One thinks even if there is no real problem or need
e.g. in Mathematics. Also, a person can stop thinking at any of the 5 steps, and the order
of the steps is not hard and fast. We go backwards and forwards when thinking. Besides,
one acts even at step ii (in experimentation). Finally, success may not come for months or
years. Step v. may never be reached for centuries, in the case of difficult problems.

The Progressivist idea of Truth holds that the crucial test of whether an idea becomes
true is its long-range effectiveness in re-integrating our experience. For the Progressivist,
knowledge is not the same as Truth. Knowledge is Passive, but Truth is Active, since
Truth is Active, since Truth is knowledge which is tested and found useful. Lastly, in the
Progressivist Theory of Knowledge, Intelligence is not just a static “Mind” but something
operational. Pragmatic Epistemology is operationalism which means that ideas are
expressed as plans to be carried out, tested and classified as true or not.

The Progressivists theory of value holds that parallel to the distinction between
Immediate and Mediate experiences, the Progressivists distinguish between Intrinsic and
Instrumental values. Such that intrinsic-are good in themselves e.g. Health, and
Instrumental Values- are good since they serve some other Value e.g. an operation is an
instrumental value since it helps restore health.

Knowledge is to Truth what Intrinsic Values are to Instrumental Values. So Intrinsic

Values, for the progressivists, must be tested out in order to be valuable for an individual
now. Values develop from a constant interplay between fresh personal experience and
cultural deposits. Values not tested and examined by an individual’s intelligence can
hardly be called “values”. They become pious slogans.

Progressivism is against dogmatic commandments and rigid moral maxims. Values have
to be constantly redefined. For Dewy, the Key Value is Growth: “The process of growth,
of improvement and progress, rather than the static outcome and result, becomes the
significant thing. The end is no longer a terminus or limit to be reached but the active
process of transforming an existing situation. Not perfection as a final goal but the ever
enduring process of perfecting, maturing, refining, is the Aim of Living. Honesty,
Industry, Temperance, Justice, like Health, Wealth and Learning are not goods to be

39
possessed as they would be if they expressed fixed ends to be attained. They are
directions of change in the quality of experience Growth itself is the only moral “end”.

Regarding Aesthetics, Pragmatists regard Science and Art not as separate but as
complementary achievements. Dewey was skeptical of any distinction between the
applied arts (weaving, ceramics, and metal work) and the fine arts (music, painting,
sculpture).

Great art is not separate from life, but strives through countless media to show the
meaning of whatever in experience is vital and significant. The artist, like the scientist,
faces problems, tries to think them through and to do something about them. However,
the artist deals more with the qualitative aspects of experience, whereas the scientist deals
with the quantitative aspects.

It democracy has a moral meaning, it is this: “The supreme test of all political institutions
and industrial arrangements shall be the contribution they shall make to the all round
growth of every member of society” (John Dewey). Democracy is a Critics of Societies
where people are not free, where injustice and discrimination are practiced. Positively, it
provides a society in which persons and groups find fulfillment of their potential.

Progressive Education
Pragmatic Philosophy and Progressive Education is fused together in the work of John
Dewey. It has influenced countless teachers and students in various countries.

“Experience” or “learning by doing” was already stressed by Plato, “Fitting the

instruction to the child” or “Child-Centered Teaching” was already advocated by Johann
Comenius. But the advocate and founder of the “Child-centered school was Jean Jacques
Rousseau who had a profound faith in “the natural power of man”. He encouraged the
expression of natural impulses, opposed stern discipline, and “forced learning”. He
wanted children freed from fear and superstition. He believed in man as capable of
mature, co-operative self-direction, and resented domination of any kind is it religious,
political, social or economic. “Self-activity” was strongly advocated by Pestalozzi. So
also, he preferred “direct observation” to more verbal learning and believed in creative
work and family life as important influences in Education. The stress on the “whole
child”, meaning the all round development of the child was already begun by Herbart.
The founder of the Kindergartens was Froebel, who (like Comenius and Rousseau)
insisted on the right of the child to freely express his nature. For him, the Teacher is a
guide, not a Commander. He regarded Play and Games as important learning
experiences. Discipline should take the shape of Co-operation based on love.

The American philosopher, William James in his “Talks to Teachers on Psychology”

Explained that the Essence of good education is the strengthening of good habits on
behalf of individual well-being.

40
Horace Mann: Wanted schools to be agents of social reform. Unlikely to
Reconstructionism they considered social reforms as a segment of progressive
educational reforms in society.
Henry Barnard: thought that private schools created division in society whereas public
school unified classes.
Francis Parker: insisted on creative arts as essential to Education, and held that the self
or personality is extremely important.
John Dewey: Of course, is a Giant among all the above. Two other Progressive
Educational Boyd Bode:, both of who believe that education determines the course of
history in an increasingly democratic direction.
We can summarize the main features of Progressive Education under these heads:

Progressive Beliefs about Learning

The Progressive Curriculum: Content and Method.
Progressive Beliefs about Learning: Progressivists believe that the School is “Good”
when it enables a child to grow, provides him with means for self-expression, and permits
him to be active.

The School is Bad when it blocks the expression of the feelings, denies satisfaction of
curiosity, takes the child away from his own problems and interests. We can sum up the
Progressive Psychology of learning in six statements.
1. Progressive Psychology of learning stresses the Evolutionary Process and the fact
that the child is dynamic and re-creative and modifies his behavior in the light of
experience.
2. Learning is a Natural Experience: Every organism strives to remove obstacles and
reduce disturbances in its development.
3. The “whole child” is involved in learning, not just the “mind”. Intellect, feelings,
habits, and bodily responses are all inter woven in learning.
4. The Environment, both Natural and Social, is indispensable for learning, since
learning experiences necessarily involve the interaction of the self with the
environment.
5. Learning consists of different degrees ranging from reflex actions and impulsive
responses to reflective thinking, from “animal” learning to “human learning.
6. Several Traditional theories of learning are rejected. E.g. Progressivists do not
believe that:
a) Children have “innate” ideas. These are all acquired.
b) Children are not “mechanisms” responding to stimuli in the environment.

But children are both spirit and matter in one.

Similarly, the Progressivists discard the ideas that response always follows stimulus. The
child invites and selects and conditions certain stimuli, so both Stimulus and Response
interact, one on the other.

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Conclusion: For the Progressivists, living is learning. If learning becomes so academic
that it is cut off from life, it is irresponsible education, and often leads to juvenile
delinquency.

Eight Key words of the Progressive Learning Theory:

1. Interest: What is taught or learnt must arouse feelings and impulses in the child,
must be associated with the meaning derived from previous experiences. It must
have, nevertheless, an element of the novel and uncertain to provoke the child to
discover how to bring it into harmony with older experiences.
2. Effort: Effort, according to Dewey, must be fused with interest. We work best
when motivated by our own interests and desires. Forcing children to do what they
don’t like will be counterproductive.
3. Purpose: Learners need to see where a given experience may lead. If critically
chosen and intelligently, directed purpose will bring about a higher degree of
efficiency.
4. Intelligence: The Bridge between Interest and Purpose is Intelligence, It is a
careful, sustained effort to think through and re-organize a dis-organized situation.
This is what Dewey calls the “Span of Mediate Experience” which we have
explained elsewhere.
5. Habit: Progressivism insists on both, Habits of skills and Habits of Reflection.
Habits can be bad if they lead to routine which fails to consider intelligently the
problems that arise. They are useful in so far as they help us perform many useful
actions automatically. But the most useful habit of all is that of conscious reflection
upon our problems.
6. Growth: Growth strengthens the whole learner physiologically, psychologically
and socially by enabling him, bodily and spiritually, to pursue his deepest interest
with sustained and efficient effort, and unconsciously and effectively strengthens
his habits of motor skills and reflection, so that the student becomes critically self-
aware, self-confident, positive and constructive in attitude and behavior.
7. Organism: The child learns with body as well as mind; since neither exists
separate from other, but function in inter-relation. There is a dynamic “wholeness”
to man’s inner and outer experience. Learning is always organic, whether we
consider it as immediate experience (in the form of aesthetic experience) or
mediate experience (in the sense of scientific analysis or problem solving).
The Rhythm of learning consists of the continuum “Immediacy-Mediacy-
Immediacy (just as the continuum of values is Intrinsic-Instrumental-Intrinsic, and
that of Reality is Undergoing-Doing-Undergoing).
8. Culture: The child never learns in isolation from others. The Personality or “Self”
is the product of communication with other “selves”. It is the blending of responses
to others that become personality roles. Kilpatrick’s definition of Culture is: “all
those transmitted results of prior human experience and contrivance through which
the group now carries on its life. This includes especially language, customs tools,
institutions, knowledge, ideals, and standards”.

42
But for Progressivists, Culture is not something which is fixed and unchangeable, to
which a child must do nothing but adjust. Instead, culture is seen as continuously
evolving. Through achievements of the past which have matured over centuries are
worthy of profound respect, the meaning of past problems, customs and ideals must be
re-interpreted to meet changed and changing conditions.

The Content of the Progressive Curriculum is anything which is educative. Nothing is

fixed, since like experience, the needs and interests of individuals and group vary from
place to place, time to time, and culture to culture.

A curriculum is like a Laboratory, always occupied experience, with students and

teachers behaving like scientists. The Experimental Method is Exploratory, tolerant of the
novel, and curious to try the hitherto untried. Hence, Progressivists are against rigidity in
school requirements or absolute boundaries, mechanical standards, or preconceived
solutions.

This does not mean that Progressive curricula are plan-less, disorganized or atomistic.
Dewey never denied the need for structure and planning. They only insist upon a
curriculum which grows through co-operative interests, thinking and action.

Harold Rugg describes five major ways of building Progressive Curricula:

1. Re-organize WITHIN a particular subject by shifting about items in it. E.g. new
method of Teaching History OR Geography OR Civics.
2. Co-relating TWO or more subjects (e.g. Combination or Integration of History
AND Geography AND Civics in Social Studies).
3. Broader grouping of related subjects: e.g. general education in natural sciences
(General Science).
4. Core Curriculum: Consisting of diverse learning experiences based on NEEDS.
5. Experience-Centered: Curriculum which dissolves subject matter boundaries and
emphasizes “Units”.

These five degrees (from 1 to 5 are increasingly progressive and more and divergent from
the traditional curriculum). Experimental Curriculum has the following characteristics:
1. Experimental: The Progressive Method does not encourage solving of Artificial
Problems, but of New ones. Also it discourages readymade answers to be arrived at
by the student in several of new answers. The method is, therefore, inductive, and
learning is Evolutionary, rather than Repetitive, Linear rather than Circular.
2. Drill and Memorization: are only useful as helps to intelligent learning, not as a
substitute for them.
3. Play way: Critics attack Progressive education for confusion “Work” and “Play”.
Play leads, they say, to slipshod and poor quality education. But Progressive
Educators replay that work need not be cut off from drives, enthusiasms, joys, and
satisfaction. Besides, children’s as well as adults games do require reflection
imagination and planning. Kilpatrick speaks of “CONCOMITANT LEARNING”
which occurs, not so much by deliberate, formal instruction, but even through

43
 Recreation. For the Progressive, play is NOT Extra-curricular, since children learn
from both Work and Play. The Project Method, Activity Method and the Problem
Solving Method are also Progressive.
Freedom: Progressives are against Indoctrination. Of course, all teachers have their
own set of values, attitudes and Opinions but there must be Academic Freedom,
where students can explore various aspects of a problem, and have unrestricted
opportunity to examine facts and test hypotheses.
4. Child-centered: the curriculum must be geared to the needs, interests, and abilities
of the child which are different according to the various stages of growth and
development.
5. Community-centered: Since the Child lives (and learns) in the Community; the
school must work in close Co-operation with the Community. Many subjects like
Arts (visits to plays, movies) and Social Studies (visits to villages, slums, factories,
markets, courts, mines) and the Sciences (to understand water purification, the
working of the local power station) – all these require close contact with the
Community. Adult-Education is stressed by Progressive since it will help to
educate children better.

For further readings;

Lobo, A. T. (1874). Educational Ideas and their Impact. Karachi: Rotti 44-54
Press Old Haji Cam Road Karachi.
Barrow, R., & An Introduction to Philosophy of Education (4th 157-194
Woods, R. (2006) ed.). London: Rouledge: Tayler and Francis Group.

2.3.5 Reconstructionism
It was 1920 when one the famous American philosopher and education John Dewey
introduced the word Reconstructionism in the field of educational philosophy in one of
his famous book. The title of the books was “Reconstruction in philosophy”. In early
1930s, a group known as “Frontier Thinkers” called on the schools to lead the way
towards the creation of a “new” and more “equitable” society. This group was lead by
George Counts and Harold Rugg. They write different books on this above mentioned
concepts. The one which is famous was Counts work on the title of “The American Road
to Culture” in 1930, Culture and Education in America in 1930 was written by Rugg and
Dare the school build a new social order? in 1932. At the same time the Progressivists
such as Kilpatrick and John Childs were also urging education to become more aware of
its social responsibilities. But they are not agreed with the pattern of the
reconstructionists, that the school should prefer to specific social reforms; they preferred
instead to stress the general end of social growth through education (Rashid, 1962).

Two decades later, as the progressive movement lost its momentum; further attempts
were made to extend Deweyan philosophy into socially committed educational theories.
In his major work, “the Ideal and the Community” (1958), Isaac, B. Berkson sought a
rapprochement of progressivism and essentialism, suggesting that although the school
itself should not take the lead in social reform, it could cooperate with the movement
already underway that advocated a more thorough realization of liberal culture values.

44
However, it was Theodore Brameld who lead the foundation of “Social
Reconstructionism” with the publication of Patterns of Educational Philosophy in 1950,
followed by Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of Education in 1956 and Education as
power in 1965. Here, the work of Brameld in Reconstructionism has been presented;
1. Education must commit itself here and now to the creation of a new social order
that will fulfill the basic values of our culture and at the same time harmonize with
the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world. Claiming to be the
philosophy of an “age in crisis” Reconstructionism sounds a note of urgency not
hear in other educational theories. Civilization, it declares, now faces the
possibilities of self-annihilation. Education must lead to a profound change in the
minds of men, so that the enormous technological power at our disposal may be
used to create rather than to destroy. Society must be transformed, not simply
through political actions, but more fundamentally through the education of its
member to a new vision of their life in common. This commitment to the new order
is not tenuous but urgent and direct. Reconstructions, writes Brameld,

“… Commit itself, first of all to the building of a new culture. It is infused

with a profound conviction that we are the midst of a revolutionary period
out of which would emerge nothing less than control of the industrial system,
of public service and of cultural resources by and for the common people
who, throughout the ages, have struggled for a life of security, decency, and
peace for them and their children.”

2. The new society must be a genuine democracy, whose major institutions and
resources are controlled by the people themselves. Anything that sufficient affects
the public interest, whether pensions, health, or industry, should become the
responsibility of elected popular representatives. Thus Brameld declares;

“Control by the largest possible majority of the principal institutions and

resources of any culture is supreme test of democracy… the working people
should control all the principal institutions and resources if the world is to
become the genuinely democratic”.

Since the ideal society is a democracy, it must also be realized democratically. The
structure, goals and polices of the new order must be approved at the bar of public
opinion and enacted with the fullest possible measures of public support.
Revolutions that take place in the minds of a people is more profound and lasting
than any change brought about by politicians alone. And the logical end of national
democracy is international democracy, a form of world government in which all
states will participate.

3. The child, the school and education itself are conditioned unavoidably by social
and cultural forces. Progressivism, Syas Brameld, overstates the case of individual
freedom and understates the extent to which we are all socially conditioned. In its
concerned to find ways in which the individual may realize himself in society, it

45
 overlooks the degree to which society makes him what he is. Since civilize life by
and large is group life, group should play an important part in the school. “we
should recognize groups for what they are,” write Brameld, we should neither
cynically condemn them nor passively accept their behavior as inevitable, but
through sound diagnosis aim to build a social and educational program that will
help resolve their longings, reduce their immoralities and release their human
potentialities”; though it the individual not only develops the social side of his
nature but also learns how to participate in social planning.

4. The teacher must convince his students of the validity and urgency of the
reconstructionist solution, but he must do so with scrupulous regard for democratic
procedures. This was called the principle of “defensible partiality” by Brameld.
The teachers allow open examination of the evidence both for and against his
views; he present alternative solution fairly; and he permit his students to defend
their own ideas. Moreover, since all of us have convictions and partialities, we
should not only express and depend them publically but also “work for their
acceptance by the large possible majority.”

5. The means and ends of education must be completely refashioned to meet the
demands of the present cultural crisis and to accord with the findings of the
behavioral sciences. The importance of behavioral sciences is that they enable us to
discover those values in which men most strongly believe, whether or not these
values are universal. Thus, Brameld declares;

“…the behavioral sciences are beginning to prove, really for the first time in
the history, that it is possible to formulate human goals not for sentimental ,
romantic, mystical, or similarly arbitrary reasons, but on the basis of what we
are learning about cross-cultural and even universal values though in studies
in this difficult field have moved only a little way, they have moved far
enough so that it is already becoming plausible both to describe these values
objectively and demonstrate that most human beings prefer them to alternate
values” (Kneller, 1971).

We need to look afresh at the way in which our curricula are drawn up, the subject they
contain, the method that are used, the structure of administration, and the ways in which
teachers are trained. These must then be reconstructed in accordance with a unified
theory of human nature, rationally and scientifically derived. It follows that we must
construct a curriculum whose subjects and subdivisions are related integrally rather than
treated as a sequence of knowledge components;

“A theory of unified man both derived from and contributing to our

experimental knowledge of human behavior in its multiple perspectives, not
only should integrated all other fields of knowledge; it should provide them
with a fresh and potent significance.”

46
Reconstructionist curriculum concentrate on the experimental and skill based education.
They consider child life a whole not the composition of its parts, students’ home related
life which affects their educational activities and the process of students’ development is
also taking into considerations, therefore every program of reconstrcutionism includes
family-life programming. They oppose the progressive educational theory as it ignores
the need of restructuring the society and concentrates on social reforms as one aspect of
their education. Reconstructionists considered the rearrangement of human society from
the very starts as the current nature is so worse that it cannot be repainted. That’s why
they organized the instruction process in a structured manner which includes; classroom
instruction, workshops, summer camps and retreats. Stress is given the implementation of
the learnt knowledge through social activities (Kneller, 1971).

For further readings;

Lobo, A. T. (1874). Educational Ideas and their Impact. Karachi: Rotti 44-54
Press Old Haji Cam Road Karachi.
Barrow, R., & An Introduction to Philosophy of Education (4th 157-194
Woods, R. (2006) ed.). London: Rouledge: Tayler and Francis Group.

2.4 Exercise
1. Define the concept of education. What is peter’s concept of education? And how
Paulo Freire’s banking concept of education is different from Peter’s concept of
education?
2. Education is a positive, desirable and acceptable change in the behavior of an
individual. Explains in sequence along with the difference between learning and
education?
3. Perennial education stress on the study of great books, how you can describe the
Muslim educational system from the prospective of perennialism?
4. What are the basics of perennialist education? How it is different from
progressivists educational philosophy?
5. Since we are human beings, and we remains same where ever we are. So all human
beings need to be educated in same patterns. Give arguments in favor and against.
6. Explain in details the essentialist philosophy of education. How this school of
education is different from perennialist school of education?
7. Reconstructionism and progressivism are initiated in America, what were the
reasons for backing these two different educational philosophies in a same
country?
8. Identify basic differences and similarities between reconstructionism and
progressivism.

47
2.5 References
Arora, N. (2010). Educational Philosophy. Ansari Road, New Dehli: Saurabh Publishing
House.

Barrow, R., & Woods, R. (2006). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education (4th ed.).
London: Rouledge: Tayler and Francis Group.

Dalaganjan, N. D. (2004). The Philosophy of Education. New Dehli: Kalyani Publishers.

Erkilic, T. A. (2008). Importance of Educational Philosophy in Teacher Training for

Educational Sustainable Development. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research , 3 (1), 1-8.

Khalid, T. M. (2012). Education: AN Introduction to Educational Philosophy and

HIstroy. Islamabad: National Book Foundation.

Kneller, G. F. (1971). Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. University of

California, Los Angelas: John Wiley and Sons.

Lobo, A. T. (1874). Educational Ideas and their Impact. Karachi: Rotti Press Old Haji
Cam Road Karachi.

Ornstein, A. C., Levine, D. U., Gutek, G. L., & Vocke, D. E. (2011). Foundations of
Education. Belmont, USA: WADSWORTH.

Rashid, M. (1962). Allied Materials on Foundation of Education: Philosophical

Foundation of Education (Course code 831). Islamabad: National Book Foundation
Islamabad .

Sharma, P. (2007). Philosophy of Education. Ansari Road Daryaganj, New Dehli: APH
Publishing Corporation.

Stenhouse, D. (1985). Active Philosophy in Education and Science. Massey University,

New Zealand: George Allen & Unwin.

Wilson, J. (2003). The Concept of Education Revisited. Journal of Philosophy of

Education , 37 (1), 101-108.

48
Unit 3

ISLAMIC SYSTEM OF
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Written By: Dr. Maliha Nasir

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

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3.1 Introduction
Generally, education is considered as a process of gaining academic knowledge, learning
technical and professional skills, and developing desirable attitudes and behaviors. The
learner is required to gain knowledge as a collection of facts and figures without knowing
the true value of knowledge and the real purpose of gaining knowledge. As education
involves instilling and transmitting knowledge generation after generation, there arise
two important questions about education:
1. Out of the entire available body of knowledge, what knowledge is the most
worthwhile to transmit from generation to generation?
2. What is our particular ideology and what are our aims and aspirations as regards to
the construction of society on the basis of this ideology?

To answer these questions in the light of Islamic Ideology, we must know the Islamic
concept of knowledge and education. In this unit the major aspects of the system of
education including objectives, curriculum and the process of teaching and learning are
discussed in the light of Islamic teachings and ideology.

3.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
1. explain the concept of knowledge in Islamic perspective.
2. explain the significance of knowledge and education in Islam.
3. describe and explain the aims of education in Islamic perspective.
4. explain the role of teachers in Islamic educational system.
5. describe teaching methodology in the light of Islamic teachings.
6. analyze the educational system of Pakistan in the light of Ideology of Pakistan.

3.3 The Concept of Knowledge in Islam

After the creation of Hazrat Adam (AS), the first blessing bestowed on him was
knowledge. Allah Almighty gave him the knowledge of all things:
And He taught Adam the names of all things. (Al-Baqarah: 31)

Man was given the knowledge of worldly things before coming to the world but this
knowledge was not enough to compete with the cunnings of Satan. Therefore, when
Hazrat Adam was ordered to descend to the Earth, he was informed that there will come
guidance from Allah that must be followed:
And if, as is sure, there comes to you guidance from Me, whosoever follows My guidance,
on them shall be no fear nor shall they grieve. (Al-Baqarah: 38)

Thus, the concept of knowledge in Islamic perspective is two-fold, i.e. the worldly
knowledge and the Devine Guidance. Abdur Raheem (nd) has described these two types
of knowledge as:
1. The Word of Allah that is the Divine knowledge given through revelation.
2. The World of Allah that is the knowledge acquired through faculties of sight,
hearing and mind.

50
3.3.1 Sources of Knowledge
According to Islamic Ideology all the knowledge comes from Allah.
They said, “Glorified are You, we have no knowledge except what You have taught us.
Verily, it is You the Al-Knower, the All-Wise. (Al Baqarah: 32)
And they will never encompass anything of His Knowledge except that which he wills. (Al
Baqarah: 255)
Allah confers knowledge upon humans through various sources. Five important sources
are as follows:
1- Revelation: The purest and the truest source of knowledge is revelation. It is the
knowledge that directly comes from Allah (SWT) to His prophets and then given to
humanity.
Say, I am only a man like you, to whom has been revealed that your god is one
God. (Al-Kahf: 110)
He does not speak from [his own] inclination. It is not but a revelation revealed.
(An-Najm: 3-4)
2- Sensory Experience: Allah has granted man senses to use for acquiring knowledge
and understanding. Sensory experience is another source of knowledge and Allah
has ordered man to use these senses in order to reflect over the Signs of Allah in
this universe.
And on the earth are signs for the certain [in faith]. And in yourselves. Then will
you not see? (Adh-Dhariyat: 20-21)
However, sensory knowledge has its limitations and it cannot be relied upon
exclusively unless it is in accordance with the Divine Knowledge. Senses may be
deceptive sometime as in case of the Queen of Saba:
She was told, "Enter the palace." But when she saw it, she thought it was a body of
water and uncovered her shins [to wade through]. He said, "Indeed, it is a palace
[whose floor is] made smooth with glass." She said, "My Lord, indeed I have wronged
myself, and I submit with Solomon to Allah, Lord of the worlds." (An-Naml: 44)
3- Reasoning: Allah has not only granted physical senses so that man can get
information from the surroundings, but also granted the faculty of reasoning or
logical understanding to make meaningful use of this information.
Who listen to speech and follow the best of it. Those are the ones Allah has guided,
and those are people of understanding. (Az-Zumar: 18)
Allah has commanded to use the faculty of reasoning and thinking in many verses
of the Quran. However, the reason alone does not always bring appropriate results.
It is reliable only when it is in accordance with the Divine Knowledge. As we see
in the story of Hazrat Musa (AS) told in Surah Kahf. He was asked to seek
knowledge from a learned man. Hazrat Musa (AS) criticized some tasks performed
by the learned man on the basis of reasoning, but he was told later that these tasks
were performed as ordered by Allah. Even a prophet was unable to find out the
bases of those tasks with the help of reasoning alone.
4- Instinct: It is the inherent knowledge given by Allah to all creatures. Every creature
of Allah has knowledge that is necessary for its survival and also the knowledge of
its functions necessary for equilibrium of the ecosystem.

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 And your Lord inspired to the bee, "Take for yourself among the mountains,
houses, and among the trees and [in] that which they construct. Then eat from all
the fruits and follow the ways of your Lord laid down [for you]." (An-Naml: 68-69)
Humans are also given the innate knowledge for not only their physical well-being
but also the knowledge for their spiritual well-being.
And [by] the soul and He who proportioned it. And inspired it [with discernment
of] its wickedness and its righteousness. (As-Shams: 7-8)
5- Intuition: It is the knowledge that does not involve any sensory experience or
reasoning faculty. It is the perception or insight that suddenly comes to mind.
Intuition may be beneficial or evil. Beneficial intuitions come from Allah.
And we inspired to the mother of Moses, "Suckle him; but when you fear for him,
cast him into the river and do not fear and do not grieve. (Al-Qasas: 7)
Evil intuition comes from Satan and man must seek refuge in Allah from such evil.
Say, "I seek refuge in the Lord of mankind, The Sovereign of mankind. The God of
mankind, From the evil of the retreating whisperer - Who whispers [evil] into the
breasts of mankind - From among the jinn and mankind." (An-Naas: 1-6)

3.3.2 Significance of Knowledge

The importance of knowledge is manifest from the fact that Adam (AS) was exalted in
rank over the angels on the basis of knowledge. Also for the human race the standard of
superiority is knowledge.

Allah will exalt in degree those of you who believe and those who have been granted
knowledge. (Al-mujadilah: 11)

When the Prophet of Islam (SAW) was bestowed with prophethood, the first revelation
was related to knowledge in which Allah reminded that He taught man what he knew not.
Read! In the Name of your Lord who has created (all that exists). He has created man
from a clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous. Who has taught by the pen? He
has taught man that which he knew not. (Al-Alaq, 1-5).

The importance of knowledge is also evident from the fact that Allah instructed the Holy
Prophet to pray for increase in knowledge.
And say: ‘My Lord! Increase me in knowledge (Ta-Ha: 114)

Acquisition of knowledge is an obligation for every Muslim man and woman. In many
Ahadith the importance of knowledge is emphasized and Muslims are commanded to
gain knowledge. For example, a Hadith given in Sunan Ibn Majjah chapter 1 tells that
seeking knowledge is a duty upon every Muslim (Hadith no. 224). And another Hadith
tells the significance of seeking knowledge. There is no one who goes out of his house in
order to seek knowledge, but the angels lower their wings in approval of his action
(Hadith no. 226). Imam Bukhari also narrated a Hadith about significance of gaining
knowledge: Whoever follows a path in the pursuit of knowledge, Allah will make a path
to Paradise easy for him (Sahih al-Bukhaari, Kitaab al-‘Ilm 10)

52
Seeking knowledge is as important as disseminating knowledge. Allah has commanded
Muslims to disseminate knowledge.

And it is not for the believers to go forth [to battle] all at once. For there should separate
from every division of them a group [remaining] to obtain understanding in the religion and
warn their people when they return to them that they might be cautious. (At-Taubah: 122)

Another Hadith narrated in Sahi al-Bukhari signifies the practice of teaching and
learning, especially that of the Quran: The best among you are those who learn the
Qur’an and teach it. (vol.6, Hadith no. 545).

Islam not only emphasizes the importance of religious knowledge, but also encourages
gaining the knowledge of Allah’s creation. We find many verses in the Quran in which
Sings of Allah are described and man is commanded to ponder upon these signs so that
he may get awareness of Allah’s Power and develop fear of Allah.

Indeed, in the alternation of the night and the day and [in] what Allah has created in the
heavens and the earth are signs for a people who fear Allah. (Yunus: 6)

Thus, according to Islamic teaching both religious and worldly knowledge have
importance on their part. Man should have knowledge and understanding, so that he can
understand and make beneficial use of the World of Allah in accordance with the Word
of Allah.

3.4 The Concept of Education in Islam

According to the Islamic view, the meaning of education as a whole is implicit in three
terms ‘Tarbiyyah’, ‘Ta’lim’ and ‘Ta’deeb’ altogether (Al-Attas, 1979). These terms
represent different aspects of educational process. The most commonly used word for
education is ‘Ta’lim’ which means imparting knowledge through teaching and
instructions. ‘Tarbiyyah’ means moral and spiritual fostering of a person in accordance
with the commands of Allah. ‘Ta’deeb’ is the training in desirable social behaviors.

Education in Islamic perspective involves balanced growth of the total personality of man
through the training of man’s spiritual self, intellectual self, emotional self and physical
self (Al-Attas, 1979). According to the Islamic concept of education, the purpose of
gaining knowledge is to inculcate self-purification through understanding of the secrets
of the universe and to promote fear and love for Allah. As Allah says:
Only those fear Allah, from among His servants, who have knowledge. (Fatir: 28)

From a secular point of view education is an agent of change that changes human
personality and makes it more productive for worldly life. The information and training
in physical wellbeing, social relations and the use of technology enable man to live a
healthy and happy life. However, from Islamic point of view education is not only a
means to improve this life, rather its true spirit lies in making the eternal life of man
successful.

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3.4.1 Aims of Education
The Holy Prophet (SAW) was sent to educate the mankind. The aims of sending the
prophet have been described in the Quran as follows:
It is He who sent among the unlettered ones a Messenger from among themselves, to
rehearse to them His Signs, to purify them and to instruct them in the Book and wisdom,
although they had been, before, in manifest error. (Al-Jumu’ah: 2)

The first aim of sending the Prophet is to look at and think over the Signs of Allah. In this
verse the word ‘Ayaatihee’ (His Signs) does not only mean the verses of the Quran, as it
is more specifically referred to as ‘The Book’, but it means Allah’s wonderful signs in
His creation and in His ordering of the world (Ali, 1946). Therefore, the first aim of
education is to enable man to reach the Reality through the Signs of Allah and to help
man in knowing Allah and the ways to please Him.

The second aim of sending the Prophet is the purification of human life. It includes the
purification of each and every aspect of life like thoughts, morals, social behavior,
politics, civilization, etc. Therefore, the second aim of education is to produce individuals
who have firm belief in the individual and collective system of Islam and they are able to
practice, protect and promote this system.

The third aim of sending the Prophet is to instruct in the Book i.e. the Quran. The Quran
is the main source of Islamic laws and teachings and it guides us towards the right way to
follow. Through the application of the practical and scientific matter presented in the
Holy Quran man can attain prosperity in this world and the world hereafter. Thus, an
important aim of education is to enable a person to follow the Quran and the Sunnah and
to be governed by the Islamic system of values willingly and joyfully.

The fourth aim of sending the Prophet is to impart wisdom (Hikmah). Wisdom means the
real insight and understanding of matters and the power of right decision. The most
important reality to understand is that the life in this world is not the complete life but
only a small portion of the real life in the Hereafter. The real life depends on this
temporary life. Wisdom is the ability to discriminate between the right and the wrong.
Those who have wisdom do not drift towards the deceitful nature of this worldly life.
They spend their lives knowing the real essence of things. Therefore, the most important
aim of education is to enable man to know the answers of the questions to be asked on the
Day of Judgment.

Thus, according to the Islamic Ideology the first and foremost aim of education is to
inculcate concept of “Oneness of Allah” in the minds of students and to enable them to
know Allah and to know the ways to please Him.

Allah has breathed in the human soul the understanding of what is wrong and what is
right. Therefore, a major aim of education is to purify human self by developing the
faculty of distinguishing between right and wrong.

54
Another important aim of education is to give students a detailed account of the
commands and injunction so that they can understand what Allah has ordered them to do
and what is prohibited. The students must understand their responsibilities as an
individual for their self, family and society.

Education in Islamic perspective also aims at providing the worldly knowledge so that human
beings can benefit from all the creations of Allah keeping the limits that are set by Allah.

3.5 Teacher’s Role

Education in Islamic view is not content only nor is it just a matter of behavior. But it is a
whole that encompasses two integrating aspects. The first aspect is the knowledge and
understanding of the basic concepts of the subject being taught. The second aspect is the
training of student’s mind in a systematic way so that he should be able to be compliant
with the morals, laws and faith of Islam.

In this perspective, it is necessary to view the role of teacher. It is not enough for a teacher to
be competent in the subject matter only. He/she must have moral beliefs. The teacher’s moral
attitude has a far reaching effect upon the minds of young pupils. Undoubtedly, teachers are
role models for their pupils. Pupils adopt the good qualities and positive attitude from their
teachers who guide them with devotion and show righteous conduct. Therefore, teachers must
have conscious control over themselves and they should practice righteous ethics and
etiquettes so as to be the best model for their pupils.

Teachers have a pivotal role in the process of education. Whatever the curriculum may
be, its effectiveness depends upon the effectiveness of teacher’s personality. In the
history of Islamic education system, teachers had the most important position. They were
independent of the state and were not paid employees of institutions. It was considered
disgrace to accept material advantage in return of imparting knowledge. They conferred
degrees to their students and the value of degree rested on the merit and scholarship of
the teacher (Shalaby, 1979). The value of institutes, also, rested on the scholars affiliated
to them. However, the relation of a teacher and student has now been commercialized and
there is no personal, emotional or even intellectual relation between teacher and student.
Today, the role of the teacher is more of an instructor than a mentor. The training
programs for teachers emphasize the intellectual skills, and the attitude and personality
traits are given the least importance.

The selection of teachers should not be based only on professional competence, but a
good moral character as a practicing Muslims must also be taken into consideration. The
teachers must have sufficient knowledge about Islam and their practices should be in
compliance to their faith. A teacher should keep in mind that education and training of his
students is a great responsibility entrusted to him by the society. This responsibility does
not end with the teaching of subject contents only; rather it demands the training of the
whole personality of a student as a useful and productive member of the Islamic society.

55
3.6 Teaching Methodology
In order to achieve the goals of education and implementing the curriculum that is
designed in the light of Islamic Ideology, what teaching methods would be appropriate?
Our Prophet (SAW) as a perfect educator is the best example for us. His teachings were
not only restricted to the transmission of contents to the students, rather more emphasis
was given to practical training of his companions. For the purpose of providing excellent
education and training to his companions the Prophet (SAW) adopted various teaching
methods that are now considered to be very useful for effective teaching.

During the course of teacher training, the student teachers are introduced to various
modern teaching techniques. However, they rarely know that these techniques have been
used by the Prophet (SAW) in such an excellent manner that changed the personalities of
Arab Bedouins to the minarets of wisdom and enlightenment. He did not only adopt the
traditional lecture method (giving verbal instruction) or simple demonstration method
(e.g. performing prayers, Hajj, etc.); rather he used to employ such methods which are
now considered as modern techniques of teaching and learning.

He used brainstorming and questioning technique when he pointed out to a dead lamb
and asked his companions if anyone would like to buy it. Then he related the worth of
this world to the worth of the dead lamb. He used concept mapping technique while
explaining the right path and the off tracks by drawing lines. He also used case study
technique by telling true stories of people from the past having some educational
messages and moral lesson. He even employed distance education by writing letters to
the rulers of different regions and inviting them to the religion of Allah.

The Prophet (SAW) provided his companions the opportunity of social learning. He was
the best model for his companions and his whole life was open to them for learning
desirable social behaviors. The companions learnt a lot from observing the everyday life
routine of the Prophet (SAW) even without taking formal instructions.

The Prophet (SAW) always deal with his companions according to their individual
qualities and take care of their psychological needs. He used to make conversation at the
intellectual level of the listener and avoid giving long lectures so that the listener would
not get bored. He took advantage of every occasion that provides opportunity to teach his
companions. He used to pay individual attention to everyone such that everyone thought
that he is giving attention to him only.

In a system of education that aims at developing the total personalities of individuals, the
most effective methodology of teaching is required. Our prospective teachers should know
and understand the value and effectiveness of various teaching methods in the light of
examples provided by the Prophet (SAW). They should also be trained in applying these
methods so effectively as to produce positive change in the personalities of their students.

56
3.7 Educational System and Ideology of Pakistan
The educational system of a nation is based on her ideological foundation. Muslim
Ummah has a unique identity; therefore, the educational system of Muslim countries
should have unique characteristics. If Muslim countries adopt education system of other
nations, their unique identity will be put at risk.

The system of general education prevailing in most Muslim countries is one introduced
by colonial powers. The education system introduced by British colonial administration
in the Subcontinent had following aims (Baloch, 2003):
1. Service to the new administration
2. Creation of a class, Indian in blood and color but English in tastes

Even after gaining an independent Islamic state, there was no serious intention to bring
radical changes in this system. This system is still fulfilling the above stated purposes.
Looking at the educational systems in most of the Muslim countries, especially in
Pakistan we find following weaknesses:
1- Two Systems of Education
According to Islamic point of view, the two main types of knowledge are:
Revealed knowledge and Acquired knowledge. For about thirteen centuries after
the advent of Islam, knowledge was considered a unity. There was no distinction
between religious and worldly knowledge. The revealed knowledge was
transmitted and gained generation after generation as an obligatory duty of
Muslims. This knowledge provided the inspiration to acquire the knowledge about
the world and the universe as Allah (SWT) has ordered many times in the Holy
Quran to reflect upon His Signs in the universe. This was, in fact, the revealed
knowledge that awakened the spirit of inquiry and research in the Muslim scholars
who laid the foundation of modern sciences.
Later on, the deterioration in the research and scientific spirit of Muslims resulted
in the decline of educational scholarship. The Western powers adopted these
scholastic qualities and raised the high edifice of progress on the foundations
provided by the Muslim scholars. However, they were lacking in the basic value
system provided by the Revealed knowledge. As the scientific discoveries and
theories did not conform to the beliefs of Christianity, the science and the religion
were separated. Religion was restricted to individual life and worldly sciences were
explained on purely intellectual bases devoid of any concept of a Supreme Power
having control over the universe and the life of man. The modern system of
education was developed according to these concepts.
During the colonization period of the Muslim countries the traditional system of
Islamic education was replaced by modern system of education. It was considered a
threat to the Islamic Identity. In order to preserve their Islamic Identity the
Muslims established Islamic institutions and restricted themselves to the religious
knowledge only rejecting the modern sciences. It was the beginning of the dual
system of education in the Muslim countries.

57
 The basic difference between the two systems is not just the difference in their
outward structures but the difference in their approaches to the aims of education.
The aim of Islamic education is the balanced growth of man’s body and spirit so
that he could perform the role of Allah’s vicegerent in the world. This aim does not
restrict man to religious knowledge only but urges him to make full use of the
worldly provisions granted by Allah (SWT). On the other hand, the secular
education aims at producing individuals that can be useful in the material progress
of the society in which relation of man to his Creator is a personal matter.
Today, there is the need of integrating these two systems; because, the modern
system lacks the potential to produce desired qualities in the personality of
individual while the traditional system provides minimum training to meet the
challenges of rapidly changing world. The products of these two systems are aliens
for each other.
2- Interpretation of Scientific Facts
Empirical knowledge itself is neither Islamic nor secular; the difference is in the
angle of vision from which facts are viewed and presented. The interpretation of
observed facts varies with the social, cultural, political and religious tones of the
nations. Any natural science is neither materialistic nor spiritual in its scope and
purpose; it is concerned with the observation, collection and definition of facts and
the derivation of general rules. But the inductive philosophical conclusions we
derive from these sciences are influenced by our pre-existing temperamental or
intuitive attitude towards life and its problems (Quddus, 1979).
We teach scientific theories that are presented by Western secular scientists and
also interpret these theories according to their viewpoint. For example, in physics
we teach the Big-Bang theory of the creation of the universe but do not tell students
the Islamic concept of creation of the universe. In economics we refer to the
Laissez Faire theory but do not interpret it in the light of the limits that Allah has
set for us.
3- The Most Crucial Neglect
In order to interpret the empirical knowledge in the light of Divine knowledge and
to use it in the light of Divine guidance, it is essential to study the Quran in detail.
In the formal education system of most Islamic countries, including Pakistan, there
is no place for the Quran in curriculum. There is only one subject of Islamic
Studies which is mostly concerned with basics of faith, prayers and some ethics.
Only a few short Surahs are included for memorization. This is the most neglected
subject which is given the least priority. Our graduates and even post graduate
students can rarely give any reference from the Quran about any field of life. The
recitation of the Quran is considered to be its only right without even understanding
its meanings.
4- Aimless Generation
The product of an education system which is based on materialistic concepts is an
aimless generation. What are the goals in the life of a graduate who has spent 15 to
20 years in education? Make money and live a happy life! Such education is
meaningless for the Ummah which has been raised to guide the mankind.

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 You are the best community that has been raised up for mankind. You enjoin right
conduct and forbid indecency; and you believe in Allah. (Al-i-Imran: 110)

Our youth does not even understand the real meanings of being Allah’s vicegerent on the
earth, how can they set their goals of life in accordance to this status? Our most educated
persons, leaders and intellectuals do not have any significant goals in life let alone the
masses. They are confined to their daily routine lives and seldom think over the real
purpose of life for which Allah has created man as His vicegerent.

3.8 Some Desirable Measures

In order to eliminate the weaknesses of the education system, the most important step to
be taken is to set up a uniform education system in which there is no division of worldly
and religious education, and knowledge is presented as a unity. Such education system
will enable students to live in Allah’s World according to Allah’s Words.

Being an Ideological state, the foundation of the educational system of Pakistan must be
laid upon the basic principles of the Ideology of Pakistan, that is, the Ideology of Islam.
We can achieve the aims of creation of Pakistan only when the ideology of Pakistan is
deeply inculcated in the minds and hearts of our people.

Muslim scholars should interpret the acquired knowledge in the light of the Revealed
knowledge by formulating their own theories and minimizing the dependence on secular
scholars. It does not mean the rejection of the knowledge explored by the secular scholars
but the interpretation of the knowledge should be in accordance with the Divine
Knowledge. Scholarly research should be conducted to relate empirical knowledge with
the Divine knowledge.

The Holy Quran with translation and interpretation should be an essential part of the
curriculum, so that the students look at this world with Islamic vision. We need to
produce true Muslim doctors, engineers, scholars and other professionals to serve not
only the Ummah but the whole humanity and it is only possible if we give our students
the true understanding of the Quran.

The lack of understanding of the Quran has deteriorated the moral and spiritual character
of Muslims. In order to recover from this phase, it is essential to rebuild the structure of
educational system on the basis of Islamic Ideology. Such a system will produce
generations who have a clear and definite aim of life and they will be able to harness their
lives according to the real spirit of Islam. They will not only be successful in this world
and the Hereafter, but also be able to give better service to the humanity.

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3.9 Self Assessment Questions
1. What is the concept of knowledge in Islamic perspective? Describe the sources of
knowledge.
2. Explain the significance of knowledge and education in the light of the Quran and
the Sunnah.
3. What are the aims of education in Islamic perspective?
4. What is the role of teachers in Islamic educational system?
5. Give some examples of effective teaching methodology used by the Holy Prophet
(SAW).
6. Do you think that the educational system of Pakistan corresponds with the Ideology
of Pakistan?

3.10 Bibliography
Abdur Raheem, A. (nd) Concept of Education in Islam, Retrieved July 9, 2011 from
www.prophetmuhammadforall.org/webfiles/downloads/.../education.pps

Al-Afendi, M.H. and Baloch, N.A. (1980) Curriculum and Teacher Education, Jeddah:
Hodder and Stoughton, King Abdul Aziz University

Al-Attas, S. M. (1979) Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia:
Hodder and Stoughton

Ali, A. Y. (1946) The Holy Quran: Text, Translation and Commentary, State of Qatar:
Presidency of Islamic Courts and Affairs

Baloch, N. A. (2003) National System of Education and Teacher Education, Sindh

Institute of Policy Studies

Quddus, S.A. (1979) Education and National Reconstruction of Pakistan, S. I. Gillani.

Rahman, M. (1994) A Holistic and Institutional Analysis of Islamic Education, American

Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 11(4), 519–531

Shalaby, A. (1979) History of Muslim Education, Karachi: Indus Publications

60
Unit 4

EDUCATIONAL THOUGHTS OF
MUSLIM PHILOSOPHERS/THINKERS

Written By: Muhammad Irfan

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

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4.1 Introduction
Elementary education usually starts at the age of four or five and lasts for almost eight
years. It is the first full time organized education for a child. Thus, elementary education
lays foundation for everything that follows. This period is very important with respect to
physical, mental, psychological, and philosophical development of the child. Habits,
attitudes and ideologies developed in these early years, have long lasting effects on the
future lives of children. Here the role of teacher is very critical and important. Therefore,
the focus of this course and specially this unit is to develop an ideologically sound
Pakistani teacher. This unit has been designed to provide necessary information about the
educational thoughts and theories of different Muslim philosophers and educationists.
4.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. develop an understanding about the life and major works of above-mentioned
eminent Philosophers/Thinkers.
2. know the thoughts and theories of these Muslim philosophers and educationists.
3. understand their outlooks about educational objectives, teaching methodologies,
and curriculum.
4. extend their vision in the light of educational philosophies of Muslim philosophers.
4.3 Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi (MujaddadAlif Sani)
Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi, was born in Sirhind, in 1564. He is known as Mujaddad Alif
Sani, which means ‘reviver of the second millennium’. He courageously stood against the
heterodoxies (Bidaat) prevalent in Muslim society in the era of King Akbar and Jahangir.
He rejuvenated the Islam in its true spirit. He propagated the everlasting teachings of
Quran and the Sunnah of Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him). He wrote 536 letters
‘Maktoobat’ for this purpose (Jundran, 2013). The letters were written to people who
belonged to different walks of life, for instance his teacher or ‘Murshad’, his students and
followers, and the King as well. His letters are full of precious knowledge related to
philosophy and mysticism. He was a spiritual leader and a great mystic appointed by
Allah Almighty to support this universe (Alvi, 2005).
4.3.1 Significant Works
In addition to above said letters, he also wrote following journals and books:
1. ‘RsalaTahlila’ (In it the concept of ultimate reality and God has been discussed in a
very comprehensive manner).
2. Rsala Fi-Asbat Al-Nabuwat, (The reality of Wahi and prophethood has be
highlighted in a very comprehensive manner)
3. ‘Mukashfaat-i-Ghabia’ (It is a kind of intellectual debate on mysticism or
‘Tasuwuf’)
4.3.2 Objectives of Education
Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi considered teaching as a sacred and esteemed profession. The
main objective of teaching and learning is the pleasure of Allah Almighty. He said:
The profession of lecturing, teaching, issuing decrees and verdicts is purposeful and
useful if it is meant for seeking the pleasure of Allah Almighty. It should be free from the
least touch of lust for status, rank, wealth, or pomp and show (Shains, 2005, p.507).

62
Although teaching was a noble mission for him and there was no room for lust and
material pursuits in teaching, but he made it clear that the attainment of basic needs of
life was not lust, as he said that “Provision of essential necessities is not included into the
lust for would”(Subhani, n.d., p. 135).

He wanted to develop leadership qualities in teachers and students. Sheikh stressed that
the Muslims should realize their due role as vicegerents of Allah in this vast universe: “It
is but a human-being who has conferred upon the position of Allah Almighty’s
vicegerent on this earth” (Aslam, 2008, p.43).

He believed that education was not just gaining knowledge for sake of knowledge. The
knowledge must reflect through noble deeds and pious actions. He said, “It is to be
remembered that your destination is your deed or action not only acquisition of
knowledge” (Naqshbandi, 2005, p.465).

Sheikh believed that teachers and students must pay complete attention towards their studies
because the life is very short and one should get maximum benefit from it. In one of his letters
he said, “Each passing moment decreases the span of life, and takes nearer to the fixed time
(i.e. the time of death). Tomorrow, nothing will come by hand except sense of deprivation
and remorse. Thus one should manage for it” (Naqshbandi, 1971-73, p.1207 ).

4.3.3 Teaching Methodology

Sheikh believed that authority and respect of a teacher lies in his knowledge and teaching
skills. He was a competent teacher and a role model for his students. He said, “According
to Naqshbandia procedure, the position of spiritual guide and to disciple does not lie in
the turban and lineage rather it lies in the art of teaching and learning proper
methodology” (Naqshbandi, 1971-73, p.987). He further said that success, superiority
and excellence are attached with piety and nobility of character. He believed that,
“Superiority in all is attached with following the path of the Sunnah. The title of honour
and award is conditioned with the practice of Shariah” (Naqshbandi, 2012, p.5).
Therefore, a teacher must always keep in mind that the best teaching methodology is the
teaching methodology of holy prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

He urged his followers to convey noble thoughts to others in a soft and lucid manner. He
asked them to refrain from controversial debates with the opponents (Subhani, n.d.). He was
of the view that a teacher must spend all of his time in teaching and learning. He stated in his
letter, “Never keep yourself away from learning and teaching of knowledge rather your whole
time should be occupied by lessons or lectures” (Naqshbandi, 1971-73, p.978).

4.3.4 Curriculum
The educational thoughts of Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi are based on supremacy of Quran
and the Sunnah of holy prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The curriculum may
include any kind of useful arts and sciences but superiority will lie with Quran and
Hadith. It means that if any anything (idea, concept, theory, law etc.) would ever come
against the everlasting teachings of Quran and Hadith that will be spontaneously rejected.

63
He propagated the theory of Wahdat-Al-Shahood and urged the Muslims to follow the
‘Shariyyt’ and the ‘Sunnah’ of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in real
letter and spirit. For curriculum development and content selection, he does not
undermine the importance of sensual and empirical knowledge but he believes that the
most reliable source of knowledge is Wahi.

4.3.5 Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi (Rehmat Ullah Alaih)’s Policy Guidelines for the
Educational Administrators and Managers:
Jundran (2012) presented following 20 policy guidelines for the educational administrators
and managers in this context. They all were derived from Mujaddad Alf Sani Sheikh Ahmed
Sirhindi’s own writing and reviews about his master piece works. They are as under:
1. The way to proved Sharia’ must be followed by each member of the organization.
2. No escape from the fulfillment of teachers and students rights is allowed at any cost.
3. Basic necessities and facilities should be made available for the students, teachers
and other employees.
4. Utilize each and every resource for the attainment of objectives.
5. Realize each person of his vicegerent position.
6. Focus upon the best utilization of youth talent.
7. Teach the learners how to respect their teachers.
8. Principles of relationship with their colleagues be followed.
9. Never get involved in instigating students against the heads of institutions for the
rebellious purposes.
10. Only Competent teachers should be recruited.
11. Students’ enrollment and faculty recruitment should be increased proportionately.
12. The teachers and the taught should make best use of their time.
13. Use skillfully of means and resources with complete trust in Allah Almighty.
14. Job competence and commitment are inevitable.
15. Excellence in profession demands total avoidance from indecency.
16. The staff and the students should not be overburdened with work and hardships.
17. Linkage with the parliamentarians of the state for noble cause is desirable.
18. Do not consider less valuable any desirable thing (virtue).
19. Keep in view the limitation of arguing and reasoning in understanding the true faith.
20. Hope for the best in the worst as well.

To conclude, if these guidelines are applied and implemented in true sense then, in
sha’Allah,our educational system would show marvelous achievements.

4.4 Shah-Wali-Ullah
Shah-Wali-Ullah was born in 1703 AD at a town called Phulna near Delhi, India (Qasir-
Al-Islam, 1994). His real name was Qutb-ud-Din Ahmed. His father Abdul Raheem was
a famous scholar. Shah-Wali-Ullah was well versed in Principles of Islamic
Jurisprudence, Ilm-Al-Hadith, Tafsir, Mathematics, and Philosophy (Shahid, 2003). He
used to teach in his own school known as Madrassa Rahimya. He was a social reformer, a
prolific writer and a great teacher, who kept on teaching and generating knowledge until
his death in 1763 AD at Delhi.

64
He believes that, ability to think, creativity, curiosity, esthetic sense, and social welfare or
benevolence for others are five major qualities that make human beings superior to animals
(Shahid, 2003). Human beings are different with respect to their aptitudes, outlooks, interests,
and mental capabilities. However, human beings are both physical and metaphysical entities,
that are interconnected with each other and both are equally important. The ideology of a
person transpires from metaphysical or spiritual part of his existence (Shahid, 2003).This
material world is real and its significance cannot be denied. Education is a systematic training
of physical (sensory), mental and spiritual powers of man.

He wrote a Journal titled as “Fun-i-Danishmandi”. It was about the art of book reading or
understanding a book. According to him, there are three levels of understanding a book.
At first level, the book must be studied in such a manner that contents of the book should
be thoroughly understood and researched by him. At second stage, the teacher should
teach the book in such a way that his students understand it completely. At third level, the
scholar should write the review (Shrah or Hashyya) of that book. It will add more value
to the book. He also established principles of reading and teaching books. Some
principles of book reading are as follows:
1. Difficult words of the text should be identified and explained.
2. Unfamiliar words of the text must be indicated and clarified.
3. Difficult parts of the text for instance grammatical and lingual terms should be
explained.
4. Issue under consideration should be explained with the help of suitable examples.
5. Comprehensive elaboration of definitions.
6. Elimination of doubts of superficial nature.
7. Explanation, criticism, and evaluation of the references used in the text.
8. Translation of important books into simple language for better understanding of the
students.
9. Simple, precise, and comprehensive presentation of the text presented in the book.
(Shahid, 2003)

4.4.1 Major Works

Some of his most significant works are as follows:
1. Hajja-tul-Balgha (i.e. his magnum opus)
2. Fun-i-Danishmandi

4.4.2 Aims of Education

Educational aims are as under:
1. Make students realize about the relationship between God (Allah), universe, and man.
2. Develop ability of self-realization in the students.
3. Foster Unconditional obedience to the will of Allah (Subhan-wa-Tala).
4. Cultivate abilities to conquer the universe.
5. Generate political awareness among the students.
6. Develop mutual cooperation and compassion among students.
7. Cultivate national spirit among the students.
8. Make the students law abiding and responsible citizens.
9. Prepare students for ample participation in the practical life(Shahid, 2003).

65
4.4.3 Curriculum
He designed curriculum for Islamic educational institutions or Madrassas. Few salient
aspects of his curriculum are as follows:
1. Students used to learn grammatical principles “Surf-o-Nahv” by heart, so they may
understand Arabic language easily.
2. After getting well-versed in Arabic language, students were taught Muta Imam Malik.
3. Quran was taught along with its translation.
4. The students were taught Tafsir, Hadiths, and then Fiqah (i.e. Islamic
Jurisprudence).
5. He believed that technical, vocational and other subjects should also be included in the
curriculums which are necessary to run the common affairs of life (Shahid, 2003).

4.4.4 Teaching Methodology

Shah-Wali-Ullah was a great teacher by himself therefore; he designed teaching
methodology in practical terms. His teaching methodology was very effective logical and
practical. Some salient features of his teaching methodology are as under:
1. He used to ask his students to read the lesson.
2. After that, he used to explain different aspect of the lesson in a very comprehensive manner.
3. He also tried to promote tolerance and mutual understand among different religious sects.

4.5 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (AD 1817- 1898)

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was a great scholar, reformer, and educationist. He was born on
October 17, 1817 at Delhi. He belonged to a noble Syed family and his father’s name was
Mir Muhammad Muttaqi. He lived in a time when Mughal dynasty was taking its last
breaths and British East India Company became the new ruler of the Subcontinent. He
thought that Muslims of India could not defeat British, which was a rising nation with
marvelous advancements in science and technology. He wanted to educate the Muslims.
He believed that modern education was the source of salvation for the Muslims of India.
In 1869, he went to England where he keenly observed the education system of Britain.
He was deeply inspired by the Oxford and Cambridge universities and aimed to establish
such kind of educational institutions in India.

Sir Syed said:

I may appear to be dreaming and talking like Shaikh Chilli, but we aim to turn this MAO
College into a University similar to that of Oxford or Cambridge. Like the churches of
Oxford and Cambridge, there will be mosques attached to each College... The College
will have a dispensary with a Doctor and a compounder, besides a Unani Hakim. It will
be mandatory on boys in residence to join the congregational prayers (Namaz) at all the
five times. Students of other religions will be exempted from this religious observance.
Muslim students will have a uniform consisting of a black alpaca, half-sleeved chugha
and a red Fez cap... Bad and abusive words which boys generally pick up and get used to,
will be strictly prohibited. Even such a word as a "liar" will be treated as an abuse to be
prohibited. They will have food either on tables of European style or on chaukis in the
manner of the Arabs... Smoking of cigarette or huqqa and the chewing of betelsshall be
strictly prohibited. No corporal punishment or any such punishment as is likely to injure a

66
student's self-respect will be permissible... It will be strictly enforced that Shia and Sunni
boys shall not discuss their religious differences in the College or in the boarding house.
At present it is like a day dream. I pray to God that this dream may come true.
(https://en.wikipedia.org)

One can have very clear understanding about his aims and educational thoughts from the
above paragraph. It is obvious that he wanted to impart modern scientific education to the
Muslims of India.

4.5.1 Some Most Significant Works

In 1859, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote a booklet commonly known as Risala “Asbab-e-
Baghawat-e-Hind” in which he expressed the causes of Mutiny of 1857 (Jang-i-Azadi)
and did his best to clear Indian Muslims, from the charge of Mutiny. He blamed East
India Company for its aggressive expansion policy and ignorance of British politicians
about Indian culture.

He established Scientific Society in 1864 at Ghazipur. It was later shifted to Aligarh

when Sir Syed moved to that city. Many magnificent Western books were translated into
Urdu under the umbrella of Scientific Society. This way he introduced modern scientific
knowledge and philosophical thoughts of European scholars into Muslim Society.
In December 1870, he published a journal “Tahzeeb-ul-Ikhlaq” (or Muhammadan
Social Reformer) to promote liberal ideas and knowledge about modern subjects in the
Muslim society.

Muhammadan Educational Conference was another serious effort to provide quality

education to the Muslims of India. It was a platform from which many resolutions were
passed to improve their education and many educational institutions were established.

He wrote ‘Khutbaat-i-Ahmedya’ in response to falseallegations raised by Sir William

Muir, in his book “The Life of Muhammad” on the pious and virtuous life of Holy
Prophet Muhammad Peace be upon him. Sir Syed went to London and consulted
authentic and rare books of British libraries to prove his viewpoint. The Khutbaat-i-
Ahmedya was a very skillful, logical and scholarly endeavor to defend Islam and the
‘Sunnah’ of Muhammad Peace be upon him.

4.5.2 Objectives of Education

Before Urdu-Hindi controversy, he was interested in the education of both Muslims and
Hindus. He used to visualize India as a "beautiful bride, whose one eye was Hindu and,
the other, Muslim" but after Urdu-Hindi controversy his educational and reformist
thoughts became only Muslim-specific. During Urdu Hindi controversy he was the
leading Muslim scholar against the adoption of Hindi as a second official language of
U.P. He considered Urdu as Lingua Franca and a symbol of Muslim cultural heritage. For
him Urdu was a common language and unifying force for all Indian Muslims. He was
well-versed in English but promotion of Urdu was one of his educational aims. He is also
considered as the founding father of two-nation theory in India.

67
Sir Syed believed that the future of Indian Muslims was in danger due to their rigid
outlook towards British government and modern Western education. Therefore, he aimed
to reduce animosity between British government and Indian Muslims and promoted
modern scientific education among the Muslims. He established modern schools and
colleges as well as wrote journals and other literary works with the aim of social, ethical,
scientific, and economic development of Indian Muslims. He strongly believed that
Muslim society will not prosper until they acquire western education and modern
sciences. He was a modern pragmatist, who advocated strong interfaith relations between
Christianity and Islam.

4.5.3 Curriculum
Sir Syed was a great patron of Western education and modern curriculum. He criticized
the outdated ideas of old traditional Muslims ‘Mullahs’ who were against learning
English language, modern arts, and sciences. In 1859, he established a modern madrassa
in Muradabad. It was one of the early religious schools that had modern scientific
curriculum. Later in 1863, Sir Syed founded another modern school at Ghazipur. In 1864,
he was transferred to Aligarh, where he established the Scientific Society. Working as an
educator and a reformer he built a team of renowned Muslim scholars of India. The
Scientific Society published a fine journal in which modern scientific and literary works
(usually translations) of famous scholars used to be published in both Urdu and English
languages. He tried to promote his liberal and rational interpretations of Quran and
Hadiths but many Muslim scholars criticized some of his ultra-modern views. In fact, he
wanted to reinterpret Muslim ideology in order to reconcile Islamic belief system with
modern Western education. He tried to convince the Muslims that the Qur'anic teachings
are in line with science, reasoning, and natural laws.

In 1875, he founded Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh, whichlater on

upgraded into Aligarh University. The curriculum of the college included scientific and
Western subjects, as well as Oriental subjects and religious education (Encyclopedia of
World Biography, 2nd ed., 1997)

4.6 Allama Muhammad Iqbal

Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was born on 9th November 1877 in Sialkot city of Punjab
province. He had a versatile and multidimensional personality. He was a great poet,
philosopher, reformer and educational expert. Mahatma Gandhi requested him to accept
the Vice Chancellorship of Jamia MilliaIslamia in 1920. He was one of the few scholars
who were invited by the King of Afghanistan, Nadir Shah for the educational planning of
the country in 1933 (Masoodi, 2007).

Philosophy forms the aims of life and education provides the means of achieving those
aims. Education is a dynamic process. Iqbal like any other educational philosophers
discusses the nature of man. He elevates man and strives for the preservation of human
personality. Iqbal’s concept of ‘Khudi’ provides the basis of his educational philosophy.
He does not believe in the negation of self. In-fact recognition of ‘Khudi’ is one of the

68
prime aims of life and education. He wants to raise human ego (Khudi) to its perfection.
Iqbal’s educational thoughts rise from his core philosophical concepts. The role of man in
this scheme of creation is to become the co-sharer in the divine attributes and co-worker
in the creative process. The central objective of education is to make man, the viceroy of
God. This is the supreme goal of human destiny and the entire process of education is
directed towards the realization of this goal.

Religion should not be a subject in the educational content rather the whole environment
must be filled with religious spirit (Masoodi, 2007). The educational philosophy of Iqbal
converts man into Mard-i-Momin (Masoodi, 2007). Iqbal lays emphasis on the self-
realization that is the realization of divine attributes in human-beings. The self-realization
is not the fulfillment of egoism. It is the realization of supreme values of humanity.

According to Syed Abdullah, Iqbal’s education philosophy combines knowledge, sense

perception, reason and intuition in an organic whole. His genius speculates that light from
one direction could not illuminate the whole of reality in all its manifestations (Abdullah,
nd). For Iqbal the cultivation of individuality is the highest goal of educational endeavor
(Masoodi, 2007). According to him man has unlimited capacity of development and this
possibility gives man a unique place among all other creations. Education is a process
that can ensures eternal development. Iqbal attaches considerable significance to man’s
ego and its manifestations in his educational system. Iqbal says:

“The life of the ego is a kind of tension caused by the ego invading the
environment and environment invading the ego. The ego does not stand
outside the arena of mutual invasion. It is present in it as a directive energy
and is formed and disciplined by its own experience” (The Reconstruction of
Religious Thought in Islam, p.102).

In a comprehensive education system, Iqbal proposes a continuous interaction between

individual and his environment.The educational backwardness of Indian Muslims
generated anxiety in Iqbal. He urged to strengthen the roots of cultural heritage through
education. He also highlighted the deficiencies and weaknesses of traditional educational
system in a very thoughtful manner.
‫وبتکمںںیمںیہکرانعیئااکفریھبےہ‬
ِ ‫اخاقنوہںںیمںیہکذل‬
‫تارساریھبےہ‬
‫ہقلحءوشقںیمجراتادنہشیاہکں‬
ِ ‫آہ!وکحمیمودیلقتو‬
‫زوالقیقحت‬
Iqbal criticizes the conventional educational institutions because there is no
beauty of thought, creativity, and quest for revealing mystery. Instead, there is
only subservience, imitation, and lack of research.

Iqbal believes that acquiring of knowledge can be very dangerous as well, because knowledge
is a great power and with great power comes greater responsibility. Through knowledge, one
can make more powerful and deadly weapons. One can earn more income and live a
luxurious life.Iqbalsays that life is the burning of soul and the knowledge is burning of brain.
Through knowledge one can get, wealth, power, and pleasure but the problem is that one
cannot get any clue about his own self (Munawwar, 1992).

69
 ‫ملعےہھچکاورےشے‬،‫زدنیگھچکاورےشےہ‬
‫ملعےہوس ِزدام ے‬،‫زدنیگوس ِزرگجےہ‬
‫غ‬
‫ت‬
‫ےہ‬
‫ذلتیھب ے‬،‫دقرتیھبےہ‬،‫ملعںیمدولیھبےہ‬
‫ت‬
‫آتںیہناانپرساغے‬
‫ایلکشمےہہکاہھت ا‬ ‫ک‬
It means that knowledge alone cannot guarantee goodness and gentlemanliness. Without
moral and spiritual education, modern scientific knowledge can be devastating like
atomic bomb. Therefore, Iqbal prays to God for provision of a pure heart that can
perceive (Munawwar, 1992).
‫لط‬
‫دلانیبیھبرکخداےس ے‬ ِ
‫آھکناکونردلاکونرںیہنے‬
For Iqbal, education is a process of moral training and character building. He says that if
you take knowledge into your heart it becomes your friend but if it lies only on your skin,
it becomes a snake. He further says that knowledge attained without warmth of heart is
evil that spreads darkness over land and sea (Munawwar, 1992). Even the greatest
achievements of modern scientific knowledge cannot make human beings real humans
unless the knowledge is supported by education in moral values.
‫ڈوھندےنواالاتسروںیکزگراگوہںاکے‬
‫اےنپااکفریکداینںیمرفسرکہناکس‬
‫اینپتمکحےکمخوچیپںیماُاھجلااسی‬
‫ت‬
!‫آجیہلصیفءعفنورضررکہناکس ے‬
‫سجےنوسرجیکاعشوعںوکرگاتفرایک‬
‫ت‬
‫شت ک‬
‫اریرحسرکہناکس‬ ِ ‫زدنیگیک‬
Iqbal criticizes the material progress of modern man that he can explore the paths of stars,
but cannot travel in the universe of his own thoughts. He is so entangled in the
complexities of philosophy that he cannot decide between good or evil. He can capture
the rays of sun but cannot illuminate the dark night of his own life (Munawwar, 1992).

4.6.1 Major Works

Some significant works of Iqbal are as follows:
1. Bang-i-Dara
2. Bal-i-Jibril
3. Zarb-e-Kaleem
4. Armaghan-e-Hijaz
5. Reconstruction of Religious Thoughts in Islam

4.6.2 Objectives of Education

Following educational aims may be derived from the works of Iqbal:

4.6.2.1 Ideological and Religious Education

Education is a means to an end, not an end in itself. The end is the ideology and the
cultural heritage of the people and it is mainly education which serves this purpose
(Masoodi, 2007). Therefore, education must instill national beliefs and ideology. In view

70
of Iqbal, religion is a complete code of life that covers all dimensions of human activity
and he believes that “Deen” (as a way of life) should be the aim of education (Masoodi,
2007). In his letter to K.G. Sayidian, Iqbal says:

“I have generally used word ‘Knowledge’ in the sense of knowledge based

on the senses. It gives man power which should be subordinated to religion.
If it is not subordinated to religion, it is a satanic force. This is the first step
to true knowledge” (Sayidian, 1997, p.88).

Education is ideal oriented. Iqbal believes that education is satanic if it is not in harmony
with religion. It is important to understand that the Iqbal’s concept of religion is entirely
different from what is usually understood today. He believes that religion is not the name
of mere counting of beads and performing rituals. In-fact the true religion is that makes a
man, God intoxicated and self-conscious.
‫تکاوتعساالفکںیمریبکت ے‬
‫سلسم‬
‫تکااخکےکآوغشںیمحیبستوانماجتے‬
‫وہذمہرمدانخدااگہوخداتسم‬
‫ت‬
‫ُموامجداتوابنتات‬
‫ہیذمہ ُ ا‬
Therefore, for him education must prepare students for the life of action. The
development and maintenance of individuality is a major goal of education but
simultaneously he also strikes a balance between individuality and collectivism. Iqbal
regards the development of individuality as essential value, but he does not ignore the
growth of collective responsibility and social sense (Masoodi, 2007). He considers
religion as an ideal of education. In 1930, during his presidential address to All India
Muslim League at Allahabad, Iqbal said.

“If today you focus your vision on Islam and seek inspiration from the ever
vitalizing ideas embodied in it, you will be only reassembling your scattered
forces regarding your lost integrity and thereby saving yourself from total
destruction” (Muslim India, 1991, p.507).

4.6.2.2 Amalgamation of Matter and Spirit

Iqbal believes in a happy amalgamation of matter and spirit. The educational process may
explore and exploit the opportunities of the material world for upward movement of the human
spirit. He belies that modern education which neglects the moral and spiritual development of
the students is evil. Iqbal appreciates modern technological and scientific knowledge but
vehemently opposes the conventional dualism between matter and spirit. Iqbal says:

“The ultimate Reality, according to the Quran, is spiritual, and its life
consists in this temporal activity. The spirit fins its opportunities in the
natural, the material, the secular. All that is secular is therefore sacred in the
roots of its being. The greatest service that modern thought has rendered to
Islam, and as a matter of fact to all religions, consist in its criticism of what
we call material or natural – a criticism which discloses that the merely

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 material has no substance until we discover it rooted in the spiritual. There is
no such thing as a profane world. All this immensity of matter constitutes a
scope for the self-realization of spirit. All is holy ground. As the Prophet so
beautifully puts it: The whole of this earth is a mosque” (The Reconstruction
of Religious Thought in Islam, p.155).

The development of self and the inner richness of man is linked with establishing
harmony with the elements of nature. The history tells us that the man is the builder of
great civilizations. There are still great possibilities open to him in his quest to explore
the mysteries of this vast universe to reach his ultimate destination.
‫وھکلآھکنزنیمدھکیکلفدھکیاضفدھکیے‬
‫رشمقےساُرھبےتوہےوسرجوکزرادھکی‬
‫یئ‬
‫ہیاٹھگ ے‬،‫ںیہریتےرصتفںیمہیتادل‬
‫یئ‬
‫ہیاخومشاضف ے‬،‫ہیدبنگاالفک‬
‫ت‬
‫وخردیشاہجںتابیکوضریتےرشرںیم‬
‫ت‬
‫آتادےہاکتازہاہجںریتےرنہںیم‬

The study of nature is considered as a divine task, which may help in self-realization
process. Body and soul are not opposing forces to each other. The spiritual life demands
the acceptance of matter as an ally in self-realization process.

4.6.2.3 Tolerance and Love for Humanity

Iqbal propagates religious tolerance and love for humanity. Tolerance is very important for
survival and progress of the society. He gives the message of love and respect for all
mankind. In Iqbal’s educational thinking, all men and women whether they believe in God or
not are loved by their Creator. One must show love and respect for all human races. His
tolerant man neither belongs to East or West nor any particular city, country or region.

‫دروشیخداتسمہنرشیقتارغیب‬
‫رھگریماہندیلہنافصاہںہنرمسدنق‬
‫یتکشیھبشایتنیھبوتگھبںےکتیگںیمےہ‬
‫مُکت ت ک ت‬
‫رپیںیمےہ‬ ‫درھیتےکتاویسںیک ی‬

4.6.2.4 Creativity and Dynamism

Iqbal wants that education should aim at arousing, sustaining, and spreading the quest of
desires in the pupils (Masoodi, 2007). He believes that education should develop creative
urge in man. There should be positive interaction between man and his environment.
Iqbal emphasizes the supremacy of man over the force of nature. This way science
naturally attains a vital position in education system. Man is gifted with creative ability

72
and the capacity to reconstruct the universe acceding to his own desire. His passion and
desire is so overpowering that it creates fear and anxiety among angels.
‫آدماخیکےسامجنےمہساجےتںیہ‬ِ ‫رعوج‬
‫ت‬
‫ہکہیوٹتاوہاتارہَم ِاکلمہننباج ے‬
‫ئ‬
‫ہ‬
Iqbal believes that the glory of man lies in his creativity and dynamism. The education
system must find ways to channelize the creativity of students.

4.6.3 Curriculum
Iqbal lays stress on curriculum that is realistic and related to the needs and interests of the
growing students, and reflects the aspirations, norms, and values of society. He approves
those subjects which are helpful in all-around development of the students i.e. physical,
moral, spiritual, economic, social and cultural (Masoodi, 2007).

The subject of History has a very important place in the proposed curriculum of Iqbal
(Sayidian, 1997). History is the mirror of nations and their cultures. It has great
importance in educational system. Iqbal says:

“It is one of the most essential teachings of the Qur’an that nations are
collectively judged, and suffer for their misdeeds here and now. In order to
establish this proposition the Qur’an constantly cite historical instances and
urges upon the reader to reflect on the past and present experience of
mankind” (The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, p.138).

Iqbal opined that subject of history can develop critical thinking ability in the students
and eradicate the habit of blind acquisition of knowledge. It may add greater maturity in
understanding the realities of life. On the basis of past and present experiences he intends
to build a brighter future for the coming generations. He feels that blind reliance on
borrowed education system of the West can be dangerous for our new generation.
However, he is in favor of learning modern arts and sciences, which is inevitable for the
promotion of Khudi.
‫ےلھکںیہشےکےیلرغویبںےکےماخےن‬
‫ت‬
‫علو ِمتازہیکرسایتسمںگاہںیہن‬
He advocates the religious education to be an integral part of curriculum and says that
pure worldly and secular education of the West will never produce the desired results. He
believes that there is no absolute method and system of education because every country
has its own contextual needs and necessities. When Iqbal went for educational planning
of Afghanistan in 1933, he said:
‫ت‬
‫ریمااانپایخلہیےہہکاخصلداینویمیلعتےساےھچاتنجئدیپاںیہنوہتکس۔م ک د‬
‫رنبرآںیسکرطہقیمیلعتوکیعطقاوریمتحںیہناہکاجاتکس۔ہرکلمیکرضورتکاتوک‬
‫ت‬
‫ڑپتےہ ے۔‬
‫اخصوطررپدمرظنرانھک ا‬

Iqbal also stressed the incorporation of technical education in curriculum. In a letter to

Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 Iqbal said: “A separate institution mainly devoted to the

73
technical side of natural sciences supplemented by such religious education as maybe
considered necessary” (Speeches and Statements of Iqbal, p.203).

In intermediate level educational institutions, Iqbal recommends sciences, mathematics,

economics, and philosophy. Whereas at the university level he recommends Muslim art
& Architecture, history and literature. However, he strongly favors the interests and
abilities of the students in selection of subjects (Masoodi, 2007).

4.6.4 Teaching Methodology

Iqbal recommends only those teaching methods, which confront students with new
problems in novel situations, for instance, leaning by doing, and activity method
(Masoodi, 2007). He wants schools to produce creative and daring individuals. To
achieve his purpose he gives freedom to the child. An open and free educational
environment is necessary for the development of latent powers of the individuals.
Students must be allowed to interact freely with the environment and get direct firsthand
experience. Simultaneously he propagates discipline and such regulations that prepare
children for the strenuous responsibilities of life.

Iqbal clearly explains that how children should be taught according to the sound
psychological principles.

“It is difficult to teach the innocent children and our teachers do not have the
full cognizance of this problem. They do not adequately take into
consideration the learnability and the intellectual capacity of the children.
The children’s faculties remain in disuse and their faces do not radiate that
gaiety, which is the characteristic of this stage of life. As a result, thereof
they in later life do not understand the problems of life and their solutions,
which are essential for practical life” (Makhzan, Jan. 1903, Translation by
Taneja and Taneja, Seven Indian Educationists. p.158)

Iqbal believes that a teacher should be aware of teaching principles and he must help the
children in discovering their hidden potentialities. Children should be educated according to
their aptitudes. The teacher has a key role to play in shaping of child’s total personality.

This great Muslim philosopher and educationist Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal died on 21
April 1938 at Lahore.

4.7 Al-Farabi
His full name was Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Awzalagh (or Uzlugh)
Al-Farabi, also known as Abu Nasr Mohammad Al-Farabi. He was born in 878 AD, in
Turkistan and died in 950 AD, in Damascus (www.britannica.com).

Al-Farabi is an eminent Muslim philosopher, and educationist. He believes that education

is a process of creating an ideal society by preparing individual towards achieving

74
perfection and freedom on a wider canvas (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013). He also
believes that education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and values for happier life.

4.7.1 Major Works

Some of his important works are as under:
1. Kitab Al-Musiqa Al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music).
2. Al-Madina Al-Fadila (The Virtuous City) is considered as his magnum opus. It is
often misleadingly compared with Plato's “Republic”.
3. Risala Fil-Aql (Epistle on the Intellect).
4. Kitab Al-Huruf (The Book of Letters).
5. KitabIhsa Al-Ulum (The Book of the Enumeration of the Sciences).
(www.muslimphilosophy.com)

4.7.2 Aims of Education

Education is a very important social phenomenon according to Farabi’s philosophical
scheme. It ensures that the young students are being prepared to become valuable
members of society. Education helps in the achievement of an ideal state of perfection.
The whole educational activity can be summarized as the acquisition of knowledge,
values, and skills in a specific period of time. The goal of education is to guide the
individuals toward perfection, which is the sole purpose behind their creation. The
existence of humanity in this world is to gain happiness, which is the absolute good and
also the highest perfection (Al-Farabi, 1983).

Al-Farabi believes that perfect human being is he who has intellectual knowledge and
moral values. Such individual members of community when assume the responsibility of
political leadership. They become role models for the others.

Al-Farabi considers proficiency in the arts as another aim of education. The wise are
those who are very proficient in the arts and acquire perfection in them (Al-Farabi,
1968).In his opinion, education is a combination of learning and practical action. The
Knowledge should be applied, “Whatever by its nature should be known and practiced,
its perfection lies in itactually being practiced” (Al-Farabi, 1987, p. 73). Disciplines have
no value until they can be practically applied. If the theoretical disciplines are learned
without applying them, this wisdom is defective (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013).

4.7.3 Teaching Methodology

Al-Farabi divided teaching methods into two kinds, (1) general, and (2) special. The
special method of teaching is demonstration. This method is more apt for the elite
because they do not confine themselves to theoretical knowledge (Al-Farabi, 1983). The
people are divided into elite class and general public. The general public is restricted to
the theoretical knowledge and it is the generally accepted opinion. It is the elite who take
up leadership role in the nation. (Al-Farabi, 1983). For ordinary people, descriptive and
persuasive methods are used to instruct them. However, the demonstration methods are
adopted for instructing the elite class of the society (Al-Farabi, 1983).

75
Al-Farabi believes that education is essential for everyone. Because, without education
nobody can attain perfection and happiness. The education must be accessible to each and
every member of the society but the teaching method may be adapted according to the
particular class of the people. Furthermore, the teaching method may also differ
according to available instructional materials (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013).

Al-Farabi laid stress on the importance of dialogue and discussion methods while
following the Plato’s model. He suggested two methods: the argument method and the
discourse method but both of these can be used orally or in writing. He believes that
during the teaching process the comprehension level of the common people must be kept
in mind, so that they may understand what is being taught (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013).

In view of Farabi the components of instruction may be summarized by making

something understood by building its meaning in mind and then by generating its
acceptance of what has been understood (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013).

One of the techniques that al-Farabi was concerned with is called habituation. It is
defined as a situation whereby the human being acquires a natural disposition. It means
the frequent repetition of a particular action after short intervals and over a long period of
time (Al-Farabi, 1987). Ethical virtues are acquired by habituation and repetition, until
they form a deep-rooted pattern in the mind. An admirable character can be attained by
habituation (Al-Talbi, 2000).

4.7.4 Curriculum
In every era, the educationists develop a plan to achieve their educational objectives. This
plan is call curriculum, which transmits knowledge, skills, and cultural heritage of the
nation, to the next generation. Al-Farabi is the first Muslim philosopher who classified
the sciences and learning, not just for the sake of enumerating them, but also with an
educational objective (Al-Talbi, 2000). Al-Farabi believes that education process must
begin with learning language and its structure. Through language, students can express
themselves and understand others as well. Mastery in a common language is inevitable
and it is the foundation stone for learning all types’ knowledge (Al-Talbi, 2000). Farabi
was a linguist and his ability to speak multiple languages allowed him to compare
different languages and cultures of the world. After language he laid stress on logic
because it leads to sound thinking. The logic is closely related with language, sciences
and methodology. He believes that language comes before rules of making the mind, and
prepares the way for it (Al-Talbi, 2000).

Ai-Farabi gives pivotal importance to arithmetic. It lies at first place in the hierarchy of
theoretical sciences. He says, “Whosoever desires to learn the theoretical art begins with
numbers, then ascends to magnitudes (measures), then to the other things to which
numbers and magnitudes essentially belong, like perspectives (optics)”(Al-Talbi, 2000,
p.8). In general, understanding of mathematics is necessary for the study of astronomy,
optics, and other natural sciences. Farabi divided mathematics into seven parts: “numbers
(arithmetic), geometry, the science of perspectives, scientific astronomy (contrasted with

76
astrology), music, dynamics and the science of machines” (Al-Talbi, 2000, p.8). Algebra
is included in Mathematics.

In short, Farabi's curriculum is restricted to a group of sciences, graded as follows:

science of language, logic, the ‘teachings' (mathematics), natural science, theology, civics
(political science), jurisprudence and academic theology. The link between the natural
sciences and theology is, in his opinion, the human soul, which he considers to be among
the natural sciences, even though it has a metaphysical aspect (Al-Talbi, 2000).It is
pertinent to mention here that Al-Farabi did not place medicine amongst the natural
sciences, and sometimes he calls it a science, sometimes an art.

It can be said that al-Farabi designed a mathematical curriculum in education resembling

that of Plato. As a reminder of the famous words written over the door of the Academy
(‘Let none enter who is not a geometer'), Al-Farabistated that “the demonstrations used in
geometry are the soundest of all demonstrations” (Al-Talbi, 2000, p.9).

Al-Farabi mentions another theory, the one taken by the followers of Theophrastus,
according to which education begins with reforming the morals, “for he who cannot
reform his own morals cannot learn any science correctly”(Al-Talbi, 2000, p.9).Al-Farabi
believes that, “before beginning the study of philosophy, the student must reform his own
ethical values, so as to desire nothing but virtue; he must then strengthen the rational
mind by training in scientific demonstration, which is geometry giving access to
logic”(Al-Talbi, 2000, p.9).

If we draw a comparison between Plato and Al-Farabi, we see that Plato, in his Republic,
considered the starting point of education to be physical exercise, then arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, music and philosophy (dialectics). Nevertheless, in Laws Plato,
considered the starting point was ethics, because ethics develop love for good and hatred
for evil. Plato did not give much importance to experiment and observation, because he
believed in a world of ideas, not objects, whereas Al-Farabi is very much concerned with
the practical aspects of the mathematical sciences (Al-Talbi, 2000).

4.8 Imam Ghazali

His full name was Abu-Hamid Muhammad Bin Muhammad Ghazali (Qasir-Al-Islam,
1994). Imam Ghazaliwas a great Muslim philosopher and educationist. He was born in
1059 AD in Toos, Khurasan. In those days, Muslim rule was established on many parts of
the world including Asia, Europe and Africa. Due to devastating effects of excessive
power, wealth and foreign cultures of different countries, Muslims were deviating from
true teachings of Islam. The Islamic ideology was in jeopardy and during that period,
Imam Ghazali came for the rescue. He tried to revive the true spirit of Islam. Therefore,
he is also called as ‘Hujjat-ul-Islam’, which means ‘proof of Islam’ or ‘Authority
on Islam’ (http: //research-education-edu.).

He was appointed as the head of Nizamia School at Baghdad. It was one of the most
famous and prestigious educational institutions of that time but after few years he
resigned from Nizamia due to his own spiritual unrest and went to Syria (Qasir-Al-Islam,
1994). He believed that true education must be free from the influence of kings and elite

77
class. He provided rational basis of Islamic belief system and tried to reunite Muslim
Ummah by putting forward a holistic and comprehensive picture of Islam. He is
considered as one of the most influential educational philosophers, who had a strong
impact on the development of modern educational thought. This great Muslim
philosopher died in 1111 AD. (http://research-education-edu.)

4.8.1 Significant Works

Some of his most substantial works are;
1. Revival of Islamic knowledge (Ihya-e-ulum Al-Din)
2. Objective of Philosophy (Maqasad-ul-Filasafa)
3. Incoherence of philosophy (Tahafat-ul-Filasafa)
4. Mezaan-Al-Amal

4.8.2 Educational Philosophy

Although his philosophy resembles with Platonian school of thought but actually his
educational philosophy is grounded in his own personal experiences. He believed that
reason can lead us to the truth. However, reason has its limitations as well and cannot
always lead to absolute truth. The divine revelation (Wahi & Ilhaam) is superior to reason
but it is only gifted to few selected people i.e. prophets & saints. It is compulsory for
everyone to obey the divine revelations of God, which are communicated through
prophets in the form of Wahi. Any useful form of knowledge is acceptable unless Wahi
refutes it. If Wahinegates any kind of knowledge, it will be discarded immediately. It is
obvious that his educational philosophy is closely linked with his religious philosophy.
He believed that child’s mind is like a clean slate that can be transformed by the teacher
with the passage of time. He believed that knowledge is not relative it is a fixed entity.
The knowledge can raise the status of man and it can take him closer to its Creator (God).
(Shahid, 2003; http://research-education-edu.)

Ghazali divides scholars/educators into following four categories or levels:-

1. Prophets: They convey prophetic knowledge or the message of God to mankind,
for the purification of their souls.
2. Rulers and Caliphs: They use their position and powers to make legislations and
rules for guidance and conservation of society.
3. Philosophers and Intellectuals: Only few selected individuals seek knowledge
from them who later serve the society and masses. In this way, they indirectly work
for the betterment and progress of society.
4. Preachers: It is their duty to take care of the physical and spiritual needs of the
society. They are responsible for the religious and spiritual training of the people.
They try to improve the moral and ethical condition of the society through
education (Shahid, 2003).

He divided knowledge into two major kinds:

1. Desirable or Useful knowledge (Ulum-i-Mahmud): The desirable and useful
knowledge is of two kinds.
i. Farz-i-Ain(Compulsory); Acquisition of this kind of knowledge is
mandatory for all. It comprises of the compulsory knowledge of Islam.

78
 ii. Farz-i-Kafaya (Optional); its acquisition is optional and one can chose
according to his own will. It is further sub-divided into two major kind’s i.e.
a. Religious knowledge, and
b. Worldly knowledge.
2. Undesirable or Useless Knowledge (Ulum-i-Mazmum): Learning this type of
knowledge is un-desirable and even harmful because it can produce bad effects on
the people. He includes magic, astrology and palmistry etc. in this category.

4.8.3 Educational Aims

His educational aims are based on Islamic ideology of life. He believes that, the main
objective of education is its usefulness. Which means that knowledge gained through
educational process must be useful for society and the individual. The usefulness of
knowledge is both material and spiritual. Therefore, the basic aim of education is to attain
the pleasure of God (Shahid, 2003). This can only be achieved by the unconditional
surrender of man before the will of Allah-Subhanu-wa-Ta’ala. In other words, the aim of
education is character building of the people so that they could distinguish between good
and evil. They must be capable to distinguish and refrain from the evil path.

4.8.4 Curriculum
Imam Ghazali was a great critique of his time. He criticized the curriculum that was in
vogue in different educational institutions of that era. He raised the fundamental
questions about selection criteria of subject matter of the curriculum. After careful study
of various curriculums taught in different educational institutions, he concluded that:
• Most of the time is spent on religious education and less time is left for the worldly
education, which is equally important.
• There are many differences among teachers of religious education. While imparting
religious education these teachers indulge in mudslinging on each other.
• Curriculum materials are not arranged in a proper order according to their
importance. The teachers concentrate on some subjects according to their personal
interests where as many other important subjects are neglected.
• Curriculum does not focus on character building and ethical training of the
students.
• He proposed that curriculum must consist of content matter of” compulsory nature”
(Farz-i-Ain) as well as “optional nature” (Farz-i-Kafaya). Curriculum must be a
unified mixture ofboth religious and worldly knowledge.
• He also stressed on the study of philosophy and logic.
• Ghazali’s educational thoughts were quite progressive. He included technical
education, agriculture, textile, and tailoring in the curriculum.

4.8.5 Teaching Methodology

Ghazali’s teaching methods are quite effective and grounded on psychological principles.
He believes that new learning experiences should be planned in the light of past
experiences and knowledge of the pupils. In other words, new knowledge should be
based on the past knowledge of the students.

79
There must be a natural sequential progression from simple to complex or easy to
difficult concepts. This principle is very important. He believes that at first the teacher
should start form easy and simple concepts and then move towards complex ones based
on students’ readiness. This can keep students motivated. Moreover, the teacher must try
his best to simplify the difficult concepts for his students. The use of relevant examples
and anecdotes can be very useful in this respect. It can make teaching more effective and
interesting for the students.

Ghazali stressed on the importance of planning for effective teaching. He believes that a
teacher should carefully plan and prepare his lesson before entering into to classroom.
Needs, interests, and abilities of the students should also be kept in mind during the
teaching process. Teaching process must be planned in a logical order (i.e. from easy to
difficult or simple to complex). Easy concepts should be taught first and gradually
proceed to difficult one. Too difficult concepts that are beyond the mental level of the
students can make the teaching less effective. A teacher should facilitate his students by
making things simple, easier, and interesting.

4.9 Qazi Ibn-e-Jamaa

His complete name was Badar-ud-Deen Muhammad Bin Ibraheem Bin Saad-Ullah Bin
Jamaa. He was born in 1241 AD. He was the follower of Imam Shafi. He made
significant contributions in the field of Islamic Jurisprudence, Principles of Islamic
Jurisprudence, History, and Hadith.He also served as Chief Justice i.e. Qazi-ul-Qaza (Ibn-
i-Sadiq, 2006).

4.9.1 Significant Works

Some of his famous books are as under:
1. Tahrir-al-Hukaam Fi-Tudbeer-Al-Islam (It is a significant work on Islamic
Jurisprudence).
2. Tazkara Al-SamayWal-Mutkallam Fi-Aadab Al-AlamWal-Mutallam
(It is an outstanding work on teaching and learning).
4.9.2 Educational Aims
He believed that purpose of education is not gaining worldly and material benefits. The real
aim of education is spiritual and eternal wellbeing of man. Education is a religious obligation
and the aim of education is akin to the ultimate aim of Islam (Ibn-i-Sadiq, 2006).

4.9.3 Teaching Methodology and Qualities of a Teacher

He was a great teacher. He had many students and followers. He focused on teaching
methodology and practical aspects of teaching. He wrote “Tazkara Al-SamayWal-
Mutkallam Fi-Adab Al-AlamWal-Mutallam.” That is an excellent piece of writing on
teaching methodology. In this book, he has skillfully discussed different aspects of
teaching and learning. His teaching methodology is in line with the modern psychological
principles. Learning must precede form known to unknown and easier to difficult
concepts. He believes that students’ comfort must be observed while deciding the
timetable of classes.The education must be according to the metal level of the learners. It
should not be a burden on students’ minds. The teacher must focus on the central

80
concepts of the lesson and try to make his pupils understand them with the help of
suitable examples (Ibn-i-Sadiq, 2006). He believed that a good teacher must have
following characteristics:
1. A teacher should study Quran regularly and ponder upon its connotations.
2. A teacher must love his students. He should be kind and helpful to others as well.
3. He must refrain from envy, pride, and other moral ills.
4. While facing criticism or difference of opinion, he must do justice in all
circumstances.
5. A teacher must appreciate those who seek knowledge.
6. He must be careful and clear while answering the questions. If he does not know
the answer, then he must openly accept that he does not know.
7. A teacher must be an expert of his subject or field of knowledge.
8. He must try to cultivate love of learning in his students.(Ibn-i-Sadiq, 2006)

4.9.4 Code of Ethics for Students

Ibn-e-Jamaa laid down a completed code of ethics for the students. He believed that
students must devote their whole life for education. They should never miss their classes.
They must study with complete concentration and devotion. Students must be well
behaved and cooperate with their fellow students in every possible way. Students must
respect the teachers; if any student ever misbehaves with the teacher, all his fellow
students should condemn him. In “Tazkara Al-Samay Wal-Mutkallam Fi-Adab Al-
AlamWal-Mutallam”he has discussed the minute details of teaching and learning process.
It is a comprehensive book on the art and ethics of teaching and learning (Ibn-i-Sadiq,
2006). This great Muslim educator died in 1332 AD.

4.10 Ibn-e-Khaldun
Ibn-e-Khaldun was born in Tunis, on May 27, 1332. He was a great Muslim philosopher,
economist, and a historian (http://muslimheritage.com). He is also considered as a
forerunner of the modern disciplines of Sociology and Demography. One of his most
prestigious books is “Muqaddima” which has been translated into many languages. Some
of his other famous works are:
1. Lubab Al-Maḥṣul (i.e. Summary of the Result)
2. A Commentary on Uṣul Al-Fiqh
3. Arab Philosophy of History
4. Yaman: Its Early Mediaeval History

He used to deliver lectures at Al-Azhar and other fine Universities of that era. After
leading a simple but eventful and creative life this renowned Muslim scholar died on
March 19, 1406 at Cairo, Egypt.

4.10.1 Al-Muqaddima
Muqaddima can be divided into three major parts. The first part is the introduction,
second part is the universal history, and third part is the history of Maghrib. An
autobiography of the author is included in the appendix of this book.

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The first “Introduction,” part of the book can be sub-divided into following six
subsections:
1. Human Society- Ethnology and Anthropology
2. Rural Civilizations
3. Forms of Government and Forms of Institutions
4. Society of Urban Civilization
5. Economic Facts
6. Science and Humanity

In fact, Muqaddima can be considered as an essence of Ibn-e-Khaldun’s wisdom and

hard-earned experience. He skillfully used his political and personal knowledge about the
people of Maghrib to formulate most of his thoughts and ideas. In Muqaddima he almost
tried to summarized every field of knowledge of that period. He discussed various topics,
including historiography and history. He rebuked few historical claims with a calculated
logic, and discussed many contemporary sciences. He wrote about numerology,
astronomy, chemistry, and astrology, in a scientific manner. He gave his opinions
honestly and freely as well as documented the “facts” regarding other point of views. One
of the most interesting sections of his thesis is based on his discussion about social forces
and tribal societies. He enlightened the world with his deep insight of development of
civilizations and workings of kingdoms (http://muslimheritage.com).

4.10.2 His Contribution to Different Fields of Education

With his revolutionary theories and innovative ideas, he made significant contributions in
the development of different fields of learning.

4.10.2.1 Economics
He was well aware about the role of economics in the history of civilizations. According
to Issawi, & Leaman (1998) “In the field of economics, Ibn Khaldun understands very
clearly the supply and demand factors which affect price, the interdependence of prices
and the ripple effects on successive stages of production of a fall in prices, and the nature
and function of money and its tendency to circulate from country to country according to
demand and the level of activity” (p.3783).

4.10.2.2 Sociology
Ibn-e-Khaldun explained the nature of society and state. He is known as funder of the
discipline of Sociology. According to Issawi, & Leaman (1998)“Ibn Khaldūn fully
realized that he had created a new discipline, ‘Ilm-Al-Umran’, the science of culture, and
regarded it as surprising that no one had done so before and demarcated it from other
disciplines. This science can be of great help to the historian by creating a standard by
which to judge accounts of past events. Through the study of human society, one can
distinguish between the possible and the impossible, and so distinguish between those of
its phenomena which are essential and those which are merely accidental, and also those
which cannot occur at all” (p.3783-3784).

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With respect to the evolution of state, and the relationship between society and the state,
Ibn-e-Khaldun believes that, “human society is necessary since the individual acting
alone could acquire neither the necessary food nor security. Only the division of labour,
in and through society, makes this possible. The state arises through the need of a
restraining force to curb the natural aggression of humanity. A state is inconceivable
without a society, while a society is practically impossible without a state. Social
phenomena seem to obey laws which, while not as absolute as those governing natural
phenomena, are sufficiently constant to cause social events to follow regular and well-
defined patterns and sequences. Hence, a grasp of these laws enables the sociologist to
understand the trend of events. These laws operate on masses and cannot be significantly
influenced by isolated individuals” (Issawi, & Leaman, 1998, p. 3784).

4.10.2.3 History
He made significant contribution in fields of History and Historiography (i.e. the study of
the writing of history and of written histories).For instance, “He analyzed in detail the
sources of error in historical writings, in particular partisanship, overconfidence in
sources, failure to understand what is intended, a mistaken belief in the truth, the inability
to place an event in its real context, the desire to gain the favour of those in high rank,
exaggeration, and what he regarded as the most important of all, ignorance of the laws
governing the transformation of human society”(Issawi, & Leaman, 1998, p. 3784).

Ibn-e-Khaldun thinks that, “society is an organism that obeys its own inner laws. These
laws can be discovered by applying human reason to data either picked from historical
records or obtained by direct observation. These data are fitted into an implicit
framework derived from his views on human and social nature, his religious beliefs and
the legal precepts and philosophical principles to which he adheres. He argues that more
or less the same set of laws operates across societies with the same kind of structure; so
that his remarks about nomads apply equally well to Arab Bedouins, both contemporary
and pre-Islamic, and to Berbers, Turkomen and Kurds. These laws are explicable
sociologically, and are not a mere reflection of biological impulses or physical factors. To
be sure, facts such as climate and food are important, but he attributes greater influence to
such purely social factors as cohesion, occupation and wealth” (Issawi, & Leaman, 1998,
p. 3784).In view of Ibn-e-Khaldun, history is a continuously changing cycle, with
essentially two groups of people, nomads and townspeople, with peasants in between.

Ibn-e-Khaldun accepts that there are turning points in history. He wrote that in his time,
he believed that the Black Death and Mongol invasions were turning points. His
observations and research is focused on the etiology of civilization decline, i.e. the
symptoms, and the nature of the evils due to which civilizations die. Ibn-e-Khaldun’s
theory, that conquered race always try to imitate the conqueror in every possible way is
quite insightful. His magnum opus is his study on the science of human culture, the rise
and fall of empires. Ibn-e-Khaldunnamed it as the science of ‘Umran (civilization), is full
of knowledge and insight. His “Introduction” is his greatest legacy, left for all of
humanity and generations to come (http://muslimheritage.com).

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4.10.2.4Science and Philosophy
Ibn-e-Khaldun’s view on science followed the traditional division of sciences, which
involves a division into religious sciences and non-religious sciences. The non-religious
sciences are further divided into useful and non-useful sciences (mainly the occult
sciences such as magic, Alchemy and astrology). In the Muqaddima, Ibn-e-Khaldun
reports on all the sciences up to his time, with examples and quotations. He makes it a
point to refute Magic, Alchemy, Astrology, and Philosophy in his book. His work
became a record of the development of sciences in his day.

Ibn-e-Khaldun’s view on philosophy is similar to that of Al-Ghazali, in the sense that he

attempted to reconcile Mysticism and Theology. In fact, Ibn-e-Khaldun, according to
Issawi, “goes further than the latter [Al-Ghazali] in bringing Mysticism completely
within the purview of the jurisprudent (Faqih) and in developing a model of the
Sufi Shaykh, or master, as rather similar to the theologian” (Issawi, &Leaman, 1998, p.
3785). Philosophy was regarded as going beyond its appropriate level of discourse, in
that “the intellect should not be used to weigh such matters as the oneness of God, the
other world, the truth of prophecy, the real character of the divine attributes, or anything
else that lies beyond the level of the intellect” (Issawi, & Leaman, 1998, p. 3785).

Ibn-e-Khaldun criticized Neoplatonic philosophy, and asserted that the hierarchy of being
and its progression toward the Necessary Being, or God, is not possible without
revelation.

4.10.2.5Learning of Arts
Ibn-e-Khaldun believed that arts should only be learnt from a master. The arts are highly
specialized and if a person masters one art, he generally cannot master another art.
Khaldoon does not perceive technology as a body of knowledge independent of those
who possess it (Cheddadi, 2000).Technique, though understood as something at once
practical and intellectual ‘Amr AmaliFikri’ is reduced to a skill that may be learned only
by observation and imitation ‘Naql Al-mu Ayana’ (Cheddadi, 2000).

Learning itself is seen by Ibn Khaldun as the acquisition of a ‘habitus' (malaka). He uses
this concept, which for philosophers had an essentially moral and intellectual meaning,
very widely to cover a vast field going from language to faith, the arts and the sciences.
He defines it as “a stable quality resulting from a repeated action until its form has taken
final shape.” Habitus are like gradually formed ‘colours' of the soul. They take shape
when a person is still in his or her ‘state of natural simplicity'. Once the soul acquires a
given aptitude it loses its primary simplicity, its readiness weakens and its capacity to
assimilate a second aptitude diminishes (Cheddadi, 2000).

4.10.3 Pedagogical Principles

Ibn-e-Khaldun's pedagogical conception is based on the central concept of the habitus,
mentioned earlier in connection with the learning of the arts. Whether it concerns the
child or the adult, the practical arts or the sciences, moral or religious values, the aim of
all pedagogical action is the formation in the soul of a stable disposition (nature). Once it

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has been acquired, this disposition will not disappear. Ibn-e-Khaldun often compares it to
a dye that lasts until the cloth to which it has been applied is destroyed (Cheddadi, 2000).

All habitus, says Ibn-e-Khaldun, are necessarily corporal. He understands the habitus as
something the soul can acquire only through the senses, as opposed to another type of
knowledge proper to the prophets and mystics, which can be obtained only through the
contemplation by the soul of its own essence. This concerns both the physical and the
intellectual aptitudes, starting with the very fact of thinking. The formation of a habitus
initially requires continuous repetition until the form is fixed. In order to obtain
maximum efficiency, it must be a practice (Bi-l-Mubashara) and modelled on the most
perfect exemplars with the help of the best teachers, preferably following methods of
direct observation (Bi-l-Muayana). Ibn Khaldun thinks that the soul has but fairly limited
receptivity (Istidad) (Cheddadi, 2000).

4.11 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Who was ‘Mujaddad Alif Sani’? What was his contributions towards Islam and
Education of Muslims?
2. What are the principles of reading and teaching through books delineated by Shah-
Wali-Ullah?
3. What are the thoughts of Shah-Wali-Ullah about aims of education and
Curriculum?
4. Write a comprehensive note on educational thoughts and contributions of Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan for educational enhancement and progress of Indian Muslims?
5. What educational aims can be derived from the works of Dr. Allama Muhammad
Iqbal?
6. What kind of curriculum and teaching methodology Iqbal approves?
7. What are the major aspects of Al-Farabi’s Educational Philosophy?
8. Write a detailed note on the educational philosophy of Imam Ghazali?
9. What contributions Ibn-e-Khaldun made towards different fields of learning by his
revolutionary theories and thoughts?

4.12 Bibliography
Al-Talbi, A. (2000). Al-Farabi (259-339 AH/872-950 AD). Prospects: The Quarterly
Review of Comparative Education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education),
23 (1/2), p. 353-372.
Al-Farabi, (1968).Kitab Al-Milla, Edited by Muhsin Mahdi. Beirut: Imprimeie
Catholique.
Al-Farabi, (1983).Tahsil Al-sa-Ada, Edited by Ja-afar Al-Yasin. Beirut: Dar Al-Andalus.
Al-Farabi, (1987).Al-Tanbih ala sabilalsa’ada, Edited by Ja-afar Al-Yasin. Beirut: Dar
Al-Manahil.
Abdullah, S. (nd) Maqamat-i-Iqbal. Delhi. p.328.

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Cheddadi, A. (2000). Ibn Khaldun. Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative
Education, (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), XXIV (1/2), p. 7-19.
Enan, M.A.(1979). Ibn Khaldun: His life and Work.New Delhi: KitabBhavan.
Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., (1997)."Sir Syed Ahmed Khan". Gale
Research. p. 17.
Ibn-i-Sadiq, M. (2006).In Tanazrat-i-Taleem.Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.
Iqbal, S.M. (nd). The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam.
Issawi, C., &Leaman, O. (1998). Ibn Khaldūn, Abd al-Rahman (1332–1406). inRoutledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. vol. 4, p. 623–627.
Jundran, S.U. (2012). Muslim thinkers’ educational thoughts: Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi
(Rehmat- Ullah Alaih) and Imam Ahmed Raza Khan Breilvi (Rehmat-Ullah Alaih). Paper
presented in Annual Seerat Conference held at GC University Faisal Abad on 22nd
February, 2012. [Proceedings Published in 2013].
Jundran, S.U. (2013). Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi (Rehmat Ullah Alaih)’s and Imam Ahmed
Raza Khan Breilvi (Rehmat Ullah Alaih)’s policy guidelines for the educational
administrators and managers. In Humayun Abbas & Umar Hayat (Eds.), Zia-e-Seerat
(PP.03-57). Faisal Abad: Department of Islamic Studies, GC University.
Munawwar, M. (1992).Iqbal Poet-Philosopher of Islam.Lahore: Iqbal Academy Pakistan.
Muslim India, Monthly, (1991). Nov. 1991, Delhi.p.507.
Qasir-Al-Islam, Q. (1994).Falsafay Kay BunyadiMasayyal. Islamabad: National Book
Foundation.
Rauf, M., Ahmad, M., & Iqbal, Z. (2013).Al-Farabi’s Philosophy of Education.
Educational Research International, 1(2), 85-94.
Shahid, S.M. (2003).Education. Lahore: Majeed Book Depu.
Sayidian, K.G. (1997). Iqbal’s Educational Philosophy. Lahore: Sheikh Muhammad Ashraf.
Masoodi, T. (2007).Educational Philosophy of Iqbal. New Delhi: Author.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan, retrieved on 5.12.2015.
http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H021.htmretrieved on 01.03.2017.
http://muslimheritage.com/article/ibn-khaldun-his-life-and-works retrieved on dated
18.12.2016.
http://research-education-edu.blogspot.com/2011/09/concept-of-education-of-imam-
ghazali.html retrieved on 20.12.2016.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Farabi retrieved on 01.03.2017.

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Unit 5

WESTERN EDUCATIONISTS

Written By: Muhammad Irfan

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

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5.1 Introduction
This unit is designed for trainee teachers to develop understanding about the educational
philosophies of different Western educationist. The elementary education starts when the
child is four or five years old and lasts for almost eight years. A sound and
comprehensive elementary education is very important and necessary because it lays
foundation for everything to follow. Therefore, the role of teacher is very vital at this
stage. We need highly qualified, trained and ideologically sound teachers at this
level.This unit will help prospective teachers in understanding educational thoughts and
theories of different eminent educational philosophers. It will be helpful in broadening
their vision and develop an in-depth understanding about fundamental questions related
to the need and purpose of education. This unit will provide an overview about the life
and major works of the above-mentioned well-known educationist. It will enable the
trainee teachers to understand the philosophical thoughts of these educational
philosophers regarding the nature of education, aim of education, curriculum content, and
teaching methodology.

Philosophy of education deals with fundamental questions: What is the purpose or

meaning of education? How and why teachers educate people? What education actually
does for society and individuals? These questions cannot be replied by ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ and
‘true’ or ‘false’ (Gutek, 2004). The answers of these questions are very significant for
teachers. In this unit thoughts of different educationists regarding such basic questions
have been highlighted. The educational theories and ideologies of these eminent
philosophers are a source of inspiration as well as a challenge for our upcoming
educational leaders (or trainee teachers). They must use eclectic approach; develop their
own answers to these important questions, and try to create their own educational
philosophies.

5.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. develop an understanding about the life and major works of above-mentioned
eminent Western Educationist.
2. know the thoughts and theories of these Western educationists.
3. understand their outlooks about educational aims, teaching methodologies, and
curriculum.
4. extend their vision in the light of educational philosophies of Western Educational
philosophers.

5.3 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-17787)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in June 28, 1712, in Geneva, Switzerland. He was the
son of a watchmaker, Isaac Rousseau. His mother Suzanne Bernard Rousseau belonged
to upper-class family. Unfortunately, she died only nine days after his birth. Rousseau
described it as, his first misfortune. His father remarried when he was ten years old.
Deprived from the love and care of his father, he was placed under the custody of his
maternal uncle. At very early age, Rousseau had deep inclination towards religion and
even dreamed of becoming a Protestant priest. The teenage Rousseau had to support

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himself by working as a servant, secretary, and tutor when he was more or less disowned
by his father and uncle.

Rousseau moved to Paris in 1742. He presented a new system of numbered musical

notation to the Academy of Sciences. The Academy rejected this new system because
they considered it impractical. However, they admired his mastery of the subject, and
urged him to try again. When he was twenty-five, he received a small inheritance from
his deceased mother. Rousseau's Emile outraged the French parliament and the
parliament issued the orders for his arrest therefore he fled to Switzerland. Afterward the
Swiss authorities also turned against him because of his thoughts illustrated in ‘Emile’
and ‘The Social Contract’ therefore he had to flee from Burn as well. Rousseau lived at
Métiers, Switzerland, for two years. He was one of the most popular philosophers during
the period of French Revolution.

Although Rousseau belonged to a middle class family, yet he had to face many financial,
social and political problems in his life. He was proud that his family had voting rights in
the city. He was a renowned philosopher, composer, reformer, and educationist. His life
was full of controversies and paradoxes but his political and educational thoughts had
profound influence on Europe, France and many other countries of the world.

5.3.1 Major Works

Rousseau was a great political and educational philosopher. He was a prolific writer.
Some of his famous creations are as under:
1. Emile, or On Education
2. The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right
3. Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
4. Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men
5. Discourse on the Arts and Sciences
6. Discourse on Political Economy
7. Considerations on the Government of Poland
8. Essay on the Origin of Languages

5.3.2 Education of Nature

Rousseau took Naturalism to its zenith. He made human nature a guide in the education.
The plants and animals found in nature provide guidance and lessons to the man. The
naturalist like Rousseau looked carefully into the mirror of nature to find clues for
understanding man and God (Cole, 1931).

In the first few lines of his famous book ‘Emile’ Rousseau says that: “Everything is good
as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature; but everything degenerates in the
hands of man” (Cole, 1931, p.233). By ‘nature’, he generally means inborn faculty.
‘Emile’ was his masterpiece that he produced in 1762. It contains many powerful ideas
and thoughts about education. It provides an insight into the special nature of child’s
mind and lays stress on motivating a student to teach (Cahn, 1970). The imaginary
character of ‘Emile’ was the mouthpiece of Rousseau. He thought that man mutilates and

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changes everything according to his own desire. As plants are formed by cultivation,
similarly men are made by education (Cole, 1931). The education is derived from nature,
men or things. He believed that nature and things are independent of us but the human
element (i.e. the tutor) is mainly in our power to provide.

Through the character of a young boy ‘Emile’ he propagated his philosophy about human
development and education. He wanted to make a natural man. Therefore, it was
necessary to keep Emile away from educational instructions for many years. He said that,
“To live is the trade, I wish to teach him”. He further said, “Man is born free and
everywhere he is in chains” (www.google.co.uk). He believed that “Civilized man is
born, lives and dies in a state of slavery. At his birth he is stitched in swaddling clothes;
at his death he is nailed in his coffin; and as long as he preserves the human form he is
fettered (chained) by our institutions” (Cole, 1931, p.233). Therefore, he wanted to make
Emile an independent and free man.

5.3.3 Aims of Education

A careful study of Rousseau’s works reveals that major aims of education are as follows:
1. Rousseau aimed for making a natural man. He focused on the natural development
of human beings. He insisted on making a child physically and mentally strong.
The education should develop every individual child according to his own inborn
tendencies, inclinations, interests, aptitudes, and capabilities in a free environment.
This he calls natural development of a child (Singh, 2009).
2. Rousseau wanted to teach humanity to the child. All humans are equal in nature
therefore their occupation should be humanity. About the education of Emile
Rousseau said, “Living is the job I want to teach him. On leaving my hands, he
will, I admit, be neither magistrate not soldier nor priest. He will, in the first place,
be a man.” (Curren, 2007,p.46)
3. He emphasized the training of senses. He believed that senses are the gateway of
all knowledge. Therefore, the aim of education is to train the senses to perform
their job efficiently. Rousseau said, “Education should prepare the way for reason
by the proper exercise of senses” (Singh, 2009, p.129).

5.3.4 Methods of Teaching and Nurturing of Kids

The teaching methodology of Rousseau is different from the traditional teaching
methods. Instead of imparting same knowledge to a group of students at the same time.
Rousseau stressed on developing inherent tendencies by providing conducive
environment and experiences to the children. Therefore, the children may learn according
to their interests and individual tendencies though their personal efforts, experiments and
observations. As Emile learns through his own individual efforts and interests in a natural
environment. Rousseau said that he hates books. Because he wants to involve child in
joyful learning activates. Methods like (1) leaning by doing, (2) learning through play, (3)
learning by experiences, (4) learning through discovery method and (5) problem solving
can be effective teaching methods in the light of his philosophical outlook (Singh, 2009;
Cole, 1931).

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Rousseau’s educational philosophy was overwhelmingly focused on nature and
reasoning. He believed that, “The noblest work in education is to make a reasoning man,
and we expect to train a young child by making him reason! This is beginning at the end;
this is making an instrument of a result. If children understood how to reason they would
not need to be educated” (Rousseau, 1906, p.52).

Rousseau's philosophy is predominantly concerned with the development of character

and ethical sense of the person, so that he may learn to practice self-control and remain
honest in the imperfect society where he has to survive. The young boy, Emile, is raised
in the rural area, because, there is a more natural and healthy environment as compared to
the cities. There is a tutor for him, who always guides him through different learning
experiences. Rousseau believed that kids learn right or wrong by experiencing the
consequences of their deeds, instead of corporal punishment. The tutor will not interfere
much but he will make sure that no serious harm is done to Emile from his learning
experiences.

5.3.5 Child Centered Education

Rousseau seems to be the harbinger of modern child-centered system of education. He
made child as the main focus of educational process. He believed that education should
be organized in such manner that the child must learn through his own experiences,
observations, and activities without any external authoritative guidance. Rousseau
believed that children should be educated according to their age and developmental
levels. He described different stages of child development:
1. The first ‘infancy’ stage is from birth to 5 years, when the child is an infant;
2. The second stage is the ‘childhood’ i.e. from 5 to 12 years of age, when children
are guided by their emotions and impulses;
3. during the third stage of ‘adolescence’ i.e. from 12 to 15, reason starts to develop;
and
4. Finally the fourth stage of ‘adulthood’ i.e. from 16 onwards, when the child
develops into an adult. It is the age of moral and religious education. It is the time
to perfect reason and to study humankind (Cole, 1931).

Rousseau was of the view that the youngsters should learn the manual skills. He believed
that skill related to agriculture, forge work and carpentry, can develop creativity and
wisdom in young ones (Cole, 1931). Such skills can also be very useful in hard times.

5.3.6 Curriculum
These are famous words of Rousseau “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.
Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they.”
Rousseau was a strong propagator of freedom and free will therefore he was against a
fixed curriculum. Curriculum should consist of such activities and experiences that
nurture the inborn tendencies and natural interests of the individual child. The curriculum
may comprise, learning of language, sports, study of nature (science), geography, and
other necessary subjects according to needs and interests of the student.

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5.3.7 Eclectic Approach
Rousseau used eclectic approach; his philosophy was a heterogeneous mixture of both old
and modern futuristic ideas. For instance, he believed in patriarchal family system i.e. a
system in which moral and political superiority and authority lies with the male head of the
family. Emile is the embodiment of an ideal man, who has been educated to become self-
governed. Whereas, Sophie, is a symbol of ideal woman, who has been educated to be
governed by her husband Emile. It is an essential characteristic of Rousseau's social and
educational philosophy that he believed in the subordination of women. He also projected
the modern concept of the bourgeois nuclear. The middle class nuclear family system
where mother stays at home takes care of children and household. The modern feminists
criticize Rousseau because he confined women to household and domestic affairs.

5.3.8 Criticism on Rousseau

It is pertinent to mention here that most of Rousseau’s ideas are profoundly open to
criticism (Cahn, 1970). For instance, he claims that nature provides the goals of
education; therefore, a child must not be allowed to acquire any habits. This claim is not
achievable. As he says that once you refuse to give something to a child, your refusal
must be unalterable. This will result in that child will not pester or bother you by making
frequent requests for those things which he was refused. On the other hand, this way he
will develop a habit of not pestering you for things he has been refused. In fact, human
beings cannot live effectively without developing habits. If walking does not become a
habit, we would spend hours in attempting to walk. The question is not that whether we
should develop habits or not. The question is that which habits we should develop.

If some action is ‘natural’, that is no reason to perform it. We may have natural desires to
harm other people. We must control these desires if we have to live in society. Some
natural desires are good while some are bad. The only way to decide whether a natural
impulse is good or bad is to consider its consequences. That is a natural impulse is no
reason why it must be followed. Moreover, it is difficult to declare that a particular
course of action is natural or unnatural. Any human action can be considered natural on
the grounds that it is according to the laws of nature. As only miracles are unnatural, and
no child needs to be taught to refrain from doing miracles (Cahn, 1970).

Rousseau highlighted the role of women through the imaginary female character of
Sophie. She is the soul mate of Emile. She is educated to be governed by Emile, who is
trained to be governed by none other than himself. Rousseau believed that the
education of man and women is different because their nature and roles are different.
Feminists, such as Mary Wollstonecraft criticized Rousseau for confining women to
domestic sphere.

However, despite of its shortcomings, Rousseau’s Emile is a very significant piece of

work on educational thought that laid a profound influence on the subsequent
developments in the field of education.

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5.4 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1946-1827)
Pestalozzi was born on 12 January 1746 in Zurich, Switzerland. His father Johann
Baptiste Pestalozzi was a physician. His mother Susanna Hotz Pestalozzi was a fine
homemaker woman of the middle class. His grandfather, Andreas Pestalozzi was a
village priests how inspired Pestalozzi to do something for the uplifting of disadvantaged
poor peasants of Switzerland.

Pestalozzi was a great philanthropist. He is well known for his devoted work on poor
children. In his school for poor children, he demonstrated that poor children, if skillfully
taught with love and care, could learn as much as the children of rich families (Noddings,
1995). The development of his educational theory is linked with his pedagogical career.

He received his formal education in Zurich. He first attended a local primary school and
then took the preparatory course in Latin and Greek, after that he specialized in
philosophy and languages. In 1767, he studied agriculture for almost nine months from
Johann Rudolf Tschiffeli, who was an experimental farmer.
(http://education.stateuniversity.com).

In 1769, Pestalozzi married with Anna Schulthess. Anna belonged to upper-middle-class

yet she married poor Pestalozzi because of his high ideals and love for the poor.
Pestalozzi was deeply inspired by Rousseau’s educational philosophy. He tried to use
Rousseau's ‘Emile’ as a guide for educating his three years old son. Pestalozzi revised
Rousseau's method in “How Father Pestalozzi Instructed His Three and a Half Year Old
Son.” Nevertheless still committed to Rousseau’s natural education, he began to base his
instructions on a more empirically based psychology
(http://education.stateuniversity.com).

Pestalozzi founded his first institute in 1774 at Neuhof. It was a self-supporting

handicraft and agricultural school. Once the school had about fifty students, and most of
them were poor or orphans. Pestalozzi developed ‘simultaneous instruction’ method over
there, which was a group method for teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Unfortunately, in1779 the school closed due to severe financial problems.

In 1799, Pestalozzi appointed as the head of an orphanage at Stans by the Napoleonic

backed Helvetian government. He developed it as a residential school in which the
children were educated in a physically, mentally, and emotionally protected environment.
This orphanage was also closed within less than one year, because of war between
French, Austrian, and Russian armies.

In 1804, Pestalozzi moved his institute to Yverdon. He relentlessly worked in this

intuition until 1825. Pestalozzi finalized his Method of instruction in his school at
Yverdon. Instead of dealing with words, he said, children must learn through things and
activities. They must be free to follow their own interests as well as draw their own
conclusions (Darling, 1994).

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Pestalozzi’s significant influences on the history of education are: (a) his educational
philosophy and instructional methods which encouraged harmonious physical, moral, and
intellectual development; (b) his unique methodology of empirical sensory learning,
especially through object lessons; and (c) his use of excursions, activities, and nature
studies which anticipated Progressive education (http://education.stateuniversity.com).

Pestalozzi died on 17 February 1827. Two days after his death he was buried at Neuh of,
near his first school. Despite of heavy snow thousands of local residents and his students
attended his funeral ceremony.

5.4.1 Major Works

This educational thinker was a keen promoter of action. He was regarded as father of
modern educational science, who directly inspired Herbart and Froebel as well as
influenced many movements of educational reforms of nineteenth century (Soetard,
2000). Some of his major works are as follows:
1. How Gertrude Teaches her Children
2. Leonard and Gertrude
3. Christopher and Elizabeth
4. Educational essays for Ein Schweizer Blatt, the Swiss newspaper
5. Illustrations for My ABC Book
6. Fables for My ABC Book

5.4.2 Principles of his Educational Philosophy

Pestalozzi was deeply inspired by Rousseau therefore he refined and extended his work.
He used Rousseau's work Emile as a guide for educating his son, and revised Rousseau's
method in “How Father Pestalozzi Instructed His Three and a Half Year Old Son” in
(1774). He remained devoted to Rousseau’s natural education, and based his instructions
on a more empirical and psychological grounds. Pestalozzi’s supreme contribution to the
field of education is his wide-ranging philosophy of natural education, which stressed on
the dignity of child and the significance of actively engaging the child in using his senses
for exploring the environment. (http://education.stateuniversity.com).

Kilpatrick (1951) derived six basic principles from Pestalozzi’s educational Philosophy:
1. Personality is sacred. This constitutes the ‘inner dignity of each individual for the
young as truly as for the adult.
2. As ‘a little seed... contains the design of the tree’, so in each child is the promise of
his potentiality. ‘The educator only takes care that no unfortunate influence shall
disturb nature's march of developments’.
3. Love of those we would educate is ‘the only and everlasting foundation’ in which
to work. ‘Without love, neither the physical not the intellectual powers will
develop naturally’. So kindness ruled in Pestalozzi’s schools: he abolished beating
- much to the amazement of outsiders.
4. To get rid of the ‘verbosity’ of meaningless words Pestalozzi developed his
doctrine of Anschauung - direct concrete observation, often inadequately called
‘sense perception’ or ‘object lessons’. No word was to be used for any purpose

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 until adequate Anschauung had come first. The thing or distinction must be felt or
observed in the concrete. Pestalozzi’s followers developed various sayings from
this: from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the
concrete to the abstract.
5. To perfect the perception got by the Anschauung the thing that must be named, an
appropriate action must follow. ‘A man learns by action... have done with [finished
with only] words!’ ‘Life shapes us and the life that shapes us is not a matter of
words but action’.
6. Out of this demand for action came an emphasis on repetition - not blind repetition,
but repetition of action following the Anschauung.

5.4.3 Aim of Education

In Pestalozzi's view, the primary goal of education must be to create a ‘moral man’. This
moral man endeavors to do good and to love others. The actions this moral man is rooted
in religious belief and he leaves aside his self-interest. This moral man is self-made
(www.heinrich-pestalozzi.de/).

Pestalozzi emphasizes that all natural faculties and powers must be developed in such a
way, which makes moral life possible for the man. It can be achieved only if the powers
of heart, hand, and head are excellently developed. However, the hands and the head
should remain subordinate to the heart. This will result in the harmony of powers. He
believes that this harmony is ensured with a ‘common power’ like love that connects
everything.

Eventually, it is all about nurturing and a constructive holistic education in love, by love,
for love. Pestalozzi (1809) explains the aim of education in his speech:

“The people around us realize that with our activities we do not make your
reason, your art, but your humaneness our ultimate objective. … By my
actions I seek to elevate human nature to the highest, the noblest – I seek its
elevation by love and only in its holy power I recognize the foundation of the
education of my race in everything divine, in everything eternal which lies in
its nature. I consider all the faculties of the mind and the art and the insight
which lie in my nature to be only instruments of the heart and of its divine
elevation to love. Only in the elevation of man, I recognize the possibility of
the education of our race towards humaneness. Love is the only, the eternal,
foundation of the education of our nature to humaneness” (www.heinrich-
pestalozzi.de/).

5.4.4 Curriculum
Pestalozzi was not in favour of merely bookish curriculum that contain only words and
verbosity he said, “Learning from books is a cheap substitute. It’s a much better idea to
look at things directly in the open air.” In his school at Yverdon, the teachers often used
to take their students outdoors, to study animals, plants, rock formations and landscapes.
Sometimes the teacher used to say a word, for instance; ‘squirrel’ or ‘dandelion’ and the

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students had to find out all about it. Some of the subjects include in the curriculum of his
institutes were, French, German, History, Mathematics, Drawing, Singing, Gymnastics,
Bookkeeping, and Religious Instruction (http://www.bruehlmeier.info). Pestalozzi
extended the elementary school curriculum and included natural science, geography,
music and fine arts in it, because he wanted to allow the students to get more experiences
form nature (www.newworldencyclopedia.org).

Pestalozzi's emphasis on sense perception and object lessons led to the inclusion of
natural sciences and geography in elementary school curriculum.
(http://education.stateuniversity.com). Pestalozzi emphasized that education must be
focused on the child, instead of curriculum. He believed that the knowledge lies within
human beings, and the objective of instruction is to find out the ways of revealing that
hidden knowledge. Therefore, he emphasized inclusion of direct experience in the
curriculum. He also advocated freedom and self-activity, instead of teacher-centered
curriculum (www.newworldencyclopedia.org).

5.4.5 Teaching Methodology

Pestalozzi's most logical well renowned work, ‘How Gertrude Teaches Her Children’
published in 1801. In it, he criticized conventional schooling system and prescribed
important educational reform. He rejected rote memorization, corporal punishment, and
too much emphasis on words or bookish knowledge. He sought to establish a new
‘psychological method of instruction’, which was in line with human nature. He laid
emphasis on freedom and self-activity. In this method, students were not to be provided
with the ready-made answers; on the other hand, they have to arrive at answers by
themselves. For doing this their individual powers of observing, judging and reasoning
ought to be cultivated and their self-activity encouraged (Silber, 1965).

5.4.5.1 Concept of Anschauung and Sense Perception

There is no precise English word equivalent to the Pestalozzi’s concept of Anschauung.
The Anschauung may be considered as a direct and actual experience of objects or
situations. American and English authors used following terms to convey this concept:
the direct impact of things & persons, direct acquaintance, personal contact, concrete
experience, face to face knowledge (Singh, 2009). Anschauung is the base of all
knowledge and experiences. It is not only confined to awareness of objects but also
consists of natural or impulsive appreciation of moral actions and direct realization of
situation (Singh, 2009). It emphasizes on immediate experience. It eliminates
intervention of any object or process, between subject and experience.

Pestalozzi's method of teaching was based on two main principles: (1) child needs an
emotionally secure environment for successful learning; and (2) instruction must follow a
generalized process of human conceptualization, which begins with sensation.
Emphasizing sensory education, Pestalozzi developed a special method that used
Anschauung principle, which involved forming the clear concepts through sense
perception. Pestalozzi developed object lessons in which the children, under guidance of

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teachers, examined the form and number of the objects, and later named the objects after
having direct experiences with them (http://education.stateuniversity.com).
Pestalozzi developed two interrelated stages of instruction i.e. the general and the special
methods. First stage was the general method in which the teacher had to create an emotionally
secure learning environment that was a necessary requirement for implementation of the
special method. Second stage was the special method that laid special emphasis on sensory
learning, used the Anschauung principle that involved formation of clear concepts through
sense impressions (http://education.stateuniversity.com).

5.4.5.2 Object Lesson

Object teaching was a well-known and widely used element of Pestalozzianism.
Pestalozzi was inspired by Rousseau, while he recommended that children must be taught
through their senses. He refined the ideas of Rousseau and invented a new approach of
teaching called ‘object lesson’. The object lesson starts by showing an object to the
students and asking them to describe the object, what is it, how it works, and so on. For
instance, a lesson may be planned by narrating that ‘a computer’ (along with CPU,
monitor, keyboard and connecting cables or wires) will be shown to students of ninth
class and a number of different questions will be asked from them. What is it? What are
the names of its different components? How these components are safely connected with
each other? How does it work? How it can be used safely? What are its major benefits?
After exploring a large number questions and answers the different components of
computer may be separated and reconnected again (Noddings, 1995). Pestalozzi’s object
lesson usually used to end with a moral lesson. He was deeply concerned with moral
education and believed that every lesson must have some moral value along with
cognitive learning.

Pestalozzi designed an elaborate series of graded object lessons, by which children

examined minerals, plants, and animals and human-made artifacts found in their
environment. Following a sequence, instruction moved from the simple to the complex, the
easy to the difficult, and the concrete to the abstract (http://education.stateuniversity.com).

5.4.6 His Legacy for Modern Educators

Pestalozzi’s legacy for future educators is:
(1) His heavy emphasis on child's holistic mental, physical, and psychological
development;
(2) His child centered progressivism;
(3) His emphasis on the empirical learning; and
(4) His reforms in elementary & teacher education.
(http://education.stateuniversity.com).

5.5 Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852)

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was a well-known German educator, born on 21 April
1782 at Oberweissbach in Thuringian, Germany. He is known as the father of
Kindergarten system of education. His works revolutionized the early childhood

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education. In those old days he anticipated modern educational concepts like ‘learning by
doing’ (Cole, 1931).

His mother died when he was only six months old. He was raised and educated by his
father and uncle, both of them were priests. His father did is second marriage and his
stepmother did not take care of him. The neglect he suffered was later reflected in his
disobedient and self-centered attitude. His father considered him as a wicked kid with
limited intellectual abilities (Heiland, 1999). He was not a bright student during his early
years of education. Therefore, after elementary school his father decided not to send him
for higher education. It is pertinent to mention here that these adverse circumstances of
his life lead him to adopt the attitudes of a self-taught adult. He said, “Unlimited self-
observation, self-contemplation, and self-education were the basic features of my life
from an early age” (Lange, 1862, p. 38). This way he developed an observant and
analyzing relationship with nature (Heiland, 1999).

He worked as an apprentice surveyor, studied architecture, and after that practiced

accountancy before starting his carrier as a teacher in Pestalozzian school in Frankfurt
(Cole, 1931). He started teaching in June 1805, in a model school at Frankfurt that used to
run according to Pestalozzi’s Educational principles. Here he developed deep love and
adoration for teaching profession. In one his letters to his brother, he wrote that he was born
to be a teacher and it was the best profession for him. Froebel said, “I must tell you quite
honestly that it is extraordinary how at home I feel in my employment. It is as though I had
been a teacher for a long time and was born for this profession; it seems to me that I have
never wanted to live in any other circumstances than these” (Lange, 1862, p. 533).

It is pertinent to mention here that Froebel was very inspired by Pestalozzi’s educational
philosophy. He acquired training in Pestalozzi’s elementary method in 1810. Froebel
wrote a comprehensive essay on Pestalozzi’s theory of elementary education, titled as “A
brief outline of Pestalozzi’s principles of education and training based on Pestalozzi
himself” (Lange, 1862, p.154-213). This essay shows Pestalozzi’s influence on him.
According to Heiland (1999), “At every phase of his later life and work, Froebel’s
pedagogical ways remained within the orbit of Pestalozzi’s elementary education which
he interpreted and developed further in his own independent manner” (p.3). After a
devoted carrier marked by disappointments and triumphs like Pestalozzi himself, Froebel
died in 1852.

5.5.1 Major Works

Froebel was a great scholar and a prolific writer. Some of his significant works are as
follows:
1. On The Education of Man
2. Autobiographical Letter to the Duke of Meiningen
3. Pedagogies of Kindergarten
4. Mother Play and Nursery Songs
5. To our German people

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6. Comprehensive education satisfying fully the needs of the German character is the
fundamental need of the German people
7. Principles, purpose and inner life of the General German educational establishment
at Keilhau near Rudolstadt
8. On the General German educational establishment at Keilhau

5.5.2 Educational Theory of Froebel

In 1826, Froebel published his famous work “On the Education of Man” in which he
highlighted his pedagogical principles in the following words:

The divine, God, is omnipresent; His influence governs all things [...] which
have their being only by reason of the divine principle active in them. The
divine principle active in all things constitutes their very essence. The
purpose and vocation of all things is to develop their essence, which is their
divine nature and the divine principle per se, in such a way that God is
proclaimed and revealed through their external and transient manifestations.
The special purpose and particular vocation of man as a sentient and
reasoning being is to bring his own essence, his divine nature and through it
God, His intended purpose and vocation, to complete consciousness that they
may become a clearly perceived living reality which is exercised and
proclaimed through the life of the individual. The purpose of education is to
encourage and guide man as a conscious, thinking and perceiving being in
such a way that he becomes a pure and perfect representation of that divine
inner law through his own personal choice; education must show him the
ways and means of attaining that goal (Froebel, 1826, p.2).

This educational theory is also the foundation of Froebel’s ‘kindergarten’ that has gained
worldwide recognition and lies at the heart of his international reputation.

5.5.3 Major Aspects of his Educational Philosophy

Some major concepts and thoughts, which he wove into the complex fabric of his
educational philosophy, are (Cole, 1931):
• Froebel said, “Let nature be your teacher” (Cole, 1931, p.263). He considered nature
as manifestation of God (Cole, 1931). He belied that spirit of God lays in nature and
develops it. The nature in all its diversity must be seen as a unity. The nature forms a
bond between child and his teacher as well as leads to the Creator (God). Therefore,
the children must be led to nature as they are led to the house of God.
• Froebel introduced the revolutionary ideal of kindergarten. The word kindergarten
means ‘the garden of children’. He considered school as garden, children as plants
and teacher as gardener. Children are quite similar to plants, which develop
according to their inborn faculties from within just like plants. He believed that the
role of teacher is like a gardener who has to water and nourish the plants.
• He introduced a new concept of education through play and games. Play occupies a
central position in his educational philosophy. He considers play as the purest and most
important activity for the young children. It provides happiness, joy, freedom, and

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 internal satisfaction to children. He believes that play should be properly organized. He
developed play materials and gifts for educating the children through play.
• Froebel considered human mind as fundamentally active and original. Human
beings are born with natural tendencies and powers. These powers for their
realization are not dependent on experience but upon some divine or spiritual gift.
Human mind is not a blank slate. They are not passive as well. They bring
something to experience but they do not get everything from experience. This leads
to two educational outcomes: (1) No teacher, even if he may controls complete
environment of the child, can make the mind of a child exactly as he likes. Human
mind is not plastic. (2) The soul of the child is transcendental (i.e. beyond the limits
of all possible experience and knowledge). It should be respected and given a high
degree of freedom. Freedom is a divine gift.

5.5.4 Kindergarten
Froebel improved his educational thoughts after his failure in Helba project, the decline
of Keilhau School and the limited successes achieved in Switzerland (Heiland, 1999). He
focused on family and considered it sacred. He developed play materials to improve
teaching leaning process of small children in families. Froebel wanted to make family as
the focal point of the education of man. He wanted to expedite ‘spherical education’ from
early childhood. This spherical education of infants and pre-school children was achieved
by using the play materials made by Froebel. This educational program later became the
kindergarten.

Froebel founded a school in 1837 at Blankenburg had the essential features of first
Kindergarten but the name Kindergarten was given to it in 1940. It is believed that, the
name Kindergarten came in his mind when he was going from Keilhau to Blankenburg
on a bright sunny day of spring season. When from the top of the hill he saw the valley of
Rinne stretched beneath like a beautiful garden. He said, “I have found it. Kindergarten
shall the name be”. (Singh, 2009, p.332).

Froebel considered childhood as the most important stage of human development. He

believed that, “The earliest age is the most important one for education, because the
beginning decides the manner of progress and the end” (Singh, 2009, p.332). Froebel
developed play materials and gifts for the early childhood stage such as ball, sphere, cube
and cylinder.

5.5.5 Education Through Play

In kindergarten, the professional educators or kindergarten nurses looked after small
children at play. The objective of kindergarten was to engage children in playful activities
that were according to nature, to strengthen their mind, bodies and senses. Froebel
believed that play was the most important activity of childhood. Froebel said, “Play is the
purest, most spiritual activity of man at this stage, and at the same time typical of human
life as a whole” (Cole, 1931, p.267). He believed that play gave joy, contentment,
freedom, internal and external recreation, as well as peace with the world.

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5.5.5.1 Gifts
In 1836, when Froebel came back to Germany, he already had some play material, which
he called ‘gifts’. In same year, he opened a special kind of toy factory to take care of the
Activity needs of children, at Blankenburg, in Germany.

Heiland (1999) writes that Froebel, “produced the first ‘gift’: six little woolen balls made
from threads in the colours of the spectrum; and the second one: wooden spheres and
cubes together with a cylinder; and finally the third one which consisted of a cube
subdivided into eight further small cubes. Froebel also made ‘cutout books’ and materials
for school tuition, e.g. a ‘self-learning language cube’ or spatial (mathematical) cube. A
‘self-teaching’ or ‘speaking’ cube meant that the surfaces of the cube carried transfers
containing information on the cube as a mathematical shape. This information also
pointed to different forms of speech” (p.11). These materials were very important with
respect to his theory of education through play. They established relationship between the
school and the kindergarten education.

The ‘self-teaching’ feature of kindergarten is clearly present in the Froebel’s innovative

play materials. The ‘gift’ teaches its properties and structure to the child, through play.
With the help of ‘gifts’ and ‘occupations’ designed for the pre-school children, Froebel
went beyond teaching materials and completed the self-taught phase by using games that
involved participation of the adults in plays of the children. They could provide
assistance to the child by suggestions and explanations when the child is busy in a
constructive work and playing. The educational games of Froebel are also a model of the
spherical education as they intend to shape the child, not only through ‘science’ but also
through active interaction with basic forms that clarify and symbolize, ‘general’ features
of the concerned objects.

5.5.5.2 Songs of Play for Mothers

The last major work of was, his ‘Songs of Endearment for Mothers’ that was published in
1844. It was a pedagogical system for the infants or 1- to 2-years old children that were
too young to attend the kindergarten. In these songs of loving words for mothers, Froebel
came very near to the everyday living world, which he represented in the scenes or
pictorial illustrations, nursery rhymes and finger game. Heiland, (1999) says,
“Experiences of the child’s everyday life are acted out through the perceived physical
medium of finger games or in illustrations. The mother plays the finger game and the
child is asked to imitate it. This book is a sequel to Pestalozzi’s Book for Mothers, but
moves beyond that author’s cognitive and schematic method” (p.12). Froebel provided
fifty song in his book. The songs were used to make the child capable to use his senses,
muscles and to get familiarize with the surroundings. The songs were helpful for child in
language learning. Every song was combined with a game. The teacher had to select the
song according to the development stage of the child. According to Singh (2009)the song
consisted of three parts.
1. A moto or slogan for guidance of the mothers
2. A verse along with music, and
3. A picture clarifying the song.

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The song for drill is given bellow:
1. Let us have a drill today,
2. March along grand array,
3. And whoever steps the best,
4. Shall be captain over the rest,
5. And lead us on our way.

5.5.6 Aim of Education

The objective of education can be derived from the educational theory of Froebel.
According to Froebel (1826) the aim of education is to guide and encourage man as a
conscious, perceiving and thinking being in such a way that he turns into a pure and
perfect image of that divine law by his own personal choice, and education should show
him the ways of achieving that goal.

5.5.7 Curriculum
Froebel emphasized on the preservation and promotion of individuality because it
promotes unity. He speaks about the principle of continuity in curriculum. This concept
means both sameness and difference. There must be continuity in those ideas, which have
some elements common and some uncommon elements between them; just as the
continuity of a chain depends upon the fact that part of each link overlaps part to the next,
but part does not overlap (Cole, 1931). It is a fact that mind moves from one idea to the
next due to common elements between them. Therefore, an idea based on parts A B C
may naturally be followed by an idea of having the parts A D E, owing to a common
element tending to reinstate in the mind any idea of which it forms a part (Cole, 1931).
This shows that according to Froebel, continuity is the fundamental principle, which must
be observed in curriculum, regarding the association of ideas and concepts.

Froebel believed that, subjects should not be considered as ends in themselves, they are
only contributory to the complete realization of the child’s personality. He also
recommended subjects like drawing, gardening and study of nature for the compressive
development of the children. He divided curriculum into these major areas:
i) Religion and religious instruction
ii) Natural science and mathematics
iii) Language
iv) Art and objects of art (Singh, 2009)

It is pertinent to mention here that Froebel laid much stress on the inclusion of physical
and manual training in school curriculum, because it is necessary for the personality
development of the child. He believed that every child or boy must devote at least one or
two hours to some serious physical activity every day.

5.5.8 Teaching Methodology

A carful study of Froebel’s works revels that his teaching methodology was based on
different kind of activities, problem solving, and learning by doing. According to Singh
(2009) Froebel engages the children in projects, problems solving and cooperative

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learning efforts for physical, mental and moral training. The teacher and student both
play an active role in the learning process. Sometime the teacher has to sing songs and
demonstrate some activities for the pupil. The job of teacher is very important. He has to
politely inculcate values of love, sympathy, cooperation, obedience, and humility into the
children. The teacher has to avoid form corporal punishment. According to Froebel,
“Control over the child is to be exercised through a knowledge of his interests and by the
expression of love and sympathy” (Singh, 2009, p.334).

5.5.9 Contribution of Froebel to Modern Education

According to Singh (2009), Froebel made these contributions to the modern education:
1. Froebel stressed the significance of play at the level of early education.
2. He laid stress on nursery/pre-school education.
3. He stressed on the need of studying the child’s nature and instincts.
4. He broadened the scope and concept of school as a social institution.
5. He considered school as a miniature society where pupils are trained in important
aspects of life. Here they learn the qualities like kindness, compassion, cooperation,
love, and sense of responsibility.
6. The inclusion of the study of nature in curriculum helped in developing the love for
nature in the pupils’ minds.
7. The gifts and physical works of kindergarten presented a fresh method of teaching.
8. Deferent gifts provided the sensory training.
9. There is enough scope for activity in kindergarten.

5.5.10 Criticism
There is some criticism on the kindergarten, from different authors. Singh (2009)
criticized Froebel’s kindergarten due to the following reasons:
1. Kindergarten lays much stress on the development from within. However, the
importance of the external environment has not been considered.
2. Froebel demands too much from the child. It is not possible for the child to
understand abstract concepts of organic unity while playing with the gifts.
3. The gifts are formal in nature and they do not serve their purpose of sense training.
4. It is not possible to agree with Froebel’s excessive emphasis on play in educational
process, because it may detract child form serious learning.
5. The songs specified by Froebel are outdated and cannot be used in all the present
day modern schools.

5.6 John Dewey (1859-1952)

John Dewey was born in 1859 in the city of Burlington, the cultural hub of Vermont State
of U.S.A. His father was a storekeeper. He graduated in 1879 from the University of
Vermont and served as a school teacher for some time. Later on, he enrolled in the
department of philosophy at Johns Hopkins University, where he came under the
influence of George S. Morris and received his Ph.D in 1884 with a thesis on Kant’s
Psychology (Westbrook, 1999). In 1889, he became head of the philosophy department at
the University of Michigan.

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Dewey was a great philosopher of this modern era and perhaps the most vibrant
propagator of pragmatism. He made significant contributions in the field of philosophy,
psychology, and education. He believed that Education was not preparation for life;
education was life itself, therefore, child's interests, instincts, and activities, should be the
starting point in education. Dewey was against the fragmentation of knowledge and
looked at education system as a comprehensive whole. He said, “The trinity of school
topics is subject matter, methods, and administration or government” (Dewey, 2001,
p.171). In other words, curriculum, teaching methodology, and administration are the
major pillars of education system. They should function collectively as a unified whole.
He was a prolific writer, who wrote more than 50 books and well over 800 articles
(Singh, 2009).

Dewey wrote many books and hundreds of articles some of his most renowned works
related to the field of education are:
1. Democracy and Education
2. How we Think
3. The school and Society
4. Experience and Education
5. Ethical principles underlying education
6. Philosophy of education
7. The child and the curriculum
8. My pedagogic creed

5.6.1 Pragmatism and Education

Dewey keenly observed the development of his own children, and after that, he was sure
that there was no difference in the dynamics of the experiences of children and adults. He
found that both children and adults were active beings and they learn when they face
problematic situations in their daily life activities (Westbrook, 1999). For both the
children and adults, the thinking ability was an instrument of solving problems, and
knowledge was an accumulation of wisdom that generate from problem solving.
Unfortunately, in those days, this theoretical perception of Dewey was being ignored in
American schools (Westbrook, 1999).

Dewey believed that children did not come to school as blank slates on which teacher
may write the lesson of civilization. Dewey (1899) believed that when child enter in
school, he is “already intensely active and the question of education is the question of
taking hold of his activities, of giving them direction” (p. 25). When the children start
their formal education in school they bring four basic instincts with them that are, (1) the
impulse to communicate, (2) to inquire, (3) to construct, and (4) to express in fine form.
According to Dewey, (1899) these were the “natural resources, the un-invested capital,
upon the exercise (use) of which depends the active growth of the child” (p. 30). The
students also bring their abilities and interests in school, and it is the duty of teacher to
use this raw material and guide their activities toward valuable results (Mayhew &
Edwards, 1966).

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Dewey's thoughts about education of the young children were based on following
principles:
• Education and life are interrelated, not separate.
• Children learn best by doing and by acting.
• The Continuity of experience is essential for growth. (www.scholastic.com)

5.6.2 Laboratory School: Combining Theory with Practice

Dewey developed a philosophy that demand for the unity of theory and practice
(Westbrook, 1999). Dewey’s philosophical thought was grounded in his moral belief that
the ‘democracy is freedom’ and he devoted his whole life for building an argument for
persuasion of his faith (Dewey, 1892). His commitment to education, democracy and the
integration of theory and practice is quite obvious from his career as an educational
reformer (Westbrook, 1999).

Dewey said, “The school is the one form of social life which is abstracted and under
control — which is directly experimental, and if philosophy is ever to be an experimental
science, the construction of a school is its starting point” (Dewey, 1896a, p. 244).
Dewey’s Laboratory School opened in January 1896, in the University of Chicago, for
materialization his philosophical thoughts into practice. In the beginning, the school had
only 16 students, 2 teachers, but later until 1903, it was imparting education to 140
students, with a highly trained staff of 23 teachers and 10graduate assistants. In this
laboratory school, Dewey tested his hypotheses related to functional psychology and
democratic ethics (Westbrook, 1999).

“At the center of the curriculum of the Dewey School was what Dewey termed the
‘occupation’, that is, ‘a mode of activity on the part of the child which reproduces, or
runs parallel to, some of work carried on in social life’ (Dewey, 1899, p. 92). Divided
into eleven age groups, the students pursued a variety of projects centered on particular
historical or contemporary occupations. The youngest children in the school, who were 4
and 5 years old, engaged in activities familiar to them from their homes and
neighborhoods: cooking, sewing and carpentry. The 6-year-olds built a farm out of
blocks, planted wheat and cotton, and processed and transported their crop to market. The
7-year-olds studied prehistoric life in caves of their own devising while their 8-year-old
neighbors focused their attention on the work of the sea-faring Phoenicians, on Robinson
Crusoe and adventurers, like Marco Polo, Magellan, and Columbus. Local history and
geography occupied the attention of the 9-yearolds, while those who were 10 years old
studied colonial history, constructing a replica of a room in an early American house. The
work of the older groups of children was less strictly focused on particular historical
periods (though history remained an important part of their studies) and centered more on
scientific experiments in anatomy, electro-magnetism, political economy, and
photography. The 13-year-olds built a substantial clubhouse when they could not find
another suitable place for their debate club to meet. Building the clubhouse was a group
effort that enlisted children of all ages in a cooperative project that was, for many, the
emblematic moment in the school’s history” (Westbrook, 1999, p.6).

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These occupational activities were not only focused on manual training and scientific
study of the materials but also on learning physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics,
geology, music, art, and languages. Dewey said, “the child comes to school to do; to
cook, to sew, to work with wood and tools in simple constructive acts; within and about
these acts cluster the studies—writing, reading, arithmetic, etc” (Dewey, 1896a, p. 245).
Reading skills were developed when the children know their usefulness in solving
problems, which they face during occupational activities. Dewey believed that if a child
understands the motive for acquiring the skill he is helped in a larger extent to secure the
skill, “Books and the ability to read are, therefore, regarded strictly as tools” (Mayhew &
Edwards, 1966, p. 26). The teachers like Anna Camp Edwards and Katherine Camp
Mayhew, who taught in Dewey’s Laboratory School, provided a complete account of that
wonderful educational experiment. These educators cited evidences of the substantial
success, which Dewey and his fellows achieved while translating his theories into
practice (Westbrook, 1999).

5.6.3 Aims of Education

Dewey did not believe in fixed and predefined aims of education. He stated that, “it is
well to remind ourselves that education as such has no aims” (Dewey, 2001, p.112). He
believed that everything was relative and contextual and there was no fixed reality in the
world. Every individual has a unique set of abilities and teacher must guide his student
according to his specific abilities and strengths. The development of every individual is
different with respect to his unique abilities and powers. Therefore, it is virtually
impossible to define specific aims of every individual child in advance. However, in a
broader perspective, Dewey believes that the development of child’s powers and abilities
is the aim of education (Singh, 2009). He thinks that it is better not to answer the question
of educational objectives, because it is harmful for the child to force him to follow some
predefined objectives, which do not match with his innate abilities. Dewey was against
those aims, which are forcefully imposed on teacher and student from the outside, and
considers them harmful “Even the most valid aims which can be put in words will, as
words, do more harm than good” (Dewey, 2001, p.112). A child must be free to choose
his path. Man is a social animal and cannot grow outside the society. The education
should aim at the development of social skills and expertise (Singh, 2009). In general, the
aim of education is to create an environment in which the child must have the chance to
contribute in the social awakening of the mankind. According to the Dewey’s pragmatist
school of thought, inculcation of democratic values like equal opportunity and
cooperation among individuals is a significant aim of education.

Dewey outlined the criteria for establishment of good educational aims. He believed that
the aim must be a natural result of present circumstances. It should consider the
prevailing situation, resources and problems. According to Dewey, “The aim set up must
be an outgrowth of existing conditions. It must be based upon a consideration of what is
already going on; upon the resources and difficulties of the situation” (Dewey, 2001,
p.109). In the light of his outlook, a good aim first assesses the current condition of
students’ experiences and makes a tentative plan of action that constantly stays in sight
however, necessary modifications can be made according to the changing circumstances.

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“The aim, in short, is experimental and hence constantly growing as it is tested in action”
(Dewey, 2001, p.110).

It is necessary to understand that good educational aims are flexible not rigid. According
to Dewey another significant characteristic feature of all the good educational aims is
that, “An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs
(including original instincts and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated”
(Dewey, 2001, p.113).

5.6.4 Curriculum
The interests and abilities of the child are very important. Curriculum should be
developed according to the interests and abilities of the students. Environment of the
school must be conducive for the development of social skills and personal abilities
among the students.

Dewey outlined these basic principles for curriculum (Singh, 2009):

• Proximity to life: The subjects included in curriculum should be closely linked with
the everyday life situations of the child. This proximity or nearness to life can
provide unity in knowledge as Dewey was against the compartmentalization and
fragmentation of knowledge.
• Flexibility: Dewey stressed on the flexibility of curriculum. He was against the
predetermined and ridged curriculum. Curriculum may be flexible enough to make
necessary changes according to the needs and interests of the students.
• Utility: Every subject included in curriculum must have some utilitarian value.
According to Dewey, “no subject or topic should be taught unless some quite
definite future utility can be pointed out by those making the course of study or by
the pupil himself” (Dewey, 2001, p.251). He was a pragmatist and strictly believed
in practical and material worth of education. The curriculum should include,
reading and writing, manual skills, counting, science, music and other arts, keeping
in view the specific stages of mental development of the students (Singh, 2009).
• Experiential: The curriculum should provide a variety of experiences to the
children. Different activities should be planned for them while designing the
curriculum. Curriculum should be relevant to the contemporary experiences of the
students.

5.6.5 Teaching Methodology

Dewey considers education as a dynamic and constructive process. He condemned
traditional teaching methods of poring information into the minds of students. In his
famous book, ‘Democracy and Education’ Dewey (2001) said, “In spite of the fact that
teaching by pouring in, learning by a passive absorption, are universally condemned, that
they are still so entrenched in practice? That education is not an affair of “telling” and
being told, but an active and constructive process, is a principle almost as generally
violated in practice as conceded in theory” (p.43-44). Dewey proposed pedagogical
principles like learning by doing that focus on problem solving and activity based
methods of teaching.

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Dewey believed that a child learns best when he performs the action by himself. The
teacher should not stuff information into students’ minds. Instead, he should guide and
facilitate his students towards those activities through which students could learn and
develop their own natural abilities. The children must be engaged in such activities in
which they try to solve different problems related to practical life.

5.7 Robert Maynard Hutchins (1899-1977)

Robert Maynard Hutchins was born on January 17, 1899 in Brooklyn, New York City
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016). His wife Maude Hutchins was renowned novelist. He
was a well-known American educational philosopher, who served as a dean of Yale Law
School and later became the president and chancellor of the University of Chicago. This
great American educator believed in lifelong learning, once said, “The object of
education is to prepare the young to educate themselves throughout their lives”
(www2.ed.gov).

After passing through Oberlin College at Ohio, the young Hutchings served in ambulance
service of American and Italian armies during the First World War. In 1921, he graduated
from the Yale University. For one and half year, he taught in a private school in Lake
Placid, New York. He completed his LLB in 1925 from the Yale Law School and
appointed as a lecture over there (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016). After two years, in
1927 he became a full professor. He was appointed Dean of the Law School in 1928.
Over there, he promoted the use of modern psychological studies to evaluate rules of
evidence (https://president.uchicago.edu).

In 1929, when he was almost 30 year old, he became president of the University of
Chicago. He stayed there until 1951, and during the last six years served this university as
chancellor. He reorganized the university’s departments for graduate and undergraduate
study into four divisions. His famous Chicago Plan for the undergraduates encouraged
the liberal education at earlier levels and measured achievement through comprehensive
examination instead of classroom time served. Hutchins introduced the study of Great
Books. He also argued about the objectives of higher education, condemned undue stress
on non-academic recreations, and criticized the tendency towards specialization and
vocational education (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016).

In 1946, Hutchins led the Commission on the Freedom of Press, and forcefully defended
academic freedom, and opposed faculty loyalty oaths. In 1959, he founded the Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions in Santa Barbara, California. This Center was an
effort to approach Hutchins’s ideal of “a community of scholars” deliberating on a wide
range of issues: individual freedom, ecological imperatives, international order, the rights
of women and minorities, and the nature of the good life, among others (Encyclopedia
Britannica, 2016). From 1943 to 1974, Hutchins served as a Director and the chairman of
the Board of Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. He died on May 14, 1977, Santa
Barbara, California, U.S.A.

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5.7.1 Major Works
Robert Maynard Hutching was a prolific author and some of his important works related
to education are:
1. The Higher Learning in America
2. No Friendly Voice
3. Education for Freedom
4. The Education We Need
5. The University of Utopia
6. Great Books: The Foundation of a Liberal Education
7. Gateway to the Great Books
8. Some Observations on American Education
9. The Learning Society

5.7.2 Aims of Higher Education

Hutchins was the president of Chicago University. He focused on intellectual and moral
development of society through higher education. He said, “The purpose of the university
is nothing less than to procure a moral, intellectual, and spiritual revolution throughout
the world” (https://president.uchicago.edu).

In 1937, an article of Hutchins titled as ‘Ideals in Education’ published in ‘The American

Journal of Sociology’, in which he eloquently expressed his philosophical thoughts and
principle aims of higher education. Hutchins (1937) said:

“The character of education is determined by the character of society. The

love of money, and the desire for freedom to make it and equality of
opportunity to pursue it, are the current ideals of the United States. The
consequences of these ideals in American education have been to emphasize
vocational education, to base the curriculum on obsolescent knowledge, to
omit the consideration of moral questions, and to sacrifice intellectual
development in favor of vocational techniques and the acquisition of
information. The educational system reconstructed according to the ideal of
the common good as determined in the light of reason will have as its
primary object the cultivation of the intellectual virtues” (p.1).

Hutchins believed that American society was very materialistic and moneymaking was its
main aim. Since the nature of education depends upon the character of society. Therefore,
the love for money or material pursuits was also being reflected in the educational aims
of the country through emphasis on vocational subjects, obsolescent (outdated)
information, and exclusion of ethical and moral subjects from the curriculum. He aimed
for intellectual, moral, and spiritual revolution in society through reconstruction of
education system (Hutchins, 1937). He believed that objective of education was to make
responsible citizens. “I suggest that the ideal that we should propose for the United States
is the common good as determined in the light of reason” (Hutchins, 1937, p.10).

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In his famous book ‘No Friendly Voice’ Hutchins, (1936a) summed up his educational
aims in these words:
“First, it assumes that everybody has a mind and that we must find out how to train it. Second, it
assumes that it is a good thing to train it. Certainly, I should be put to it to argue that a trained
mind will result in a large income. I have no difficulty in holding that it will result in a happy
and useful life. It will result in benefit to the individual and to the community.

It will do more. A program of general education resulting in trained minds will facilitate
social change and make it more intelligent. The educational system cannot bring about
social change. It cannot workout and imposes on the country a blueprint of the social
order desired by the teachers of colleges. But the educational system can facilitate social
change; it can make it more intelligent. A program of general education which is based
on ideas, which leads the student to understand the nature and schemes of history, to
grasp the principles of science, to comprehend the fine arts and literature, and to which
philosophy contributes intelligibility at every stage, is the kind of program that we must
now construct” (p.130-131).

He believed that basic purpose of education in a democratic country was to teach the
people to think for themselves or in other words, the purpose of education was to make
them able to think (Hutchins, 1936a). In democracies, education must develop this ability
in the people that they can understand, analyze, and evaluate what is being said to them
otherwise they will become victims or even the tools of the self-centered leaders.

5.7.3 Curriculum
Hutchins focused on the curriculum of higher education. He was an American educator
that criticized overspecialization and tried to balance college curriculum as well as to
retain the intellectual tradition of West. With respect to curriculum of higher education,
Hutchins (1937) believed that if the principal aim of education will be the common good
as determined in the light of reason, then cultivation of intellect would become the first
duty of the system. He suggested that cultivation of intellectual virtues could only be
accomplished through the communication of the intellectual tradition and through
training in the intellectual disciplines. Therefore, he believed that, “general education in
the college will center upon the communication of our intellectual tradition and upon
training in the intellectual disciplines of grammar, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics. The
university, excluding informational and vocational courses, will become an institution
where professors and students join in studying fundamental intellectual problems, those
of natural science, social science, and metaphysics or philosophy. The graduates of a
university so organized and so conducted should after three years of study have some
rational conception of the common good and of the methods of achieving it” (Hutchins,
1937, p.1). He further said that it did not mean exclusion of all contemporary materials.
They will also be brought in daily discussions to illustrate, accept, or reject the thoughts
and ideas of modern writers. The great books also deal with the topics of current
interests. The great books have this additional advantage of dealing with topics that are
always of current interest. The literature and fine arts constitute an important part of
intellectual heritage and be an important part of the curriculum (Hutchins, 1937).

110
Hutchins was against materialistic vocationalism in education. He wanted to remove
vocational subjects form university curriculum. He claimed that graduates of technical
institutions are likely to have outdated techniques (Hutchins, 1936a). Furthermore, if they
finally chose some other profession to earn their living, their complete technical
education will become a waste of time.

Hutchins was also against those subjects, which provide current knowledge and
contemporary information that becomes outdated after a short span of time. He quoted
Hendrik Van Loon, “In the present state of the world the educators might as well admit
that there is no stable or valid knowledge that can be communicated to the young
generation.” Hutchins (1937) said Mr. Van Loon was right: if the knowledge was the
information about contemporary scene, then the educators should stop-imparting
education because their task was hopeless and could not be completed. The body of
knowledge is so huge and the information is increasing so rapidly that it is virtually
impossible to provide all information about any subject or field to study within stipulated
time of degree completion. Therefore, the aim of education cannot be merely
communication of information.

He criticized those people who considered education as a way making money, for which
democracy meant that every child should be allowed to acquire education as a sign that
will be helpful in money-making (Hutchins, 1936b). He believed in cultivation of
intellect for its own sake. Therefore, he laid emphasis on the study of great books.
Hutchins, (1937) believed that “The ideas that are found in the books of great writers
through the ages may be important in understanding the environment today” (p.9).

Under the leadership of Hutchins, the University of Chicago included following subjects
in curriculum for its four-year Bachelor of Arts degree program:
First Year Second Year
1. Biological Sciences I, or Physical 1. Biological Sciences II, or Physical
Sciences I Sciences II
2. Social Sciences I 2. Social Sciences II
3. Humanities I 3. Humanities II
4. English I (Reading, Writing and 4. English II (Reading, Writing and
Criticism) Criticism)
Third Year Fourth Year
1. Physical Sciences III, or Biological 1. Observation, Interpretation and Integration
Sciences III 2. Open for special-interest courses, or for
2. Social Sciences III advanced work.
3. Humanities III 3. Open for special-interest courses, or for
4. English III (Composition) advanced work.
4. Open for special-interest courses, or for
advanced work.
(Small, 1946)
Above mentioned three-year course in natural sciences contained either two years of
biological sciences and one year of physical sciences, or two years of physical sciences

111
and one year of biological sciences. The biological sciences include botany and zoology
whereas the physical sciences include mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, and
geology (Small, 1946).

The three-year course in social sciences included: American history; analysis of social,
economic, and political institutions; and the study of problems of freedom and control in
contemporary society.

The humanities included literature, art, history, philosophy, and music.

The three-year English course focused on reading, writing, and developing skills in
composition. Those three years included narration, explosion, and exposition along with
argumentation respectively (Small, 1946).

The only course of ‘Observation, Interpretation, and Integration’ offered in the fourth
year to develop a holistic understating of all the three fields of physical sciences, social
sciences, and humanities. Students were taught to analyze and compare the methods of
acquiring, constructing, and testing the knowledge in these fields (Small, 1946).

5.7.4 Teaching Methodology

The basic objective of higher education was to develop understanding about how the
facts were acquired and interpreted through the reasoning process. In other words, the
college education was the practice of reasoning and examining arguments. With this
objective in mind students of Chicago University used to meet their instructors in small
groups to discuss and analyze the matter provided through lectures and reading
assignments. It was believed that a student understands a theory (or a fact) only when he
is able to justify its acceptance or rejection.

He believed that great books shaped the Western though therefore must be used as study
material. In his classic work ‘The University of Utopia’, he proposes that students should
be taught great books by using Socratic Method. In Socratic Method of dialogue teacher
keeps the discussion focused on the topic and guides students to stay way form logical
errors. In Socratic Method, reason is the final arbiter. In this method student reaches at
his own individual decision, instead of decision imposed by the teacher or class.

5.7.5 Evaluation System

Hutchins also proposed radical changes in the evaluation system. He did not approve the
prevailing credit system of grading students and considered it as the curse on American
education (Hutchins, 1936a). He was not interested in how much time students stays at
university. He believed that numerical grades could not tell the intellectual level of the
student. He thought that existing credit system merely tells about the student’s regular
attendance, good memory and his ability to understand the teacher.

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Hutchins offered a system of evaluation, which sets up goals for the students and required
him to understand that the method of reaching at the goal is immaterial. He introduced a
system of comprehensive or general examinations in which students would take the
exams when they will be ready for it, preferably through the external examiners
(Hutchins, 1936a). He considered it as the best program of measurement and said, “The
question is whether the student has mastered the material. Since the material covers more
than one course, it is impossible to create the delusion of mastery by mastering the
teacher’s habits or by memorizing little bits of information” (Hutchins, 1936 a, p.108).

5.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What do you know about Rousseau’s concept about education of nature?
2. What are the basic principles of Pestalozzi’s educational Philosophy, also explain
his concept of anschauung?
3. According to Pestalozzi, what is the primary aim of education?
4. What are the major aspects of Frobel’s Educational Philosophy?
5. What are the basic principles for curriculum development according to John
Dewey?
6. What is the aim of education according to Robert Maynard Hutchins and how it
affects the curriculum?

5.9 Bibliography
Cahn, S.M. (1970). Philosophical Foundations of Education. New York: Harper & Row.
Cole, P.R. (1931). A History of Educational Thought. London: Oxford University Press.
Curren, R. (2007). Philosophy of Education: An Anthology. Malden, MA USA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Dewey, J. (2001). Democracy and Education. Hazleton: The Pennsylvania State University.
Dewey, J. (1899). The School and Society. In: Middle Works of John Dewey. Carbondale,
IL, Southern Illinois University Press, 1976. vol. 1, p. 1-109.
Encyclopedia Britannica, (2016)http://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Maynard-
Hutchins retrieved on 05.05.2016.
Froebel, F. 1826. Die Menschenerzie hung [On the education of man].Leipzig: Wienbrack.
Gutek, G.L. (2004). Philosophical and Ideological Voices in Education. Boston: Pearson
Education.
Heiland, H. (1999). Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852). Prospects: the Quarterly Review of
Comparative Education, (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol.
XXIII, no. 3 / 4, p. 473–91.
Hutchins, R.M. (1937). Ideals in Education. The American Journal of Sociology, 43 (1), 1-15.
Hutchins, R.M. (1936 a).No Friendly Voice. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Hutchins, R.M. (1936 b).The Higher Learning in America. New Haven, Connecticut:
Yale University Press.
Lange, W. 1862. Friedrich Fröbels Gesammel Tepädagogische Schriften. ErsteAbteilung:
Friedrich Fröbel in Seiner Erziehungals Mensch und Pädagoge. Bd. 1: Aus Fröbels
Leben und Erstem Streben. Autobiographie und Kleinere Schriften[Friedrich Fröbel’s
collected educational writings. first part: Friedrich Fröbel’s education as a human being

113
and teacher. Vol. 1: On Fröbel’s life and early endeavors. autobiography and short
texts].Berlin: Enslin.
Mayhew, K. C. & Edwards, A. C. (1966).The Dewey school. New York: Atherton.
Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of Education. Boulder, Colorado: West view Press.
Pestalozzi, J. H. (1894) How Gertrude Teaches her Children Translated by Lucy, E.
Holland and Frances C. Turner. Edited with an Introduction by Ebenezer Cooke. London:
Swan Sonnenschein. A new Translation by Michel Soetard should, Hopefully, Appear in
the near Future.
Rousseau, J.J. (1906). Emile: Or Concerning Education. Lexington, Massachusetts: D. C.
Heath, University of Virginia. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oa1KAAAAYAAJ&q.
Silber, K. (1965) Pestalozzi.: The Man and his Work (2nd edition), London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
Singh, Y.K. (2009). Philosophical Foundations of Education. New Delhi: A P H
Publishing Corporation.
Small, J. F (1946).The Philosophy of Education of Robert Maynard Hutchins. Chicago,
Illinois: Loyola University of Chicago. http://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_theses/371.
Soetard, M. (2000). Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827), Prospects: the quarterly
review of comparative education, (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education),
vol. XXVI, no. 1/2, 1994,p. 297–310.
Westbrook, R.B. (1999).John Dewey (1859-1952), Prospects: the quarterly review of
comparative education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIII,
no. 1\2, 1993, p. 277-91.
William H. Kilpatrick in his introduction to Heinrich Pestalozzi (1951) The Education of
Man - Aphorisms, New York: Philosophical Library.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1085686?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents retrieved on
05.05.2016.
https://president.uchicago.edu/directory/robert-maynard-hutchins retrieved on 05.05.2016.
https://www2.ed.gov/offices/OPE/AgenProj/report/conclusion.html retrieved on 08.05.2016.
http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/pioneers-our-field-john-dewey-father-
pragmatismretrieved on 08.05.2016.
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2319/Pestalozzi-Johann-1746-1827.html
retrieved on 28.04.2016.
http://www.heinrich-
pestalozzi.de/en/documentation/fundamental_ideas/education/index.htm, retrieved on
27.04.2016.
http://www.angelfire.com/mi2/theteach/Edu/EduThinkers.html, retrieved on dated
28.04.2016
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi, retrieved on
dated 28.04.2016.
http://www.bruehlmeier.info/biography.htm, retrieved on 27.04.2016.

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Unit 6

PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES IN
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Written By: Miss Mubashera Tufail

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani

115
6.1 Introduction
Constitution of Pakistan (1973) declares that the State shall provide free and compulsory
education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years (Article 25). Elementary
education serves as a foundation for progress to higher levels of education. It occupies a
very important place in an education system because it provides basic knowledge and
skills to children. Due to this reason, various national plans and educational policies has
focused on it. Various government bodies and organization play a key role in the
provision of elementary education. In this unit, we are going to study about the various
government bodies involved in providing elementary education. We will also look into
various challenges and problems that elementary education in Pakistan is going through.

6.2 Objectives
After studying the unit, you will be able to:
1. to describe various agencies involved in elementary education
2. to explain the role various agencies of education playing in the provision of
elementary education
3. to develop an understanding of various challenges and problems in elementary
education
4. to discuss the solutions to deal with problems and challenges in elementary
education

6.3 Institutions Involved in Elementary Education

After 18th amendment, education has now become a provincial matter. Each province
independently sees its education matters. In every province, school education
department’s function to supervise the elementary education. There are some institutions
working in collaboration with school department for teacher training. Additionally,
Institutes of Education & Research (IERs) involves in pre-service teacher education
through contributing their input in teacher training and research work. Institutes of
Education & Research (IERs) in various universities to contribute inquiry and research-
based knowledge in the field of teacher education.

6.3.1 Punjab
In Punjab, Schools Education Department looks after the matters for elementary
education. The functions of school education department are as follows:
i) Policy formulation and implementation for elementary education.
ii) Supervising the curriculum formulation process, production and publication of
textbooks.
iii) Distribution of free textbooks.
iv) Ensuring quality education through Punjab Education Assessment System
v) Grant of scholarships

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vi) Staff development through pre-service, in-service and continuous professional
development

Schools education department is affiliated with certain affiliated organizations including

Directorate of Staff Development (DSD), Punjab Textbook Board, Punjab Examination
Commission, Punjab Education Foundation and The Punjab Danish Schools and Centers
of Excellence. Directorate of Staff Development serves as institution for pre-service and
in-service training of public school teachers. It includes 30 Elementary Colleges for pre-
service teacher education. It has a network of training and support centers for in-service
training for teachers and head teachers.

Directorate of
Staff
Development

Punjab
Danish Punjab
Schools and Textbook
Centres of Board
Excellence SED

Punjab

Punjab Punjab
Education Examination
Foundation Commission

6.3.2 Sindh
In Sindh, schools education department function to deal matters related to elementary
education. Its functions include:
i) Arrange and manage elementary education
ii) Supervise human resources of education department
iii) Assume responsibility for capacity building of teachers
iv) Grant scholarships

For teacher training in Sindh, Sindh Teachers Education Authority (STEDA) has been
established to oversee and regulate the teacher training activities. It maintains standards
for training and training providers. It provides training to teachers through various
teacher education institutes such as government colleges of education, elementary

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colleges for education, district education technology resource center and government in-
service teacher training institutes.

6.3.3 Khyber Pakhtunkhuwa

The elementary and secondary education department in Khyber Pakhtunkhuwa performs
following functions:

1. Formulation of policies and strategies for school education and literacy

2. Preparation of Annual Development Program (ADP) for elementary and secondary
education sector.
3. Improvement of literacy and standards at primary and secondary education level.
4. Dealing with matters of Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE)
and public schools.

For teacher training in Khyber Pakhtunkhuwa, Provincial Institute of Teacher Education

(PITE) train teachers in effective instructional strategies. It also trains education
managers in management, supervision and assessment. Provincial Institute of Teacher
Education (PITE) prepares masters trainers for continuous teacher support. Provincial
Institute of Teacher Education (PITE) works with Regional Institutes for Teacher
Education (RITE) and Institute of education and Research (IER) of universities for
teacher training.

6.3.4 Balochistan
Elementary education comes under Education department of Balochistan. Education
department works on development of standards, curricula and textbooks. Education
department function through its various institutes such Policy Planning and
Implementation Unit, Bureau of Curriculum and Extension Centre, and Directorate of
Education. Provincial Institute for Teacher Education (PITE) offers services for in-
service teacher education.Government colleges for elementary education and department
of education in universities offer pre-service teacher education programs.

6.3.5 Baltistan Region and Azad Jammu & Kashmir

Directorate of education in Baltistanregion and, School education department in Azad
Jammu and Kashmir works to provide accessible and quality education to people.

Dear Students! We have studied about different institutions involved in the provision of
elementary education. We have also read about the institutes which provide pre-service
and in-service training to elementary teachers. Now let us study about the current
situation of elementary education in the country.

6.4 Analysis of the Present Scenario about Education

A number of goals and targets for free and compulsory primary and secondary education
were set in national education policies and national plans (Bengali, 1999). The purpose
behind provision of free and compulsory primary education was set to provide equal
opportunity to all for economic and cultural advancement. A number of steps have been

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planned to provide quality education service to common people such as providing
physical infrastructure in schools, curricular reforms etc. However, the achievement of
those national goals was not possible due to some challenges/problems in elementary
education such as low enrolment, high dropout, shortage of trained teachers etc.

On April 2000, Pakistan has signed Dakar Framework of Action (also Millennium
Development Goals i.e., MDGs) along with other 164 countries which affirmed to
achieve Education for All (EFA) goals up to 2015. Education for All (EFA) goals states
that boys, girls and all disadvantaged groups of the society have equitable access to
compulsory and free quality primary educationby2015, and to eliminate gender disparity
by 2015.Substantial progress has been made on the MDGs, showing the value of a
unifying agenda underpinned by goals and targets. However, the analysis of present
condition showed that Pakistan has not fully achieved those goals. In addition, the
education has become a provincial matter after 18th amendment; so, it is the need of the
time to harmonies the provincial efforts for education to achieve national goals.

Now, Pakistan has committed to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by

2030. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by the countries who were
member of United Nations. The purpose of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to
eliminate poverty, inequality and injustice from the world up to 2030. One of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is related to education. The SDGs related to
education states that up to 2030, all boys and girls complete compulsory and free quality
primary and secondary education. In addition, supply of qualified teachers must be
increased up to 2030. It is also aimed in SDGs to eliminate gender disparity in education
and ensure equal access to all levels of education including persons with disabilities,
native people and children in vulnerable situations. It is very necessary to study about the
challenges and problems in elementary education in Pakistan so that we can think about
possible solutions to solve those problems and challenges.

Dear students! We have gone through the present scenario of education within the
country. During the analysis of present scenario, we came to know that certain challenges
make it difficult to achieve national goals for Education for All (EFA). Now, let us see
what were those challenges and problems?

6.5 Challenges of Elementary Education

Pakistan is facing serious challenges for the provision of free and compulsory education
to its citizens. There is a big difference in provinces/areas, location (rural vs urban) and
gender related to literacy rate, accessibility to education and equity/equality for
education. A number of steps have been taken for providing education to masses such as
hiring new teachers, providing training facilities, charging no tuition fee from children,
increasing pay of teachers etc. Though steady progress has been noticed during last few
decades. At present, about one third of primary age children are out of school and 42%
population (above 10 years age) is illiterate. More than half of the women population
(53%) cannot read and write; 34% girls remained out of school.

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6.5.1 Accessibility
Accessibility means easy to reach or obtain. Access to education refers to providing equal
opportunities to all people for participation in education. Every child has a right to have
access to education. Government has formulated a policy to provide accessible and
affordable quality education for all. However, budgetary constraints and weak
management draws attention to lack of access to education. In this context, Pakistan is
required to meet the challenge of providing free and compulsory basic education to all
children and adults by utilizing all the available resources.

For estimating accessibility to education, total number of enrollment and number of out
of school children are considered. Enrolment is the first step towards participation of
children in learning.

Comparing the enrollment of girls and boys over 06 years (2009-10,2010-11, 2011-12,
2012-13, 2013-14, 2014-15) shows that enrollment decreased by 8.20% and 4.63%.
Similarly a comparison of 06 years of enrollment in middle school shows that there was
an increase of 5.77% for boys and 12.73% for girls. Except the enrollment of girls at
middle school level, enrollment at both primary and middle school level do not show
significant increase over period of six years. This depicts an alarming situation because
without gradually increasing enrollment of children, Pakistan cannot achieve Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030.

Figure 6.1: Comparison of 06 years Enrollment in Primary Schools (Pakistan Education

Statistics, 2014-15)

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Figure 6.2: Comparison of 06 Years Enrollment in Middle Schools (Pakistan Education
Statistics, 2014-15)

At present, one third (1/3) of primary school-aged children and nearly half of the middle
school-aged children are out of school. Gender wise difference also exists with more girls
being out of school at primary and middle school level (as shown in Table 6.1).

Table 6.1: Out of School Children

Out of School Children Male Female Total
Out-of-school children (Primary Classes: 1-5) 22% 34% 28%
Age Group: 5-9+
Out-of-school Children (Middle Classes: 6-8) 48% 57% 53%
Age Group: 10-12+
(Pakistan Education Statistics, 2014-15)

Lack of infrastructure, remote locations, cost and availability of electricity and

computers, and other related societal and political factors affects access to education. The
lack of access to education would result in widening the gap between poor and rich which
will ultimately lead to inequality.

6.5.2 Drop Out

Drop out refers to children who were enrolled in school but left school before its
completion due to certain reasons. Drop out affects national goal of accessibility of
education for all. In 2012-13, 66.8% children continued their education till Class V
and 33.2% children drop out before completing primary school (Table 6.3). A
comparison of percentage of pupils completing their primary school over a couple of
years showed that drop out is minimized to some extent. However, a drop out of 33.2% is
a very large number which must be controlled.

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Table 6.3: Percentage of Children who Continued Their Education till Class-V
2001-02 2005-06 2009-10 2012-13
Pakistan 59% 47.8% 57% 66.8%
(Ministry of Education, Training and Standards in Higher Education, 2014)

There is a large stock of 6.7 million out-of-school children. Along with a large number of
out of school children, 33.2% drop out is a major obstacle in achieving Education for All
(EFA) goals.

The reasons for drop out of children are extreme poverty, shortage of schools, lack of
trained and motivated teachers, low quality of education, natural disasters, poor law and
order situation. There is a need to resolve the underlying causes of drop out so that
education can be made accessible for masses of children.

6.5.3 Gender
Males and females have socially constructed roles and responsibilities. The difference in
roles and responsibilities among males and females originates from our families, societies
and culture. Gender inequality refers to inequality in conditions among women and men
for realizing their full human rights and potentials.

All girls and boys, from all walks of life, can gain access to and complete as many
education levels as they wish and achieve high levels of learning. Furthermore, if all
children get proper education then it will help to defeat inequality on a global level. Gender
inequality is also observed education. If we eliminate gender discrimination against females
in schools, then we can empower 50% of the world’s population i.e., females.

According to Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Survey (2013-
14), literacy rate of Pakistan is 81% for men in comparison to 66% for women in urban
areas. There is significant difference in access to education between girls and boys in
Pakistan. School attendance is also much higher for boys than for girls. A comparison of
net enrollment rate at primary level over a number of years showed clear difference in
enrollment for males and females (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4: Gender wise Net Enrollment Rate at Primary Level

Year Male NER (%) Female NER (%)
2000-01 67.5 45.8
2005-06 56 48
2008-09 61 54
2013-14 69 60
(PSLM Surveys: as cited in UNESCO, 2010; PSLM, 2013-14)

Pakistan has higher number of schools for boys than for girls, and higher number of male
teachers than female teachers. The rural areas of Pakistan have lower percentage of
female teachers. There are three reasons for less number of female teachers in rural areas:

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(i) there are fewer schools for girls in rural areas (ii) unavailability of educated women
within the local community (iii) security problems, poor housing and transport in rural
areas which discourage non-local women from working in such areas.

Achieving gender equality in education requires ensuring equal opportunities to seek

education and equitable treatment within school. It requires equal scholarship/stipends for
gaining an education. It also includes having equal opportunities in terms of employment
and civic participation in society and equal pay.

6.5.4 Rural-Urban Disparity

According to Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Survey 2013-
14, literacy remains higher in urban areas (74 percent) than in rural areas (49 percent).
There are large differences in enrollment of students in rural and urban areas at primary
and middle level. 84% children in rural areas were enrolled in primary schools as
compared to 103% children in urban areas in year 2013-14. Only 47% children in rural
areas were enrolled in middle schools as compared to 69% children in urban areas.
Without eliminating the differences in the enrollment of children in rural and urban areas,
it would be difficult to achieve the national goal of equitable access to education for all.

Table 1.4: Enrollment and Literacy Rate in Rural and Urban Areas
2013-14
S/No. Indicator Urban Rural Total

1. Primary School Enrollment (Age Group 5-9 years) 103% 84% 90%
3. Middle School Enrollment (Age Group 10-12 69% 47% 55%
Years)
5. Literacy Rate 10 Years & Older 74% 49% 58%
(PSLM 2005-06 & 2013-14)

6.5.5 Equity/Equality
Equality in education means that all students have same access and receive exactly the
same education in all parts of the country. Considering the large amount of diversity across
the country, equality cannot be achieved. However, we must struggle to achieve equity-
fairness under given circumstances. In Education, equity reflects the extent to which access
and opportunities for children and adults are equal and fair. This means reducing the
differences on the basis of poverty, residence, ethnicity, language, location, or other
characteristics. There are two important aspects which must be considered in equity: gender
related equity and region related. Gender equity refers to equity in conditions in which men
and women enjoy their rights and potentials. Region related equity means providing
equitable opportunities to people living in disadvantaged regions equity.

In Pakistan, more than half of the children in Balochistan, FATA, Sindh are not attending
school. About half of the children in Punjab, Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Jammu & Kashmir
are out of school. 42.7% boys and 52.3% girls (age 5-16 years) are out of school.

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The educational system of Pakistan is based on unequal lines which directly affect quality
of education, especially at primary school level. The education system of Pakistan is
divided into public, private and madrassa education. Thus, the education system of
Pakistan is divided on the lines of the socio-economic status of the people. In so doing, it
has been the cause of limiting other recipients to access quality education while
benefitting others. Medium of education is different in both, public and private sector
schools. This creates a sort of inequality among people, dividing them into two segments:
English medium and Urdu medium.

Dear students! It is very important to deal with the above mentioned challenges. So, that
Pakistan can provide education to its each and every citizen. For this purpose, we have to
examine the problems which underlie the challenges of elementary education.

6.6 Problems in Elementary Education

Alongwith above mentioned issues, elementary education in Pakistan also faces certain
problems. Besides low budgetary allocations (2% of GDP) to education, several other
factors have been quoted as responsible for the slow progress in education
indicators: (i) shortage of schools especially for girls and also in remote and far
flung areas; (ii) shortage/absenteeism of teachers; (iii) lack of qualified and trained
teachers; (iv) missing facilities such as water , toilets and boundary walls; (v) weak
supervision; and a host of out-of-school factors such as conservative and tribal culture;
insecurity and lawlessness; and poverty, compelling a large number of boys to
work rather than attend school.

6.6.1 Insufficient Financial Resources

Quality of education can significantly be improved through provision of appropriate
amount of funds. Government of Pakistan is currently spending 2.1 percent of its GDP on
education sector and is fully committed to enhance education spending from 2.1 percent
of GDP to 4.0 percent of GDP by 2018. Historically, Pakistan has been allocating
insufficient financial resources for education. Although, it has been decided a number of
times to raise its education budget up to 4% of GDP, but on average, spending has
remained around 2% of GDP during last 20 years. It has been urged to raise the share for
education from 2 % to 4 % GDP. Insufficient financial resources hindered the efforts of
education departments to open more schools, provide missing facilities in schools and
offer incentives/scholarships/stipends to girls from poor families.

The finances allocated to education also remain unutilized due to fear of audit. So,
Government shall move from financial audit to performance/output based audit system. It
is also necessary to address the inequities in the distribution of funds and focus on
disadvantaged groups/areas.

Primary education is still not completely free. Parents have to pay some amount as school
fund. They also bear expenditure to buy notebooks and other stationary items for their
children. As a result, children from marginalized groups especially girls from rural areas
became deprived from education due to financial problems.

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6.6.2 Lack of Infrastructure
The availability of adequate infrastructure is necessary for providing quality education.
Drinking water, toilet, electricity, building and boundary wall are basic facilities to be
available in schools. There is a lack of infrastructure such as building, boundary wall,
electricity, and drinking water in schools. Water is basic necessity of life. Availability of
clean drinking water is an essential need of young children attending school. However,
63% primary and 81% middle schools have facility of drinking water. 65% primary and
84% schools have the basic facility of toilet. In summer season, non-availability of
electricity affects the performance of teachers as well as students especially in hot areas.
51% primary and 76% middle schools have electricity. The boundary wall has gained
increased importance due to law and order problems especially in case of female
institutions; 67% primary and 84% middle schools have their boundary wall (Table 6.6).

Table 6.6: Availability of Physical Facilities in Public sector Schools

Availability of Physical Facility 2014-15
S/No.
(Public sector Schools) Primary Schools Middle Schools
1. Drinking Water 63% 81%
2. Toilet 65% 84%
3. Electricity 51% 76%
5. Boundary Wall 67% 84%
(Pakistan Education Statistics, 2014-15)

6.6.3 Lack of Trained Teachers

There is a consensus amongst all stakeholders that the quality of teachers in the public
sector is unsatisfactory. Poor quality of teacher in the system is due to the changes in
governance, an outdated pre-service training structure and a less than adequate in-service
training regime. Presence of incompetence in such a huge quantity and infusion of
malpractices in the profession have eroded the exalted position once enjoyed by teachers.
Teaching has become the employment of last resort of most educated young persons,
especially males.

There is a need to deal with shortage of trained and qualified teachers, and teachers’
absenteeism. There is a shortage of training opportunities for teachers. Continuous
Professional Development Programmes for teachers focusing on learning outcomes and
quality education are to be developed. These programs must be developed on three years
cyclic basis as proposed in National Education Policy (2009). Professional Development
programme may cover pedagogical, subject content knowledge and use of ICT to
facilitate teaching and learning process in the classroom.
Reform is required in all areas: pre-service training and standardization of qualifications;
professional development, teacher salary, career progression and status and governance
and management of the teaching workforce. The growth of private sector is adding new
complexities to the teaching profession and needs to be taken into account in any reform
of the system. Governments shall take steps to ensure that teacher recruitment,
professional development, promotions and postings are based on merit alone.

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6.6.4 Curriculum
Outdated curriculum for elementary education has no link to market demand. Rote-
learning based assessment. Assessment system currently suffers from several deficiencies
in promoting quality education. The one with more sinister outcomes is the practice of
rote learning which stops the mental growth of the child and blocks innovative learning.
Efforts have to be made to address this issue and need for inculcating critical and
analytical thinking skills for producing life-long independent learners have to be
emphasized. Assessment mechanism should be such that analytical thinking and critical
reflections are tapped and encouraged. The recent work of the National Education
Assessment System and the Punjab Examination Commission shall be continued and
further in reforming the system across the country.

6.6.5 Socioeconomic Factors

Poverty, insecurity, law and order, conservative and tribal culture are the problems in the
way of providing elementary education to all children (Ministry of Education, Training
and Standards in Higher Education, 2014).Poverty hampers boys and girls from seeking
education. As education is still not completely free. Further, there is a shortage of female
teachers in schools of rural areas. Additionally, the girls face limited opportunities to go
to schools in areas destroyed by fighting in conflict zones. The reason is the law and
order situation. The insecure areas are also less attractive to female teachers due to
security problems.

6.6.6 Multiple Systems of Education

In addition to public sector schools, private sector caters for educational needs of about
one third enrolled children having diverse streams. Some of these private sector schools
follow public sector national curricula, while others adopt curricula of Cambridge
International Examinations.

The high cost private schools offer foreign curricula and international examination
systems (O and A levels) and are staffed with qualified and trained teachers, well-
equipped classrooms, all essential facilities of good quality, and imported teaching-
learning materials. In addition to the public and private schools, there is another
stream of 'Deeni Madrassas'(Religious Schools) offering free religious education and
basic education with free boarding and lodging. These parallel systems of education
may cause for behavioral divisions and economic stratifications in the society. There is a
need for a uniform system of education which involves public schools, private schools
and madrassas in line with national goals. So, any student whether coming from a public
sector school, madrassas or a private school has equitable opportunities for further
education and employment.

Dear Students! Now we have come to know about various problems in elementary
education. Let us discuss some possible solution which can help to solve the problems in
elementary education.

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6.7 Solutions of Problems in Elementary Education
Some of the solutions to above mentioned problems are given below:

6.7.1 Spend More on Education

More financial allocations may be reserved for education to provide missing facilities and
to build more schools.

6.7.2 Build More Schools & Train More Teachers

Building more schools is needed to enroll each and every child into the school. Further,
the training of teachers must be conducted after a regular period of three years so that
they can be equipped with better knowledge and skills.

6.7.3 Make Primary Education Free and Compulsory for Both Girls & Boys
Although there is no tuition fee in schools, yet the primary education is not completely
free. Parents have arranged for notebooks, stationary items and uniform for their children.
To increase the public access to education, elementary education may be completely free
and compulsory for girls and boys.

6.7.4 Introduce Flexible School Timings & Region Specific School Calendars
The children who contribute in their family income or livelihood, cannot attend school in
the morning especially girls who are engaged in household or farm work during typical
school hours. In order to reach those children, it may be useful to introduce flexible
school timetables and school calendars while keeping in view the regional/local needs.

6.7.5 Improve Advocacy

A television and radio campaign may be conducted to highlight the importance of
education for both girls and boys. In this way, parents can be encouraged to send their
children especially girls to school.

6.7.6 Establish a Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanism

A monitoring and evaluation system should be established to eliminate corrupt elements
and corrupt practices in education. In this way, non-functional schools and literacy
centers may be made functional.

6.7.7 Improve Coordination

Consultations with relevant departments, elected representatives, donors, civil society
organizations and communities must be conducted on regular basis. So that education
system may be made accessible to all children and to meet the needs of the students.

6.7.8 Ensue Policies Supporting Equal Opportunities for Education, Employment

and Equal Wages
It is important to take necessary steps to provide equal opportunities for males and
females in education, employment and salary.

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Dear Students!
We have discussed challenges and problems in elementary education. Accessibility to
education, gender related challenges, drop out, rural-urban disparities and equity related
challenges comprise major challenges of elementary education. There are numerous
problems behind these challenges: insufficient numbers of teachers being trained,
outdated curriculum, lack of financial resources and lack of infrastructure. Some
possible solutions have also been suggested at the end of unit. Not every country can
easily obtain access to elementary education, particularly in developing countries.
However, access to quality elementary education is very crucial for the progress of a
country. Because the provision of quality education is the solution to unemployment,
poverty and many other problems.

6.8 Activity
Visit your nearby school:
i. Observe and note down the facilities available there. Also highlight the facilities
which are missing in the school.
ii. Ask from teachers and students about the problems faced by them.
iii. Suggest some possible solutions for the problems mentioned by the teachers and
students.

6.9 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is EFA?
2. Define drop out.
3. What are the causes for lack of access to education?
4. Differentiate between equity and equality in education.
5. What do you understand by gender inequality?

6.10 Exercises
1. Discuss in details the challenges of elementary education.
2. What institutions are involved in elementary education and teacher training in the
country? Elaborate.
3. What are the problems at elementary education level in Pakistan? How we can
solve these problems?

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tudies%20March%2014%202016.pdf

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Retrieved from
http://unesco.org.pk/education/documents/2015/GMR_Launch/Press_Release_EN.pdf

UNESCO. (2010). Why Gender Equality in Basic Education in Pakistan. Retrieved from
http://unesco.org.pk/education/documents/publications/Why%20Gender%20Equality%20
in%20Basic%20Education%20in%20Pakistan.pdf

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Unit 7

ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL
ORGANIZATION IN EDUCATION

Written By: Miss Abida Latif

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani

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7.1 Introduction
A professional association or organization is usually a nonprofit organization seeking
to a specific profession in accordance with the individuals’ interest as well as the
interest of public.

Professional organizations have several different roles to perform, so variety of

definitions exists as “ A group of people who are involved in an educated profession and
maintain control over occupational practice and also a body acting for the safety of the
public interest to represent the involvement of professional practitioners and to maintain
their honored and strong position as a controlling body” (Harvey, L., 2004; Harvey, L.,
Mason, S. & Ward, R., 1995).

It has been observed that there are many professional associations or organizations those
play significant role in the improvement and progress of programs that are related to
education. These organizations update the skills by advance trainings and issue
professional certificates in the specific subject. Membership of a professional body may
serve as the main base for beginning of a professional practice.

Professional associations related to public relations all over the world search to improve
the professional field work and provide assistance for the improvement of profession and
practitioners as well. Their aim is to encourage set standards of profession and ethical
principles, to provide a structure for discussion, to find a universally accepted definition
and to enhance the credibility of the profession.

7.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, it is hoped that you will be able to:
1. describe the purposes of Professional Organization of Teacher
2. know the activities of Professional Organization of Teacher
3. understand the history of national Education Association (NEA)
4. know the objectives and policies of NEA
5. become familiar with the Teacher Education Institutions
6. illustrates the functions of University of Education
7. describe the functions Directorate of Staff Development
manipulate the functions of Provincial Institute of Teacher Education

7.3 Professional Organization in Education

Objectives of Professional Teacher Organizations
1. To obtain associations of teachers into relations of mutual assistances and
cooperation.
2. To obtain all the rights they are entitled.
3. To raise the standards of teaching profession by securing the conditions essential to
the best Professional service.
4. To promote the welfare of the children of the national by providing progressively
better educational opportunity.

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5. To promote such a democratization of the schools as well enable them better to
equip their pupils to take their places in the industrial, social and political life of the
community.
6. To fight all forms of racism in education.

Major Priorities of Professional Teacher Organizations

The teacher organizations must be broadly representative of the professionalism and must
give teachers the legal right to do at least the following:
1. Make and enforce policy decisions related to initial licensure and advanced
credentialing of all educational professional.
2. Determine, adopt and enforce accreditation standards for initial graduate and in-
service teacher education.
3. Develop and adopt a code of ethics and rules of procedure in accordance with
established concepts of due process.
4. Enforce standards of teaching practice and ethical conduct.

For further detail, please read the following referred material.

Surekha Khokhar Role of Teacher Organizations Towards Teacher
and Chirag Accountability,
(2012) AJMR Asian Journal of Multidimensional Research Vol.
1Issue 4.PP. 199-203

7.4 National Education Association (NEA)

The National Education Association (NEA) is the oldest and leading professional
organization. It was established in 1857 in Philadelphia and currently located at
Washington, D.C. from 2001.Its purpose is to promote public education including well-
being of its members. More than 2.6 million elementary and secondary school teachers,
college faculty, educational support of professionals, school administrators, retired
educators and students preparing to become teachers are included in the membership of
NEA organization.

History
NEA was established to raise the standard, to promote the interest of teaching profession
and to spread the education in United States. In 1870 the National Teachers Association
(NTA) was amalgamated with the National Association of School Superintendents and
the American Normal School Association to form the National Educational Association.
In 1886 organization was integrated with District of Columbia as the National Education
Association, and in 1906 it was chartered by an act of Congress. The name of NEA was
officially set down at the association’s annual meeting in 1907. In the NEA charter, the
original statement in which purpose of the organization was highlighted of National
Teachers Association received no changes.

NEA was shifted to Washington D.C. in 1917 and in 1920 its permanent headquarter was
established. NEA improved efforts to arrange teachers’ professional organizations at both
the state and local school district level. Every teacher has to participate at three levels of

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work; at local, state and national level. In 1920s and 1930s, this association was also
extended through the increase or improvement of departments that are particularly
devoted to the subject matter and specialties of positions.

In 1960s two separate associations, white and African-American educators were merged
in the South in response of the situation as a dual school system. NEA had allowed its
membership to everyone apart from race until its membership spread up to 32,000
members. Merger was continued and was completed till 1969 in almost all the states.

In the 1990s NEAs thought of merger again with American Federation of Teachers
(AFT) that was affiliated with the AFLCIO labour union. In 1998, the Assembly
representative expresses their opinion through vote to unite the two organizations.
Though, in Representative Assembly (2001) the partnership agreement was approved. It
was decided in the agreement that the two organizations will be allowed to work together
and prevented them from "raiding" each other's members.

Objectives of NEA
Vision
Vision of NEA is a great public school for every student.

Mission
NEA mission is to advocate for education professionals and to unite the members and the
nation to fulfill the promise of public education to prepare every student to succeed in a
diverse and interdependent world.

Policies of NEA
Membership decided during 1998-2000 budget years that three specific core areas will be
given due importance in the associations and everybody will work according on these
three areas; achievement of students, quality of teachers and capacity of school system in
order to achieve the success of students. The whole staff of the organization has these
three core priorities in mind.

Students’ Achievement
First priority of NEA is to improve and increase students’ achievement. It was made sure
that every student has appropriate knowledge and has skills to perform effectively in
school so that they may get success as organization’s focus is to rebuild confidence in
public education. Local affiliates address issues were helped by the concern department
on high stakes testing and implementing standards- based education. It has great
influence on instructional policy and practice at the local level. It also implements NEA’s
annual Red across America child literacy event that is held on First March in honour of
the birthday of Dr. Seuss (Theodor Geisel).

Teacher Quality
Students’ achievement may be enhanced by improving teachers’ quality. NEA has strong
belief that a qualified teacher can only provide extensive knowledge and help in

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enhancing the learning. It also increases the access in promotion of quality education.
The main purpose of NEA’s Teacher Quality Department is to provide assistance to
teachers to achieve high standards for implementation. NEA encourages the rigorous
standards for access of public education and all teacher education institutes should meet
the high standards set by National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE). Its focus is also on widespread teacher induction programs including mentor
support systems for novel teachers that boost up the professional practice and teacher
retention. The department ensures all personnel hired teachers to be licensed, encourage
strategic recruitment, retain licensed teachers, providing support for standard driven
professional development and system of teacher evaluation that work for improvement in
performance. It also focuses on the strategies to increase the number of teachers,
especially minority teachers, who become National Board Certified.

School System Capacity

The NEA is continuously working for the improvement of schools capacity system to
ensure that America’s schools have personnel, structure and inputs that are needed to
enhance achievement of students. This clearly depicts that NEA has established such
supporting system that has increased high level of teaching and improved quality
teaching. Public education as it is the core priority of NEAs mission also seeks to
increase financial support for public education, encourages the recruitment process and
maintenance of personnel quality, by improving the physical learning environment, by
ensuring the safety and orders of schools, by promoting fineness and fairness among
school districts, by helping educators, parents and other interested citizens developing
more effective school management and decision –making processes.

a) NEA Activities
NEA activities are extensive and widespread. NEA has affiliated the lobby
legislators on regular basis for the needed resources of schools, campaign for the
teaching profession having high level of standards and organizes legal actions to
protect academic freedom.
For privatization of public education at national level, NEA’s ranges from
coordinating new and modern projects to restructure how learning is done by
congressional attempts. NEA is making links with educators all over the world to
make schools as valuable as they can be. NEA members at individual level
organize themselves into voluntary groups known as Caucuses.
NEA celebrates three main events all over the world: Read across America Day;
American Education Week; and National Teacher Day (the Tuesday that falls in the
first full week of May, which is Teacher Appreciation Week).

b) Lobbying and Elections.

NEA is the most leading and powerful lobbying group in the nation- that ranges
from elections of school board and to the elections of presidents. As NEA has 2.6
million members in America’s schools, one in one hundred Americans is an NEA
member, this has made NEA a prominent education lobby in public education
policy debate of America.

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 Efforts of NEA’s lobby are basically based on the initiatives approved by the
Representative Assembly. By and large it involves issues regarding school
funding, student testing requirements and funding of federal by for
disadvantaged schools. Political Action Committee (PAC) of NEA raise Funds
for Children and Public Education for the use of candidates those uphold the
principles of the NEA and its affiliates.

c) Communications.
In national media outlets NEA is frequently called upon to serve as a voice for
teachers and public education. NEA personnel often serve as spokesperson for the
association. Furthermore, NEA has produced numerous publications. NEA’s today
monthly magazine is worldwide read magazine and it is sent to all the members of
NEA. NEA has also some other publications for its different constituencies,
including all its members (retired, students and higher education institutions).

d) Research.
NEA has a research department that considers the issues regarding teachers and
public education. The most widespread research document is yearly Rankings and
Estimates in which school statistics are ranked. After every five years, the NEA
research department produces Status of the American Public School Teacher, in
which members’ attitude about their workload and toward the profession and
compensation.

For further details, please read the following referred material.

National Education NEA Handbook 2000–2001. Washington, DC: NEA.
Association. 2000.

7.5 Teaching Education Institutions

7.5.1 University of Education

Introduction
In 2002 the University of Education was established as a great place for teacher
education. It has clear goals and objectives to produce quality teachers of international
standards. Some of the related objectives set by UE are to:
• Bring quality change in education focusing on teacher education.
• Promote governance, leadership and management skills among educational
managers.
• Promote teaching and learning innovations.
• Develop human resource for educational institutions and other areas of high social
and economic need.
• Establish linkages with national and international educational institutions and the
society.

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Campuses, divisions and colleges that are affiliated with the University of Education are
working hard to attain high standards of success through innovative and creative methods
and by influential strategies. UE has established instruction and media laboratories to
facilitate its students and faculty with experimental and experiential learning. This has
improved and encouraged the concepts of students and their application in real world.
Media laboratories are also serving as a modern device to approach the material for
learning and research by both the students and the UE faculty.

Moreover, to offer degree programs, UE has adopted multi branched strategies e. g

development of faculty through conducting workshops, seminars, short and advance
courses. Postgraduate Diploma and Teaching Certificate for faculty needs to be stated
here. The focus of this program is on faculty development capacity in response to rising
needs of the time. In UE there is an opportunity for the faculty to avail foreign
scholarship.

Sports and other various co-curricular activities for instance, speeches, debates, dramas, art
exhibition and other healthy activities are planned on regular basis for the overall
development of students’ personalities and their character building. Students are trained and
motivated to learn the skill of serene co-existence and to resolve the problem by discussing
it or via conversation. As a product of such important changes, students of UE seem to be
brilliant in their subject area and in their behavior as well. It is only because of the intensive
struggle, painstaking effort and restless attempt that UE graduates are showing best
performance at national as well as at international levels. UE students’ have also performed
very well in the employment market that undeniably is a matter of pride for UE.

Vision and Mission

Vision of UE is to prepare teachers and researchers to be energetic leaders and
practitioners to ensure quality and sustainable development at all three levels and of
education. Mission of UE includes:
1. Academic programs that are offered in UE are nationally as well as internationally
accepted to produce:
• Such competent teachers who are according to the need of schools (public
and private) of all tiers.
• Educational Leaders and Managers
• Educationists/Researchers/Curriculum Developers etc.
2. To provide certificate and degree programs through continuous and virtual
education modes for teachers of tertiary level.
3. To incorporate pre-service with in-service Teacher Education.
4. To make university a successful center of educational research and knowledge creation.
5. To provide quality programs to make teaching profession attractive to the youth.
To provide quick path for the attainment of students’ degrees
6. To focus on both quality and quantity of the product.
7. To appear as chief institution in various branches of education.
8. To take fairness measures to provide quality education.

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Outstanding scholars play momentous role in general working of the UE. As UE is the
hub of the quality research, it develops leaders who perform their duties in teaching
learning process with full zeal. Presently, Education division of UE is working on
upcoming areas of educational administration, state policies, teacher education,
assessment, curriculum and ICT-directed learning. Academic activities that are based on
research are provided by Education Division of UE to the community and government.

For further details please read the following referred material.

University of Education, Lahore www.ue.edu.pk

7.5.2 Directorate of Staff Development

Valuable and praiseworthy services are provided by the Directorate of Staff Development
in the training of teachers since last 50 years. This institution was established with the
name of Education Extension Centre (EEC) in the year 1959. Positive role is played by
this institute in the advancement of quality education. Particular role played by the
Directorates provides facilitation to development of teachers.

DSD is trying its level best to establish a proficient team of teachers in government
schools. Focusing on powerful school base, 30 Elementary colleges for pre-service
teacher education, highly structured network and different teachers’ training centers.

DSD got the control of Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (PITE) and Government
College of Elementary Teachers (GCETs) in 2006. In order to make the institute stronger
as one unit and to achieve its goals Punjab Institute of Teacher Education (PITE) and
Science Education Centre (SEC) was merged with DSD in 2006.

The work expanded from 12 Districts to 24 Districts in 2012 and in the same year all the
36 Districts were integrated in Continuous Professional Development (CPD) program.
Regular Professional Development days are arranged at all 2,100 CTSCs periodically. In
2011, Directorate developed comprehensive "Teacher Guides" for Primary School
Teachers (PSTs). In the same year all 172,000 (PSTs/ESEs) were provided training. In
2012 diagnostic training of around 28,000 PSTs were arranged.

Mission:
For improving the quality of school in the public schools a system of professional
development for teachers and education staff was established.

Quality Assurance steps will be taken to guide the work of the included DSD directing
staff that involves in charge of class/ trainers and all other related training events as it was
in line with DSD’s quality vision and in conformance with the requirements of the
Quality Management System. Keeping in view the needs and demands of training it will
be worked out.

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Vision:
The vision of DSD is to develop a knowledgeable, committed, motivated, competent and
ethically sound cadre of education personnel to ensure the delivery of top quality
education to the students in government schools of Punjab.

Function
The Directorate of Staff Development, an ISO 900-2008 certifies organization, serves as
an head institution for in-service and pre-service training of public schools teachers, and
one stop shop for capacity building needs of school teachers in Punjab, and furthering the
National Education Policy by focusing on the professional development of public sector’s
teacher and equipping them with modern and innovative teaching techniques and
methodologies by providing leadership and strategic planning to the sector.

Introduction
Planning wing at Directorate of Staff Development (DSD), Punjab is continuously
engaged in policy making, planning of various trainings and professional development
activities for public school teachers. The Structure of Planning wing is as under:

Following are the core functions of planning wing of DSD:

1. Action Plan
a. Annual Action Plan for Trainings.
2. Coordination with Partners/Stake holders
a. Donor Agencies (National & International).
b. Education Department/District Governments.

Achievements
• Successfully managed ECE project in collaboration with UNESCO which included
establishment of Resource Centre, Development of core group, preparation of
training manual, training of Master Trainers (132) & PSTs (4,000).

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• Successfully hold National Stakeholders Conference on Early Childhood Education
in Punjab in collaboration with UNESCO and UNICEF.
• ECE Advocacy campaign in collaboration with UNESCO:
• Drafted a ten year strategy for promotion of ECE in Punjab including layout of cost
effective models.
• Development of documentary on ECE.
• Coordinated all activities related to Baseline Research for Competency Assessment
of PSTs. The subject research is useful for giving future direction for strategic
planning of training of PSTs.
• Coordinated nominations for various national & international
trainings/courses/workshops.
• Interview & selection of Candidates for foreign training course “Leadership in a
Climate of Change” at Plymouth State University USA.
• Foreign training under Pak Canada Debt Swap Project – For training of Master
Trainers, service agreement signed with AIT Bangkok. NTS test was organized for
the first time ever to guarantee selection procedure on merit. 100 teachers were
selected for this training.
• Training of Master Trainers was conducted in Psycho-Social Rehabilitation of
Children. They established ECE rooms in Lab Schools attached with GCETs,
CTSCs and Flood Affected Schools in Flood Hit Areas of Punjab in collaboration
with UNESCO.
• Master Trainers training of Science Teachers on SCIB methodology with
cooperation of JICA, and development of future project for training of additional
Master Trainers on SCIB plus development of future project for increasing
awareness /interest of primary students in science.
• Initiated 3-stage training evaluation of DSD including Impact Assessment study
with collaboration of UNICEF.
• Arranged funding from UNICEF for holding of workshops on item development
for assessment by DTEs. Developed concept note for provision of Report Cards for
Assessment of students at primary level in collaboration with UNICEF.
• Negotiated and signed MOU with Sight Savers for development of Resource
Centre for Inclusive Education at Directorate of Staff Development (DSD), and in
the field.
• A number of programs/activities are in process with ITA, British Council, Plan
Pakistan, Agha Khan University, Save the Children, SAHE and Intel Corporation.
• Planning & Coordination with various National and International Donor/Partner
Organizations (UNICEF, UNESCO, GTZ, CIDA, World Bank, Intel Corporation,
CPBEP, JICA ) for provision of technical and financial assistance for improving
quality and delivery of teacher training.
• Established linkages with renowned Public and Private Sector Educational
Institutions for provision of technical assistance.

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Pre-Service
The spirit of Pre Service is embedded in our “Leading the way to excellent in teaching.”
DSD is committed to foster the modern potential in prospective teachers by training them to
convene with the 21st Century needs with a skill of understanding the content, new instructional
Technologies, and hand on experiences. 30 Government Colleges for Elementary Teachers are
providing Pre-Service Teacher Education, across 23 districts in Punjab.

We make an effort to train our students with both academic knowledge and skills, at one
fell swoop, polishing their managerial talents so that they may provide contribution in
preparation of staff for the country, while achieving excellence as professionals.

In all Government Colleges for Elementary Teachers well equipped laboratory schools
were attached various chances to prospective teachers to practice understanding of the
content, presentation skills and latest assessment techniques in actual class rooms.

Every year variety of Professional Training Programs are offered: These programs
include:
Degrees
• ADE leading to B.Ed (Hons).
• M.ED
• B.ED (Elementary)
• B.ED (Secondary)
• B.ED (ECE)
• In-Service B.ED

Diplomas
• Diploma in Physical Education
• Diploma in Art & Craft.

Every year over 6000 students are enrolled in these programs. Thorough training
opportunities are provided by these programs. To have greater impact in Education
system the graduates are equipped with skill and knowledge.

Art Computer Labs, E Labs of latest technology are provided in every campus. To make
learning environment conducive for learning modern methods are used in the class
rooms. All the A.V aids including charts, model and relevant resource material promote
learning environment.

In-Service
For execution of trainings at the DSD campus training wing of DSD is responsible. These
trainings include:
1. Induction Trainings:
For Educational Managers, Teachers, Teacher Educators (TEs), District Teacher
Educators (DTEs), Recommendees of PPSC (Head Teachers, Senior Head
Teachers, Subject Specialists, Senior Subject Specialists).

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2. Post Induction Trainings:
• CPD Programme:
CPD Programme is launched for on-the-job training & coaching of TEs,
DTEs, CTSC Heads, and DTSC Heads.
• In-Service Trainings for Professional Development:
In-Service training for professional development for Education Managers
(EDOs, DEOs, Dy. DEOs, DTSC Heads, Teacher Educators (TEs), Master
Trainers/Lead Teacher Educators.
3. Promotion-Linked Trainings (Rules Framed)
4. Specialized Trainings:
Specialized training such as Literacy and Non-formal Basic Education (L&NBE),
Special Education Department (Master Trainers on Inclusive Education), Higher
Education, Department (Examiners, Sub-Examiners and Paper Setters of Education
Boards).
5. Training Requests from other:
Training requests from other organizations/provinces e.g. NCHD, Master Trainers
Trainings of ICT, FATA, Gilgit Baltistan, KPK, AJ & Kashmir, etc.

Material Development
By conducting different sorts of needs assessments and through the subsequent
development of quality training and support materials, the Material Development Wing
ensures effective staff development programmes with the aim to enable the teachers to
enhance their knowledge and skills and change their behaviors.

The Material Development Wing also updates the DSD library to keep the staff
developers, trainers and trainees knowledgeable about the latest training and support
trends, techniques and issues.

The Material Development Wing is responsible for:

• Planning, conducting and analyzing the training needs assessments.
• Development of on-job training curricula highlighting the aims, objectives and
content areas.
• Establishing the training dynamics i.e. %age of interactive direct input, hands-on
experience and activities, group work, and discussions.
• Designing and development of training and support material in the form of unit
plans, lesson plans, modules of concepts and techniques, teaching aids etc.
• Collecting and analyzing the feedback regarding the usefulness of training and
support material.
• Developing the Early Childhood Education Resource Centers.
• Developing the instructional videos of Science, English and Mathematics for
Primary School Teachers.
• Selection and purchase of books, journals, magazines etc. for updating the DSD library.

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The Directorate of Staff Development as a head of organization is committed to develop
the skills related to pedagogy and enhance knowledge through a continuous process of
professional development of teachers in Punjab.

Quality Assurance
• To improve the quality of learning at all tiers of education by providing training
and promoting the teaching at both in the field and DSD.
• In order to guarantee achievement of the laid down goals, close interaction has
been developed with the National and International organizations.
• Training and motivation of available Human Resources, monitoring and evaluation
of all processes working for professional development of teachers and continuous
enhancement of the standards are based on International standards in the Quality
Management System of the Directorate.
• DSD strives for continuous improvement in all laid down processes by focusing on
the satisfaction levels of its partners and stakeholders.

Master trainers are required to provide high level of quality training to teachers. DSD is
involved in the initial phase of CPD implementation. The training of trainers is conducted
with the close collaboration that clearly provides services with the approved expertise in
the teacher development field including other concerned areas.

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DSD’s main focus is on quality work that includes events of training. For various reasons
the trustworthiness is really important for teachers, teacher educators, administrators, the
public at large and the professional community itself.

Permission will be given to DSD by the proper quality assurance to demonstrate the
training with positive and substantial results. DSD will get benefit from learning
organization and from the information that the quality assurance mechanisms generate.

A lot of cost is utilized in organizations of the training courses in term of the resources
that are included in the preparation and delivery for participants and staff from the work
place. In order to justify the costs DSD management has to make sure that training
imparted by trainers has in a reality made a difference on the performance of trainees.
Participants must have acquired new knowledge, skills and attitudes and are in a position
to practice it their fields.

A variety of mechanisms and Standard Operating Procedure (SOPs) are applied to

improve the quality learning standards and Quality Assurance wing at DSD is working on
this agenda. All training activities of the DSD include the mechanism and standards.
Quality Assurance wing works within the given policy framework of the Government or
the Program Director. For monitoring and Evaluation Quality Assurance give
recommendations on regular basis for improvement.

Committees
1. Technical Committee
• Deputy Director (Admin)
• Course Coordinator - II
• Course Coordinator – V
2. Technical Committee (Purchase Of I.T. Equipment)
• Deputy Director (Admin)
• Deputy Director (Finance)
• Data Base Manager (assist the committee & submit its recommendations to
PD)
• Planning Officer
3. Auction Committee
• Course Coordinator - I (Convener)
• Course Coordinator - V (Member)
• Executive Engineer - Buildings (Member)
• Assistant Director - Admin (Member)
4. Purchase Committee
• Deputy Director - Planning (Chairman)
• Course Coordinator - V (Member)
• Course Coordinator - I (Member)
• Assistant Director - Finance/GCETs (Secretary)

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5. Resource Persons Selection Committee
• Deputy Director - Quality Assurance (Chairman)
• Course Coordinator - I (Member)
• Course Coordinator - II (Member)
• Course Coordinator - III (Member)
• Course Coordinator - IV (Member)
• Course Coordinator - V (Member)
• Regional Programme Manager (HQ) (Member)

Collaborating Partners
International Organizations
1. PMU - PAK CANADA DEBT SWAP PROJECT (PCDSP)
2. BRITISH COUNCIL
3. SIGHT SAVERS
4. DEPARTMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (DFID)
5. UNICEF
6. UNESCO
7. GIZ

National Organizations
1. ALI INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION (AIE)
2. THE CITY SCHOOL
3. BEACONHOUSE SCHOOL SYSTEM
4. CONVENT OF JESUS AND MARY
5. IDARA TALEEM-O-AGAHI (ITA)
6. PUNJAB TEXTBOOK BOARD
7. SAHE
8. IER - UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB
9. THE COMMUNICATOR (Pvt.) LIMITED - FM POWER RADIO-99

For further details please read the following referred material.

Government of Punjab www.dsd.edu.pk/pages/contents/12

7.5.3 Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)

Vision
PITE’s vision is to bring about quantitative and qualitative improvement in education in
Pakistan in general and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in particular through creation and provision
of continuous professional development opportunities and services to teachers and
education managers.

Mission Statement
PITE’s Mission is to develop our educational institutes into real seats and abodes of
learning for our children by transforming teachers and education managers into forward

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looking change agents through consistent, innovative and strategic training
interventions.

PITE’s objectives are to;

• Train teachers in effective and innovative instructional strategies
• Train teachers/managers in educational planning and management
• Train teachers/managers in instructional assessment and evaluation
• Develop contextualized instructional material
• Train Master Trainers

Mandate
• Conduct and test innovative Pre-Service & In-Service teacher training programs.
• Training of Master Trainers.
• Monitor trainings
• Design and conduct research in teacher education, evaluation and assessment.
• Develop training materials, etc:
• Serve as a Provincial Resource Center in educational trainings.
• Coordinate training programs in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
• Conduct/organize workshops/seminars as and when required by the government.
• Supervise & facilitate bridging Courses for teachers to equate Diploma in
Education
• Design & maintain Teacher Education Management Information System(TEMIS)

Manuals/Modules developed by PITE

1. HRM Manual for Principal/Headmaster of GHSS/GHS (M & F)
2. Financial Management for Principal/Headmaster of GHSS/GHS (M &F)
3. Manual on School Management for Middle School Head Teachers
4. Manual on School Management for Primary School Head Teachers
5. Microsoft Office User Specialist (MOUS)
6. Personnel Management (HRD & HRM)
7. Financial Management
8. Academic Management
9. Research Methods, Techniques & Study conduction
10. Civil Service Acts 1973 & Rules made there under
11. Community Participation & Parent Teacher Council (PTC)
12. Manual on School Sanitation & Hygiene Education
13. Manual for Teachers on Child Friendly Schools Concept
14. Manual for Teachers of Rehabilitation Centres
15. Manual on Disaster preparedness and Risk Management
16. Manual on psycho social Training for Teachers
17. Manual on Mine Risk Education for Teachers
18. Manual on Peace Education for Teachers
19. Manual on Multigrade teaching & DRM
20. Manual on Educational Leadership & Management at School level
21. Manual on Teaching in Early Grades

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22. Manual on Office Management
23. Manual on Early Childhood Care and Education
24. Manual on Planning Skills
25. Training Manual on Math, Science, English and many more

For further details please read the following referred material.

Provincial Institute Of Teacher Kpktribune.Com/...Education/808-Provincial-
Education (Khyber Institute-For-Teachers-Education
Pakhtunkhwa)

7.5.4 Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (Sindh)

Profile of Provincial institute of Teacher Education (PITE) Sindh is given below:

Introduction
Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (PITE) Sindh, located in the city of Nawabshah
city in the north east of Karachi, was established in 1995 under the Teachers Training
Project (TTP) of Asian Development Bank (ADB) with the purpose of promoting and
strengthening the teacher education and development in the Province of Sindh through
research, innovation, advocacy and support.

Functions
Assist the Education and Literacy Department and Sindh Teacher Education
Development Authority in the formulation of Policy in Teacher Education.
• Undertake qualitative and quantitative research in Teacher Education.
• Design and experiment research based innovative approaches and programs in
teacher education.
• Develop leadership qualities in management of TEIs through professional
development courses.
• Assist STEDA in quality assurance in Teacher Education Programs.
• Develop strong coordination and linkage with the partners at district, provincial,
national and international level for the development of the teacher education.

Achievements
Since its establishment, the major achievements of PITE Sindh include:
• Training of 30000 teachers across Sindh province
• Training of 2000 Education Officers.
• Development of several Modules and manuals of the Training.
• Participation in the process of National Curriculum 2006
• Participation in the National Education Policy 2009.
• Have collaborated with national and international partners like UNESCO,
UNICEF,JICA, IUCN, Pakistan, USAID Projects (ESRA, Edilinks, and Pre-
STEP), CIDA- Sindh Elementary Teachers Training Project, Right to Play,
Pakistan, Landolakes (US based NGO) in the implementation of variety of
interventions in Sindh province.

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• Supported Reforms Support Unit in the implementation of TED Policy 2009: Pilot
of CPD framework in Sindh province in year 2010 and 2011.
• Supported RSU in the implementation of EMR Policy 2009: Pilot of Sindh
Education Sector Management (SESM) Course in year 2011 and 2012.

PITE Sindh has six major wings:

Initial Teacher Education (ITE)
• Plan and implement model ITE Courses.
• Develop various techniques / strategies, testing out them and spread across all TEIs
in Sindh.
• Develop activity based material for ADE and B. Ed (Hon.) courses.
• Conduct Quality Assurance of Teacher Education Programs
• Capacity building of the teacher educators through refresher courses.
• Undertake small scale researches.
• Initiate a research journal on regular basis.
• Organize the Research seminars and conferences.

Continuous Professional Development (CPD)

• Facilitate the Education and Literacy Department and STEDA in CPD affairs
• Participate in Policy Dialogue
• Provide technical support in designing of CPD Programs
• Conduct orientation programs, CPD programs and Research seminars, conferences.
• Develop materials, manuals, CPD resources,
• Quality Assurance of CPD programs
• Publish Research Findings in Journals

Educational Leadership Development Centre (ELDC)

• Assist in policy and practices in leadership development
• Design and implement leadership and management programs for educational
leaders, and Heads of TEIs
• Evaluate various models / approaches in leadership development.
• Develop Materials for improving professional skills of leaders and managers
• Conduct Research studies
• Organize Seminars

Human Resource Development Center (HRDC)

• Develop database of Human Resources in TEIs
• Conduct need assessment surveys
• Develop networking with TEIs
• Conduct studies in HRD and HRM
• Develop linkages with organizations and institutions

Quality Assurance & Support Center (QASC)

• Assist Teacher Education Institutions TEIs in Quality Assurance
• Training faculty in QA

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• Undertake research on QA in Teacher Education
• Disseminate QA findings through research seminars and conferences

Educational Technology Resource Center (ETRC)

• Develop educational technology based training resources
• Support TEIs in upgrading their professional capacity in ICT
• Provide on job support to TEIs faculty through face to face , on-line and mobile unit
• Undertake technology based researches
• Develop linkages with other national and international organizations and
institutions

For further details, please read the following referred material.

Provincial Institute of www.sindheducation.gov.pk
Teacher Education Sindh

7.5.5 Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (Baluchistan) Mandate and

Objectives of Department

Objectives of PITE
• To enhance the Quality of Education through in-service Teacher’s Professional
Development
• To work in the sphere of material development for the professional development
programs of teachers
• To carry out research activities in the field of education to enhance the quality of
teaching practices.

Mandate:
An apex Institute in the field of in-service Teacher Education, Baluchistan

Physical Resources of PITE Baluchistan

• Eight (08) Classrooms for training purpose
• Three well equipped laboratories (Physics, Chemistry & Biology)
• Two well equipped computer laboratories.
• A well equipped Library, embellished with audio/video centers.
• A well equipped Teacher Resource Center (TRC)
• A well maintained Early Childhood Education (ECE) Center
• One fully furnished Conference room
• One multi-purpose Auditorium
• Academic Block for faculty members
• Separate hostel for male (46 Persons) and female (24 persons)
• Residential Colony for PITE staff (1-Bungalow & 16 (Fates)
• Two garage for office vehicles
• Mess for trainee teacher’s refreshment.
• One tube-well for drinking and plantation.

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• Separate Wash Rooms for Males & Females
• PITE also enjoys the services of 36 Training out Post Tutors who work at TO center
situated in the remote areas of the province. Each center has three rooms and has been
provided with needed furniture etc. for professional development purposes.

TO centers are located at:

• G.H.S. Barkhan
• G.H.S. Dalbandine
• G.H.S. Dera Bugti
• G.H.S. Muslimbagh
• G.H.S. Killi Sheikhan , Zhob
• G.H.S. Pusni
• G.G.H.S. Chaman
• G.G.H.S. Lorali
• G.G.H.S. Hub
• G.G.H.S. D M Jamali
• G.G.H.S. Dera Allah Yar
• G.G.H.S. Pringab

Human Resources of PITE Balochistan

Skill Set: The above functions require the following skills in the organizations:
1. Policy analysis
2. Planning
3. Research
4. Capacity Development
5. Financial Management
6. Conducting consultative sessions including interviews and FGDs.
7. Data collection, analysis and indicators development.
8. Data dissemination
9. Reform awareness across various organizations.
10. Monitoring and evaluation techniques.

Skills ancillary to the above are:

1. Computer literacy.
2. Management Information Systems.
3. Education planning.
4. Statistical analysis… especially education indicators.
5. Documentation and report writing.

Organization:
P.I.T.E should report directly to Secretary Education as the primary policy body and in
line with the above functions BEMIS should be a part of it as already decided.

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Capacity Development:
Capacity is a combination of the organizational structure, the sum of individual skill sets
and technical tools employed. The skills required for PPIU are not easily available both
within the government and outside. This makes training an essential part of any reform of
PPIU. For new entrants an induction process must be included.

For further details please read the following mentioned material.

Provincial Institute for Teacher Education www.emis.gov.pk
(Baluchistan)

7.6 Activities
1. What insight may we take from NEA for the improvement of teacher quality in our
country? Make a list of suggestions. _____________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. Write few steps for the enhancement of teacher quality education in each province.
3. In your opinion where deficiency lies at elementary level for quality education
though Government has taken appropriate steps for its improvement.
4. Prepare a flowchart for the promotion of quality education in each province.

7.7 Exercise
Q1. Compare and contrast the quality measures taken by the government in each province.
Q2. Critically examine all the provincial institutes of teacher education.
Q3. Discuss the significance of policies of NEA.
Q4. How can we say that pre-service and in-service trainings play important role in
promoting quality education? Justify your answer by citing examples.
Q5. How University of Education is playing significant role for the enhancement of
quality education?
Q6. What is meant by DSD? Discuss its objectives, vision, mission and purpose in detail.

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7.8 Bibliography

Government of Punjab www.dsd.edu.pk/pages/contents/12

Harvey, L. (2004). "Professional body". Quality Research International. Analytic Quality

Glossary.

Harvey, L.; Mason, S.; Ward, R. (1995). Role of Professional Bodies in Higher Education
Quality Monitoring. Birmingham: Quality in Higher Education Project. ISBN 1-85920-
108-3.

National Education Association. NEA Handbook 2000–2001. Washington, DC: 2000

NEA.

Provincial Institute of Teacher Education Kpktribune.Com/...Education (Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa)

Provincial Institute of Teacher Education www.sindheducation.gov.pk (Sindh)

Provincial Institute of Teacher Education www.emis.gov.pk (Baluchistan)

Surekha Khokhar and Chirag (2012) Role of Teacher Organizations Towards Teacher
Accountability, AJMR Asian Journal of Multidimensional Research Vol. 1Issue 4.PP.
199-203

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Unit 8

ELEMENTARY TEACHER
EDUCATION

Written By: Dr. Aishah Siddiquah

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani

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8.1 Introduction
This unit gives an introduction about elementary teacher education in Pakistan and in
various developed and developing countries. It describes elementary teacher education
programs in Pakistan and what new initiatives have been taken in this regard.
Comparison of elementary teacher education has been given with reference to Turkey,
Malaysia, Japan and UK and how elementary teacher education programs of these
countries are different/similar to teacher education programs in Pakistan.

8.2 Objectives
After the successful completion of this unit, the students will be able to
1. Describe various teacher training institutes imparting elementary teacher education.
2. Be familiar with previous and current elementary teacher education programs.
3. Compare elementary teacher education in Pakistan with that of various developed
and developing countries of the world

8.3 Elementary Teacher Education System in Pakistan

Primary education in Pakistan lasts for 5 years. There is three year middle education after
primary education (Ghafoor, 1988). Primary and middle education is integrated into
elementary education (I-VIII) (Government of Pakistan, 1998a).

Teacher training institutions

There are 189 teachers training institutions, of which 152 (80%) are in the public sector,
whereas 37 (20%) are in the private sector (Government of Pakistan, 2013). Public sector
teacher education in Pakistan is offered in five types of institutions that are under the
provincial governments: Government Elementary Colleges of Education (GECEs),
Government Colleges of Education (GCEs), University Departments, Institutes of
Education and Research (IERs) and Directorates or Centers for in-service training. The
GECEs offer certificate-level courses of one year’s duration called the Primary Teaching
Certificate (PTC) and Certificate in Teaching (CT) for primary and elementary school
teachers, respectively. There are 90 GECEs in Pakistan, which are generally affiliated
with the provincial Bureau of Education for administrative purposes and the Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Educations for examination purposes. University
Departments, IERs and GCEs offer Bachelor of Education (B. Ed) and Masters of
Education (M. Ed) degree programs for secondary school teachers and educational
administrators. The B. Ed is a one-year program. MEd is one-year program after the B.
Ed (Khan, 2011). There are 11 GCEs, four IERs, and some University Departments in the
country (Government of Pakistan, 1998b). An important public sector institution is the
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, which offers various programs in teacher
education through non-formal education (UNESCO, 1990; Khan, 2011). These programs
provide trained teachers for the rapidly increasing number of schools. The Open
University has developed useful training material and launched field experiments which
have produced very beneficial results (UNESCO, 1990).

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Elementary Teacher Education Programs
A variety of teacher certification programs prevailed throughout the country. In past,
Senior Vernacular and Junior Vernacular Certificate programs were offered by Normal
Schools. They were replaced by Teacher Training Institutions which offered Certificate
in Teaching (CT) and Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) (Pre-STEP, 2010). Entry
qualification for one year Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) was matriculation and for
one-year certificate in teaching (CT) was Intermediate. PTC teachers were prepared to
teach at primary level (I-V) teaching and CT teachers at middle level (VI-VIII)
(UNESCO, 1990). Later on, Teacher Training Institutions were changed into Elementary
Colleges of Education and Colleges of Education. Elementary Colleges of Education
continued to offer CT and PTC courses whereas Colleges of Education offered Bachelor
of Teaching (BT) or Bachelor of Education (B. Ed.) and Master of Education (M. Ed.).
Two Diploma programs (one 10 plus 2 years and another 12 plus 1 and ½ years) were
also introduced (Pre-STEP, 2010).

With time, CT and PTC courses became obsolete and ineffective. PTC, CT and Diploma
programs do not have breadth and depth of general liberal education and subject matter.
Their limitations include low admission requirements (Matriculation, F. A. /F. Sc.), short
duration (1-2 years), theoretical courses, limited content knowledge, outdated pedagogy,
ineffective teaching practice, unproductive assessment, and absence of instruction in
communication, critical and creative teaching skills. New National Scheme of Studies
requires interactive teaching/learning strategies but these programs foster rote
memorization, unquestioning acceptance of textual materials and passive preparation for
tests (Pre-STEP, 2010). Shortage of audio-visual aids and educational equipment,
unavailability of standard textbooks and supplementary reading materials, lack of co-
ordination among training institutions, and absence of incentives for prospective teachers
were the other limitations (UNESCO, 1990).

Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and B. Ed (Honors) Elementary

Higher Education Commission (HEC) proposed a four-year B. Ed plan in 2006 (Higher
Education Commission, Pakistan, 2006) according to the new standard for teacher
education. The entry requirements is 12-years of schooling with a minimum second
division. This 124-136 credit hours program comprised general education core courses,
education foundation courses, professional pedagogy courses, content courses to develop
subject-matter proficiency in at least two disciplines of knowledge, a sequence of
supervised internships/ field experiences in schools. Future teachers shall be prepared
through this program. Large numbers of qualified teachers will be required to increase
student access at primary school level. It was proposed that 2-year Associate Degree in
Education (ADE) should replace all Primary Teacher Certificate, (PTC) Certificate of
Teaching (CT) and Diploma courses during the transition period 2011-2018. ADE is 64-
68 credit hour program with courses in general education, content area and pedagogy and
practical experiences. ADE is aligned with and leads to the B.Ed. (Hons.) Program.
Punjab has already started the policy of hiring elementary teachers with B.A+B .Ed.
(14+1 year) qualification. So the Punjab introduced 3 year ADE program with 102 credit

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hours as it is equivalent to 14 + 1 nomenclature. Teachers with 4 year B. Ed will get a
higher salary than the teachers with ADE in Punjab (Pre-STEP, 2010).

Revised National Scheme of Studies 2006 for K-12 grades, National Education Policy
2009 (Government of Pakistan, 2009a), National Professional Teaching Standards 2009
(Government of Pakistan, 2009b), and National Accreditation Council for Teacher
Education 2009 (National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE, 2009)
influenced the preparation of teachers in recent years (Pre-STEP, 2010). Ministry of
Education (MoE) introduced new qualitatively superior and challenging National Scheme
of Studies in 2006 which requires better educated and well prepared teachers to
implement it (Pre-STEP, 2010). National Education Policy 2009 suggested that there
must be “Free, universal primary education by 2015 and up to grade ten by 2025”. It also
recommended to raise the quality of educational output in terms of curriculum, teacher
quality, pedagogy, text books and assessment strategies. Ministry of Education (MoE)
also devised National Professional Standards for teachers in Pakistan (Government of
Pakistan, 2009b) which require competencies, skills and attributes on the part of teachers.
These standards also provided a direction for the pre service and in service teacher
training. National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE) developed
policies, procedures, and system for accreditation of teacher education programs and
institutes in 2009 (NACTE, 2009).

Currently, 1 year B. Ed, M. Ed, MA Education and 4 year B. Ed (Hons) programs that are
being generally offered for elementary teacher education in Pakistan.

8.4 Elementary Teacher Education in Turkey

Historical perspective of Elementary Teacher Training in Turkey

Turkey has more than 130 years of experience of elementary teacher education after the
opening of the first elementary teacher school. During this time period, there were
periodically introduced some major changes regarding the level of elementary teacher
schools such as middle school, high school or higher education institutes, the number of
years of education, and the name and weekly hours of courses (Türkmen, 2007). Around
the middle of the 19th century, the first Turkish teacher training institution,
Darulmuallimin, was established in Istanbul (Tarman, 2010). First elementary teacher
school was opened in 1868 (Dilaver, 1994; Bilim, 1998). The school was of two year
duration. Later, female elementary and middle teachers’ school was opened where almost
the same courses were taught. After that, more teachers’ schools began to open in other
major cities (Türkmen, 2007). In 1904, middle and elementary teachers’ schools were
united (Ozturk, 1996). Compared to the first curriculum of elementary teacher schools,
the new curriculum included western influence as there was one course in foreign
language and another in physical science. During second constitutional era, it was
planned in 1913 to open one teachers’ school in every province and female teacher’s
schools in some provinces (Binbasioglu, 1995; Dilaver, 1994).

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After collapse of Ottoman Empire, republic of Turkey was established in the leadership
of Mustafa Kemal in 1923. In republic era, traditional schools were abolished and all
types of schools were unified under the Ministry of National Education to provide
elementary education compulsory and free (Kocer, 1967). With the act of “The Law on
Unification of Education” (LUI) in 1924, the Turkish educational system was centralized.
Under this act, all educational systems came under the control of the Ministry of National
Education and the Ministry of Education was made responsible for all important policy
and administrative decisions like the appointment of administrators and teachers,
selection of subjects for the national curriculum, and textbooks selection (Tarman, 2010).
Number of grades in elementary education were five at that time. Duration of elementary
teacher’s school was increased from four to five years and curriculum was revised in the
light of ideas of Turk republic. Number of religious courses were reduced and new
courses were included (Türkmen, 2007). The level of these elementary teacher’s school
was of middle and secondary schools at that time (Dilaver, 1994). John Dewey visited in
1924 in Turkey and suggested to open another type of schools to meet the needs of
majority rural population (Turan, 2000). Hence, Primary teacher schools were specified
for urban areas and village teacher schools to meet the different demands of rural areas.
After the establishment of the Republic in 1923, Turkey selected a direction of the
developed Western countries (Cakiroglu & Cakiroglu, 1999).

In the first half of the century the main interest was on improving the educational level of
people in rural “Anatolia”. The purpose of the village teacher schools was to educate
teachers for villagers where people’s educational needs are different from the people of
urban areas. “Village Institutes” (Koy Enstituleri) were ended in 1954 due to political
reasons. In the second half of the century there were two major changes in teacher
education policies in Turkey. Firstly, under “Basic Law of National Education” (Milli
Egitim Temel Kanunu) in 1973, teachers were to be educated in higher education
institutions. Secondly in 1981, through the Higher Education Council (HEC), the
responsibility of teacher education was transferred from the Ministry of National
Education (MNE) to the universities (Cakiroglu & Cakiroglu, 1999; Akyuz, 2004).
Previously, teacher training comprised three units including universities, academies and
teacher training institutions under the administrative and academic supervision of
Ministry of Education. But in 1981, all academies and teacher training institutions were
combined into the universities. Faculty members from other fields were transferred to the
faculty education to deal with the shortage of teachers in education (Güven, 2008).

Elementary Teacher Education Programs in Turkey

About 72 (65 public and 7 private) universities out of total 146 (95 public and 51 private)
universities of Turkey, have faculties of education (Tarman, 2010). Higher Education
Council (HEC) defines the structure of teacher education programs including the length
of the programs, credit hours, course titles, and brief content of the courses (Grossman,
Sands, & Brittingham, 2010). HEC updated all the teacher education programs in Turkey,
and also develops and modifies them continuously according to the European Union (EU)
educational standards.

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There were two teacher training programs in 1982, the detail of these was as follows:
1. Four years teaching Certificate of 1982 was a traditional university education
program. There were 39 credits for teacher formation over 4 year. Future teachers
used to spend 8 weeks at schools where they had to deliver 4 lessons which were
observed by mentor.
Usually university supervisor didn’t visit the school. Mentors were not paid.
2. Another Traditional Program of 1982 was 4 Months Teaching Certificate after BA.
There were about 12-15 credits in the certificate. There was no teaching practice in
that certificate program.

Until 1999, teaching practice was comprised four lessons to be delivered during two
weeks. However, after this the importance of University-School partnership was realized
and duration of teaching practice was extended to one day per week over a year.
Moreover, students were required to take a 36 semester-credit sequence of teacher
formation courses. In addition, for the first time, a Masters Degree program was approved
so that student teachers could major in content-based subjects as undergraduates but still
receive a teaching license through a graduate program (Stevens & Demirezen, 2002).

Teacher education program of 1999 was a 4 year Undergraduate (UG) or Master Degree
program. For teacher formation, about 39 credits over 4 years were in case of UG, and 56
credits over 2 years in case of MA. Teaching practice comprised 10-24 weeks with 1
day/week and two 1 month intensives. About 4-8 lessons were observed with written
feedback. University supervisor visits at least twice a semester. Mentor were involved,
paid, and trained (Tarman, 2010). The 1999 teacher education program was the result of a
collaboration of Turkish teachers, university teacher educators, and Western consultants.
This program assumed a different role of the mentors and university supervisors. Guide
book clearly describes activities, competencies, new roles and responsibilities for
university faculty, schools, universities, mentors and student teachers (Koç et al., 1998).

In continuation of the new system introduced in 1999, important changes were made in
the teacher training programs in the year 2006. Under Teacher Development Program of
2006, teachers have the opportunity to study their own branch in depth. Faculties were
given the permission to determine 30% of the components of the program offered in their
departments thus increasing the options for elective subjects. The ratio of the courses
related with general culture was increased which includes subjects like Science, History,
History of Turkish Education, and Philosophy (Tarman, 2010). Four year undergraduate
(UG) program of 2006 comprised about 50-60% branch theory and technique, 25-30%
professional teaching theory and technique, and 15-20% general cultural information.
Participants had to spend 28 weeks in schools i.e. two semesters in schools in the 4th year
of the program. Lesson taught depends on the instructor’s availability.

University supervisor visits at least twice a semester. Mentor were involved, paid, and
trained (Tarman, 2010).

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8.5 Elementary Teacher Education in UK

Initial Teacher Training (ITT)

In UK, the training of primary and secondary school teachers is the same (Geändert,
2011). Teachers are required to have a Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) to be employed in
schools (Roberts & Foste, 2015). Persons can have a Qualified Teacher Status (QTS)
after successful completion of an approved course of Initial Teacher Training (ITT)
(Geändert, 2011). Initial Teacher Training courses may be ‘school-centered’ e. g. School
Direct program or ‘higher education-centered’ e. g. a B.Ed. course at university (Roberts
& Foste, 2015). The main types of ITT courses are the four years B. Ed. Course and one-
year Postgraduate Certificate of Education Course (Geändert, 2011).

Teacher training programs at England

In England, there are two teacher training programs at undergraduate level:
1. Bachelor in Education (B.Ed.)
2. Bachelor of Arts with Qualified Teaching Status [B. A. (QTS)]

At Graduate level, there is 1 year Post-Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) (Wang,

Coleman, Coley, Phelps, & Educational Testing Service, 2003; Roberts & Foste, 2015).
For PGCE, an undergraduate degree or equivalent qualification is prerequisite (Roberts &
Foste, 2015).

Entry requirement for ITT

All student who are joining ITT courses are required to hold GCSEs in English and
Maths in at least grade ‘C’. Person who want to join primary ITT courses or intend to
teach children with age 3-11 are also required to hold GCSE science with minimum grade
C. For postgraduate courses, undergraduate degree or equivalent is also prerequisite
(TDA, 2008, Roberts & Foste, 2015). Moreover, from September 2013, it is also required
to pass professional skills tests in literacy and numeracy before joining an ITT course.
Previously they may pass these tests during their ITT course (Roberts & Foste, 2015).

Teacher Training Agency’s skills test

In addition to the teacher education institution’s examinations, prospective teachers have to
take an examination for attaining license. For this purpose, they pass the Teacher Training
Agency’s skills test and attain a Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Teachers with QTS are
certified to teach students from pre-school through secondary education. At least 24 week
teaching practice is required for prospective teachers in England (Wang et. al., 2003).

Responsible bodies for teacher training

In England education is decentralized in nature and many functions are performed by
Local Education Authorities (or churches). However, main responsibility lies with the
national government and the central Department for Education and Skills. Initial Teacher
Training (ITT) is usually provided in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), but there are
also some school-based training schemes (DfES) (McKie & Jackson, n. d.). The

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responsibility for teacher education and certification is shared by Teacher Training
Agency, the Department for Education and Skills, the Office for Standards in Education,
and the General Teaching Council for England. These agencies monitor teacher education
and certification process and its various aspects like accreditation, entry and exit
requirements, initial certification, and induction programs. Teacher Training Agency is
responsible for reviewing and approving teacher education curriculum in England (Wang
et. al., 2003).

8.6 Elementary Teacher Education in Japan

Elementary education comprised six years in Japan. Children begin to start compulsory
elementary education at the age of 6 years of age. Almost all children are enrolled and 99
% are in public schools (Kanaya, 1988).

Types of Teaching Certificates

All current Japanese teachers must, under the Educational Personnel Certification Law of
1949, hold relevant teaching certificates. There are three types of teaching certificates:
second, first, and advanced. 2nd-Class License is an Undergraduate Diploma that is
obtained two years after secondary education. 1st-Class License is a Bachelor Degree that
is obtained in four years after secondary education. Advanced or Premier License is
obtained at Master Degree that is six years (4+2) of education after secondary education
(Iwata, 2004). There are two routes into teaching: the first is by a 2-year course at a
junior college, and the second is by a 4-year course at a university. Trainee teachers also
required to have at least 2 weeks of teaching practice in a local school (Lamie, 1998).

Undergraduate BA course
In Japan, primary school (G1-6) teachers are trained in undergraduate BA course (four
years after upper secondary school) in various institutes. Primary school teachers have
license for all subjects as they have to teach all subjects in schools. Their curriculum
covers all 9 subjects they teach at schools. They have 41+ subjects for education subjects
like basic theories, teaching methods, school management, curriculum structure, teaching
practice (2-4 weeks), 8+ subjects for school subjects, 10+ subjects for additional subjects
depending upon each institute’ s choice, 7days non-credit Nursing care experience in
their 124+ credit program (Iwata, 2004). Council for Educational Personnel Training is
responsible for reviewing and approving teacher education curriculum in Japan (Wang, et
al., 2003).

Type A and Type B teacher Training Institutes

Type A and Type B, there are two main types of teacher training institutes. Before 1949,
each Japanese province (prefecture) had its own Normal School for the training of
primary school teachers. Graduates of these Normal Schools were required to get
teachers’ license to be primary school teachers for several years. These Normal Schools
were turned into national universities. Since 1949, they award BA degree course and are
called “Universities and Faculties of Education” and constitute the Type A institutes.
These universities and faculties have teacher training course, and provide teacher’s
license for primary or secondary schools. Type A institutes are 47 in number.

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Besides these national “Universities and Faculties of Education”, there were many
national, private and provincial (municipal) colleges and universities that offer optional
course to get teachers’ license. Students of these colleges or universities are not required
to get the license. These Other Colleges and Universities constitute Type B institutes.
They are 459 or more in number, out of which about 50 institute provide license for
primary schools (Iwata, 2004).

Teaching certificates are granted by prefectural (regional) boards of education and all valid
in all prefectures. Appointment in public schools is made by the prefectural boards of
education on the basis of the result of recruitment examination. Elementary school teachers
are trained in the institutions of higher education, including universities, graduate schools
and junior colleges authorized by the ministry of education (Kanaya, 1988).

Limitation of teacher education system of Japan

There are following shortcomings in the teacher education system of Japan
1. The responsibilities of national, prefectural and municipal governments are not clear.
2. In many universities, the content of professional courses and other subjects of
teacher education programs has not adequately changed to deal with the changing
needs of children and the changing curricula of primary schools (UNESCO, 1990).
Training for Teacher Educators is not much intensive. Shortage of Schools for
Practice Teaching has been resulted due to the significant increase in the number of
applicants for teacher certificates. As a result, practice teaching is not much
rigorous. Two or four week practice teaching is supposed to be sufficient. Selection
procedures for teacher educators vary university to university. The most important
criteria in the recruitment of 'teacher educators' is the academic achievement and
practical aspects are usually neglected. Generally they are academically sound and
don’t have prior teaching experience. Teachers face a lack of support system in the
beginning of their careers (UNESCO, 1990).
3. Due to the decrease in the number of children, less teachers will be employed in the
next two decades. Consequently many persons with teacher certificates will not be
able to work as teachers. In-service training (INSET) programs are planned,
implemented and evaluated at different levels in different ways. (UNESCO, 1990).

8.7 Elementary Teacher Education in Malaysia

Structure of formal education in Malaysia comprised 6 years of primary, 3 years of lower
secondary, 2 years of upper secondary and 2 years of postsecondary education. Primary
education starts at the age of 6 years (Aziz & Ahmad, 1988).

Teacher education institutes in Malaysia

Teacher education in Malaysia is conducted at universities and teacher training institutes.
Universities produce graduate teachers and teacher education institutes award non-
graduate diplomas and Bachelor’s degrees (Schwille, Ingvarson, & Holdgreve-Resendez,
2013). The training of primary school teachers is solely carried out by teacher training
institutes which offer the four years Bachelor of Teaching with Honors (Primary

161
education) program (Ching & Yee, 2012). Teacher training for primary and lower
secondary schools is organized through teachers' colleges under the Ministry of
Education (Aziz & Ahmad, 1988; Schwille, et al., 2013). They are 28 in number
(Schwille, et al., 2013).

Teacher training programs

Teacher training programs include Five year Diploma of Education, Four year Bachelor
of Education, primary, and three year Malaysian Diploma of Teaching (Mathematics).
Bachelor of Teaching with Honors (Primary education) program was first launched in
2007. This program prepares primary school teachers for various specializations. The
main aim of this program is to produce quality primary school teachers in terms of
knowledge, skills and professional competencies in their respective subjects and in line
with the National Philosophy of Education (Ching & Yee, 2012). Non-graduate
Malaysian Teaching Diploma is the largest program for preparing primary school
teachers. However, Malaysia wants all of its primary teachers to be “graduate teachers”
with degrees rather than “non-graduate teachers” teachers with diplomas only.

The target of Ministry of Education was to have at least 50 percent graduate teachers in
primary schools by 2015. Diploma in Education and Bachelor of Education are offered
for preparing pre service primary teachers. Diploma in Education is offered to those who
already have a degree. The Malaysian teaching diploma is offered at the undergraduate
level (Schwille, et al., 2013).

Changes in teacher education programs

At the primary and lower secondary level, the structure of the teacher education program
experienced frequent changes between 1981 and 1986. In 1981, the three-year, pre-
service teacher education program introduced. It was slightly modified to accommodate a
semester system in 1985. Class/teacher ratio was improved in primary schools and part-
time training of attachment (temporary) teachers' colleges were increased from
5,000/6,000 to a record 10,000/11,000 in 1985. To meet increasing demand for teachers,
teacher education program was reduced to two and a half years in 1986 (Schwille, et al.,
2013). Scarcity of financial and human resources and physical facilities hindered the
implementation of most programs. In 1986, the increase in financial allocation for
primary and lower secondary teacher education was only ten per cent whereas student
intake was increased about 80 per cent compared to the previous year. Due to financial
constraints, development of five new teachers' colleges were delayed and existing
teachers' colleges were overcrowded. Supervision of students during teaching practice
was also affected (Schwille, et al., 2013).

Awareness was promoted regarding the improvement of pre-service and in-service teacher
education in terms of planning, organization content, and methodology. Rigorous student
selection procedures and decentralization in college organization and administration,
curriculum planning, and evaluation procedures was advocated to address the local needs.
Previously many secondary school teachers used to train teachers at the primary level. But
it was required then that future teacher educators should have teaching experience at the

162
primary school level so that they might be equipped with the essential skills to train the
teachers at that level (Schwille, et al., 2013). Systematic planning, implementation and
evaluation of staff development of in-service teacher education programs, intensification of
on-the-job in-house training in teachers' colleges, establishment of effective teacher centers
at the state and district levels, and the introduction of distance learning facilities were
emphasized to change teachers' behavior and to introduce innovations in the classroom
(Schwille, et al., 2013). Collaborative research between the teachers' colleges and the
universities was promoted since 1980s for better planning and implementation. Foundation
and other essential courses were made interesting, meaningful and effective to meet the
need of diversification (Schwille, et al., 2013).

Curriculum of Teacher Education Programs

The Teacher Education Division of the Ministry of Education sets the curriculum
requirements for teacher education institutes (the former teachers’ colleges) with the
approval from the ministry’s Central Curriculum Committee and the Malaysian
Qualification Agency (it has been accrediting all higher education offerings since 2007).
All teacher education institutes follow a common curriculum, which has six basic
components: teacher dynamics, knowledge and professional competence, subject options
and specialization (major and minor subjects), self-enrichment, co-curricular activities,
and practicum. There is about ten to 12 weeks of practicum. Testing and assessment in
Malaysian teacher education is multi-layered. Future teachers are required to pass
assessments, oral and written comprehensive examinations in all required subjects, and
the Malaysia Teacher Education Test (M-Test) or the Malaysian Educators Selection
Inventory (MEdSI). They also present a portfolio and undergo an assessment of their
classroom teaching competence and assessments of their knowledge and skills during
each of their courses (Schwille, et al., 2013).

Ministry of Education made a rigorous and systematic attempt to review the structure and
curriculum of teacher education programs. These programs are developed keeping in
view the national concerns, aspirations, changing needs of schools, and specific regional
requirements (Schwille, et al., 2013). Positive measures were introduced to attract more
men into the profession. Besides the rapid quantitative expansion of teacher education,
various 'qualitative improvements' were also introduced in the teacher education
curriculum to maintain high level of professional competency among teachers. Strategies
and concepts such as 'integration,' 'assimilation,' 'enrichment' and 'remediation' were
emphasized through pedagogical changes that were introduced in response to the New
Primary School Curriculum (NPSC). To promote awareness regarding national norms
and objectives and to reduce geographical division, subjects like Citizenship Education
and Islamic Civilization were introduced (Schwille, et al., 2013).

163
8.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Discuss elementary teacher education institutes and programs offered in Pakistan
2. Compare elementary teacher education in Pakistan with the elementary teacher
education of Malaysia and Turkey.
3. Compare elementary teacher education in Pakistan with the elementary teacher
education of Japan and UK.

8.9 References
Akyuz, Y. (2004). Turk Egitim Tarihi (Baslangictan 2004’e). 9th Ed. [History of Turkish
Education: From Beginning to 2004]. Ankara, Ani Yayinlari.

Aziz, A. A. & Ahmad, H. (1988). Malaysia. In T. Neville Postlethwaite (Ed.), The

Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education (pp.463-
467). Oxford: Pergamon press.

Bilim, C. Y. (1998). Turkiye’de Cagdas Egitim Tarihi [The History of Contemporary

Education in Turkey]. Eskisehir.

Binbasioglu, (1995). Turkiye’de egitim bilimleri tarihi (History of Educational Sciences

in Turkey). Istanbul: Milli Egitim Bakanligi (Ministry of Natioanl Edcucation)

Cakiroglu, E. & Cakiroglu, J. (1999). Reflections on Teacher Education in Turkey. Paper

Presented at the Annual Meeting of the “Journal of Curriculum Theorizing” (JCT)
Bloomington, IN, September.

Ching, C. P. & Yee, C. P. (2012). Primary Teacher Education in Malaysia, Journal of

International Education Research, 8 (4), 373-380.

Dilaver, H. H. (1994). Turkiye’de Ogretmen Yetistirme ve Istihdam Sartlari [The Teacher

Preparation and Employment Conditions in Turkey]. Istanbul.

Geändert, Z. (2011). Teacher education in United Kingdom and Germany. Retrieved

January 8, 2016 from https://www.sprachenzentrum.hu-berlin.de/de/studium-und-
lehre/studentische-beitraege/education_in_britain_and_germany/katja1.html

Ghafoor, A. (1988). Pakistan. In T. Neville Postlethwaite (Ed.). The encyclopedia of

comparative education and national systems of education (pp.499-538). Oxford:
Pergamon press.

Government of Pakistan. (1998a). National Education Policy 1998-2010. Islamabad,

Pakistan: Ministry of Education.

Government of Pakistan. (1998b). Population statistics. Islamabad: Ministry of

Economic Affairs and Statistics.

164
Government of Pakistan. (2009a). National Education Policy 2009. Islamabad, Pakistan:
Ministry of Education.

Government of Pakistan. (2009b). National professional standards for teachers in Pakistan.

Islamabad, Pakistan: Policy and Planning Wing of Ministry of Education.

Government of Pakistan. (2013). Pakistan Education Statistics 2011-12. Islamabad:

Academy of Educational Planning And Management.

Government of the Punjab. (2016). Recruitment policy – 2016 for educators and AEOs.
Lahore: School Education Department. Notification No. SO (SE-IV) 2-50/2015 dated
January 19, 2016

Grossman, G. M, & Sands, M. & Brittingham, B. (2010). International Journal of

Educational Development 30, 102–109.

Güven, I. (2008). Teacher education reform and ınternational globalization hegemony:

Issues and challenges in Turkish teacher education. International Journal of Social
Sciences, 3(1), 1-17.

Higher Education Commission, Pakistan. (2006). National Curriculum Review

Committee Report on B.Ed/ BS (Hons). Islamabad.

Iwata, Y. (2004). Recent Trends on Teacher Education Reform in Japan. 2004/10/23 at

Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.

Kanaya, T. (1988). Japan. In T. Neville Postlethwaite (Ed.). The encyclopedia of

comparative education and national systems of education (pp.403-409). Oxford:
Pergamon press.

Khan, H. K. (2011). Becoming teacher educators in Pakistan: voices from the

government colleges of education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 37(3), 325-335.

Koç, S., Ergezen, S., Ayas, A., Baki, A., Çepni, S., Kincal, R., et al. (1998). Faculty-
school Partnership. Ankara, Turkey: Turkish Council of Higher Education

Kocer, H. A. (1967). Turkiye’de Ogretmen Yetistirme Politikasi [the Policy of Teacher

Preparation in Turkey], Ankara.

Lamie, J. M. (1998). Teacher education and training in Japan. Journal of In-Service

Education, 24 (3), 515-534, DOI: 10.1080/13674589800200055

McKie, J. & Jackson, A. (n. d.). ESCalate Online Academic paper: Reflections on
Teacher Education in the Four Nations of the United Kingdom. The higher education
academy: Subject Centre for Education ESCalate.

National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE). (2009). National

Standards for Accreditation of Teacher Education programs.

165
Ozturk, C. (1996). Ataturk Devri Ogretmen Politikasi [the Policy of Teacher in Ataturk
Era]. Ankara.

Pre-STEP. (2010). Rationalization of Pre-Service Teacher Education Programs in

Pakistan. Islamabad: USAID.

Roberts, N., & Foste, D. (2015). Initial Teacher Training in England. House of
Commons Library Retrieved March 30, 2016 from
researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06710/SN06710.pdf

Schwille, J., Ingvarson, L., & Holdgreve-Resendez, R. (2013). TEDS-M Encyclopedia: A

Guide to Teacher Education Context, Structure, and Quality Assurance in 17 Countries
Findings from the IEA Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics
(TEDS-M). Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA) Secretariat.

Steven, S. S. & Demirezen, G. (2002). Student Mentor Teachers in Turkey: New program
Challenges Traditional Relationships. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association. New Orleans. LA.

Tarman, B. (2010). Global Perspectives and Challenges on Teacher Education in Turkey.

International Journal of Arts and Sciences, 3(17), 78-96.

TDA. (2008). Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status and Requirements for
Initial Teacher Training (Revised 2008). Retrieved March 31, 2016 from
https://www.rbkc.gov.uk/pdf/qts-professional-standards-2008.pdf

Turan, S. (2000). John Dewey’s Report of 1924 and his Recommendations on the Turkish
Educational System Revisited, History of Education, 29, 543-556.

Türkmen, L. (2007). The History of Development of Turkish Elementary Teacher

Education and the Place of Science Courses in the Curriculum. Eurasia Journal of
Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 3(4), 327-341.

UNESCO. (1990). Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for
Development: Innovations and Initiatives in Teacher Education in Asia and the Pacific
region. Volume 1: Comparative Overview of Fifteen Countries. Bangkok: UNESCO
Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.

Wang, A. H., Coleman, A. B., Coley, R. J., Phelps, R. P., & Educational Testing Service. (2003).

Preparing Teachers Around the World. Princeton, NJ: Policy Information Center,
Educational Testing Service.

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Unit 9

ELEMENTARY TEACHER
EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN
PAKISTAN

Written By: Dr. Aishah Siddiquah

Reviewed By:Prof. Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani

167
9.1 Introduction
This Unit gives a brief introduction about different teacher education programs offered in
Pakistan for elementary teachers. It also discusses the curriculum, and standards for
accreditation of teacher education programs. Recruitment policies that describe the
general and professional qualification required for elementary teachers in different
provinces of Pakistan are also discussed in this unit.

Elementary education consists of primary and middle level. Primary education is up to

grade 5 and middle is up to grade 8. Designation and required general and professional
qualification for elementary teachers is different in the four provinces of Pakistan. An
overview of recruitment policies at elementary level would be helpful for understanding
teacher education in Pakistan.

Punjab
In Punjab, according to recruitment policy 2016, elementary school educators (ESE) will
be recruited in grade 9 and Senior Elementary School Educators (SESE) will be recruited
in grade 14. Required academic qualification for ESE and SESE is 14 or 16 years of
education (2 or 4 years graduation or Masters). Difference in academic qualification
depends upon the nature of subject. Required professional qualification is B. Ed/ M. Ed/
MA Education both for ESE and SESE (Government of the Punjab, 2016).

Sindh
Junior Elementary School Teachers (JEST) are hired in BPS-14. Required qualification
for JEST is Associate Degree in Education (ADE) in 2nd Div. However till 2018
Graduation with B. Ed in 2nd Div. is also acceptable. Elementary School Teachers (EST)
serve in BPS-16. Required qualification for EST is BA and B. Ed (Hons) Elementary in
2nd Div. However till 2018, Masters with B. Ed in 2nd Div. is also acceptable.
Elementary School Teacher (EST) after completing 7 year of experience and mandatory
trainings may be promoted on seniority cum fitness basis to the Senior Elementary
School Teacher (SEST) with BPS-17.

Female teachers are hired as Early Childhood Teachers with BPS-15. Required
qualification for Early Childhood Teachers is Graduation with Diploma in Early
Childhood Education/ KG/ Montessori in 2nd Div. Early Childhood Teachers who have
completed 7 years of teaching experience and mandatory training through PITE or any
other approved university or institute may be promoted on seniority cum fitness basis to
Senior Early Childhood Teachers with BPS-16 (Government of Sindh, 2014).

KPK
The post of Primary School Teacher (PST) was upgraded to BPS-12 and the newly
upgraded/ designated post of Senior Primary School Teacher (Sr. PST) was approved in

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BPS-14. The post of Certified Teachers (CT) who are eligible for teaching in middle, high,
and higher secondary schools were upgraded to BPS-15 and the newly upgraded/
designated post of Senior Certified Teacher (Sr. CT) was approved for BPS-16. Arabic
Teachers (AT), Theology Teachers (TT), Drawing Masters (DM), and Physical Education
Teacher (PETs) are recruited in BPS-15 and Qari/Qaria in BPS-12 for teaching in middle,
high, and higher secondary schools. The BPS-16 posts of Senior Arabic Teachers (Sr. AT),
Senior Theology Teachers (Sr. TT), Senior Drawing Masters (Sr. DM), and Senior Physical
Education Teacher (Sr. PETs) and the BPS-15 post of senior Qari/Qaria are newly
upgraded/ designated posts (Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2012).

Required general qualification for PST is intermediate and professional qualification is

PTC/ Diploma in Education/ Associate Degree in Education. Required qualification for
Certified Teacher (CT) is graduation with Certificate in Teaching (CT)/ 2 years Associate
Degree in Education (ADE)/ 18 months Diploma in Education. Required qualification for
Arabic Teachers (AT) is Matriculation in 2nd Division with Shahadat ul Alamia fil
Uloomil Arabia Wal Islamia from a recognized institution or MA Arabic in 2nd Division,
for Theology Teacher (TT) is Matriculation in 2nd Division with Shahadat ul Alamia fil
Uloomil Arabia Wal Islamia from a recognized institution or MA Islamic Studies in 2nd
Division, for Drawing Masters (DM) is graduation with one year Drawing Master (DM)
course certificate, for Physical Education Teacher (PETs) is graduation with one year
Junior Diploma in Physical Education (JDPE) course or equivalent qualification from
Army and for Qari/Qaria is intermediate with Hifz e Quran and Sanad e Qirat from a
recognized institute.

Baluchistan
In Baluchistan, Junior Elementary Teacher are hired in BPS-15. Required qualification
for Junior Elementary Teachers is Associate Degree in Education (ADE). Physical
Education Teacher, Junior Arabic Teacher, Junior English Teacher, Junior English
Teacher (Tech), and Drawing Master are hired in BPS-14. For these posts, required
general qualification is Bachelors. In case of junior Arabic teacher, Shahdat-ul-Alia
(equivalent to Bachelor’s degree) or Dars e Nizami from HEC recognized institution is
also acceptable. Additional required qualifications for different posts are Diploma in
Physical Education, Arabic Teacher Training Certificate (ATTC) from Allama Iqbal
Open University, Certificate of Teaching (CT), one year training in respective trade from
a recognized Agro Technical Teacher Training Center, and Drawing Master Certificate or
Intermediate Drawing Grade Certificate respectively. Junior Vernacular Teacher and
Mualim e Quran are hired in BPS-9. Required general qualification for both of these
posts is intermediate. Required professional/ additional qualification is PTC and Sanad
from Wafq-ul-Madaris, Tanzeem-ul-Madaris or Sanad Shahadat-ul-Sanvia Khasa from a
recognized institution respectively (Government of Balochistan, 2013).

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9.2 Objectives
After the successful completion of this unit, the students will be able to
1. describe the professional qualification required for the elementary teachers in
different provinces of Pakistan
2. discuss various elementary teacher education programs offered in Pakistan
3. describe the curriculum of teacher education programs offered in Pakistan
4. discuss the scope, powers, and functions of Pakistan National Accreditation
Council for Teacher Education
5. describe the standards developed by NACTE for accreditation of teacher education
programs

9.3 Different Teacher Education Programs

An overview of the recruitment policies revealed that currently following teacher
education programs are acceptable for hiring teachers at elementary level:
1. CT, PTC (Required professional qualification in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
Baluchistan)
2. Diploma in Education (Required professional qualification in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa)
3. B. Ed (one year), M. Ed, and M. A. Education (Required professional qualification
in Punjab)
4. ADE (required professional qualification in Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and
Balochistan) and B. Ed Hons. Elementary (four years) (required professional
qualification in Sindh)
5. Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) and Certificate in Teaching (CT)

Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) and Certificate in Teaching (CT) are certificate-level
courses of one year’s duration for primary and elementary school teachers (Khan, 2011).
Entry qualification for one year Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) is matriculation and
for one-year certificate in teaching (CT) is Intermediate. PTC teachers teach at primary
level (I-V) teaching and CT teachers at middle level (VI-VIII) (UNESCO, 1990). PTC
and CT courses are offered in Government Elementary Colleges of Education (GECEs).
There are 90 GECEs in Pakistan, which are generally affiliated with the provincial
Bureau of Education for administrative purposes and the Board of Intermediate and
Secondary Educations for examination purposes (Khan, 2011). According to National
Education Policy 2009 (Government of Pakistan, 2009), PTC and CT shall be phased out
through encouraging the present set of teachers to improve their qualifications, while new
hiring shall be based on the advanced criteria. Exceptions shall be made in case of less
developed areas where teachers with relevant qualifications are not available.

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Diploma in Education
Two Diploma programs (one 10 plus 2 years and another 12 plus 1 and ½ years) were
introduced (Pre-STEP, 2010). According to National Education Policy 2009, Diploma in
Education (D. Ed) may be used as an intermediate qualification till B. Ed teachers are
available universally (Government of Pakistan, 2009).

B. Ed., M. Ed., and M. A. Education

The B. Ed is a one-year program. MEd is one-year program after the B. Ed. Bachelor of
Education (B. Ed) and Masters of Education (M. Ed) degree programs are being offered
at University departments, Institutes of Education and Research (IERs) and Government
Colleges of Education (GCEs). (Khan, 2011). There are 11 GCEs, four IERs, and some
university departments in the country (Government of Pakistan, 1998). According to
National Education Policy 2009 (Government of Pakistan, 2009) a Bachelor degree, with
a B.Ed. will be required for teaching at the elementary level.

Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and Four Year B. Ed. (Hons.) Elementary
Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and four year B. Ed. (Hons.) Elementary is
introduced by Higher Education Commission (HEC) in 2006 (Higher Education
Commission, Pakistan, 2006). The entry requirements is 12-years of schooling with a
minimum second division. Future teachers shall be prepared through this program (Pre-
STEP, 2010). The universities/ institutions may award an Associate Degree in Education
(ADE) after completing 2 years of B. Ed. (Hons.) Elementary course (Higher Education
Commission, Pakistan, 2012). Large numbers of qualified teachers will be required to
increase student access at primary school level. It was proposed that 2-year Associate
Degree in Education (ADE) should replace all Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC),
Certificate of Teaching (CT) and Diploma courses during the transition period 2011-2018
(Pre-STEP, 2010). It was proposed that elementary teachers should be trained through
four year intensive education just like other professionals like engineers, medical and law
practitioners are trained (Higher Education Commission, Pakistan, 2012).

9.4 Curriculum of Teacher Education Programs

National Education Policy 2009 recommended that Teacher education curriculum shall
be adjusted to the needs of the school curriculum and scheme of studies. The curriculum
shall include training for student-centered teaching, cross-curricular competencies, and an
on-site component (Government of Pakistan, 2009).

Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) and Certificate in Teaching (CT)

Both PTC and CT contain two semesters each of 18 weeks and 3 week short term and 5
week long term teaching practice. About 1000 marks are allocated in these programs for
10 Theory courses and 200 marks for teaching practice. PTC contains Principles of
Education and Methods of Teaching, Child Development and Counselling, School

171
organization and Classroom Management, Health and Physical Education, 6 courses in
methodology, and Teaching Practice of 200 marks. CT contains Theory and History of
Education, Child Development, General Methodology and Preparation, School and
Community Development, Counselling, Testing and Evaluation, Organization of
Elementary Education and School Management, 4 courses in methodology, and Teaching
Practice of 200 marks (National Committees on pedagogical subjects for elementary
teacher education and The Directors of Bureaux of curriculum and principals of
elementary teachers training institutions of Pakistan, 1983).

B. Ed, M. Ed and M. A. Education

Many universities and institutes offer these programs. The curricula of these programs
differ university to university.

Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and four year B. Ed. (Hons.) Elementary
B.Ed. (Hons.) is 124-136 credit hours program comprised general education core courses,
education foundation courses, professional pedagogy courses, content courses to develop
subject-matter proficiency in at least two disciplines of knowledge, a sequence of
supervised internships/ field experiences in schools. ADE is 64-68 credit hour programs
with courses in general education, content area and pedagogy and practical experiences.
ADE is aligned with and leads to the B.Ed. (Hons.) Program (Higher Education
Commission, Pakistan, 2012). Punjab has already started the policy of hiring elementary
teachers with B.A + B.Ed. (14+1 year) qualification. So the Punjab introduced 3 year
ADE program with 102 credit hours as it is equivalent to 14 + 1 nomenclature. Teachers
with 4 year B. Ed will get a higher salary than the teachers with ADE in Punjab (Pre-
STEP, 2010).

There are 6 Compulsory Courses in ADE containing 16 credit hours. These are
Functional English-I, English-II (Communication Skills), Computer Literacy, General
Mathematics, Pakistan Studies, Islamic Studies/ Ethics. All these courses contain 3 credit
hours except for the Pakistan Studies and Islamic Studies/ Ethics, which contain 2 credit
hours each. In B. Ed., there are 7 Compulsory Courses containing 19 credit hours.
Students of B. Ed. take 3 credit hour English – III (Technical Writing & Presentation
Skills) as compulsory course in addition to the courses of ADE.

There are 8 Professional Courses in ADE containing 22 credit hours. Methods of

Teaching Islamic Studies, Teaching Literacy Skills, Teaching of Urdu/Regional
Languages, Teaching of General Science, Instructional and Communication Technology
(ICT) in Education, Teaching of English, Teaching of Mathematics, and Teaching of
Social Studies are the Professional Courses for ADE. For B. Ed., there are 17
Professional Courses containing 51 credit hours. Additional Professional Courses include
Contemporary Issues and Trends in Education, Comparative Education, Introduction to

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Guidance and Counseling, Research Methods in Education, School Management, Test
Development and Evaluation, Research Project, Pedagogy-I (Methods of Teachings
related to specialization – I), Pedagogy – II (Methods of teaching related to specialization
– II). Instructional and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education and Teaching of
Social Studies are of 2 credit Hours. All other courses are of 3 credit hours.

Child Development, Classroom Management, General Methods of Teaching, Classroom

Assessment, and School, Community and Teacher are the 5 Foundation Courses for ADE
containing 15 credit hours. For B. Ed., there are 8 Foundation Courses containing 24
credit hours. Additional Foundation Courses include Foundations of Education,
Curriculum Development, and Educational Psychology.

There are 3 Content Courses in ADE containing 9 credit hours. These are Urdu/ Regional
Languages, General Science, Art, Crafts and Calligraphy. For B. Ed., there are 9 Content
Courses containing 26 credit hours. Students of B. Ed., have to study 6 other Content
Courses to be selected from two different sets of disciplines. One content course is of 2
credit hours. Rest of the courses contains 3 credit hours each.

In ADE, Teaching Practice is of 6 credit hours and is conducted in two phases, each
session of 3 credit hours. Teaching Practice for B. Ed. is of 15 credit hours and is
conducted in four phases. There are three Short Term Teaching Practice sessions of 3
credit hours and one Long Term Teaching Practice containing 6 credit hours (Higher
Education Commission, Pakistan, 2012).

9.5 Accreditation Issues in Teacher Education

Improving teachers’ pedagogical approaches is the most significant action for improving
the elementary school education. Improving and reforming the quality of teacher
education is the highest priority among the pillars of improving the quality of education
(Government of Pakistan, 2009a).

For determining the quality of a program or institution against some standards, there is
a procedure called accreditation. Accreditation is a peer reviewed process usually
conducted by competent agencies that prepare and apply standards for evaluation
(UNESCO, 2006). Higher Education Commission established the Rules for the
Pakistan Accreditation Council for Teacher Education in 2005 (Higher Education
Commission, 2005).

Scope and Powers

Higher Education Commission (2005) described the scope and powers of the
Accreditation Council for Teacher Education as follows:

173
1. All the existing teacher education degree and postgraduate diploma programs shall
be within the jurisdiction of the Council. Any new program in teacher education
shall also be referred to the Council for the grant of accreditation.
2. The accreditation will be for specific degree programs and not institutions.
3. Accreditation shall be mandatory for all relevant education academic programs
offered by public and private sector institutions.
4. The Council shall assist and advise teacher education institutions in planning their
academic programs.
5. The Council will facilitate the intellectual development of prospective teachers
interested in pursuing the teaching profession and provide professional assistance
to the concerned organizations.

Functions of the Council

According to Higher Education Commission (2005), main functions of the Council shall
be the following:
1. develop and review policies and procedures for accreditation of teacher education
programs
2. establish criteria on which teacher education programs shall be assessed and
equated
3. publish a list of ranking of teacher education programs
4. promote intellectual development and understanding of subject areas in the
teaching profession; and
5. collect, publish, and disseminate information and research findings on teaching
profession and to facilitate the teacher education institutions for quality assurance

HEC has established the National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education
(NACTE), which is an autonomous body for the quality assurance and improvement of
the teacher education programs. NACTE is responsible to accredit the teacher education
programs offered by the public and private institutions of the country (National
Accreditation Council for Teacher Education, 2009).

Standards for Accreditation of Teacher Education Programs

NACTE developed the Standards for Accreditation of Teacher Education Programs,
which are as follows (National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education, 2009):

Conceptual Framework
The program has developed a vision to prepare committed and competent teachers and
educationists

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Standard 1: Curriculum and Instruction
Curriculum is properly designed to attain the National Professional Standards for
Teachers, is approved by the competent authority and disseminated to all concerned.

Standard 2: Assessment and Evaluation System

The institution has a fair and transparent assessment and monitoring system for assessing
various traits of prospective teachers from entry to exit of the program, monitoring the
performance of the teacher educators and evaluating institutional functioning for
individual and institutional consumption and program improvement.

Standard 3: Physical Infrastructure, Academic Facilities and Learning Resources

The program is provided with adequate and necessary facilities, infrastructure and
learning resources to prepare teachers. Prescribed curriculum is being followed and there
are opportunities for supervised teaching practice and internship through linkages with
the school system.

Standard 4: Human Resources

The program is conducted through an inbuilt staff-development mechanism and the
institution maintains, develops and supports experienced leadership, qualified teacher
educators and competent support staff.

Standard 5: Finance and Management

There is transparent, competent and strategic management of administrative and financial
matters of the program and its host institution.

Standard 6: Research and Scholarship

The program facilities its educators and prospective teachers to undertake research, at the
individual and institutional level.

Standard 7: Community Links and Outreach

The institution has link and interacts with its community to mutually support each other
to develop and strengthen an equitable society.

9.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Describe the professional qualification required for the elementary teachers in
different provinces of Pakistan.
2. Discuss various elementary teacher education programs being offered in Pakistan.
3. Describe the curriculum of teacher education programs being offered in Pakistan.
4. Discuss the scope, powers, and functions of Pakistan National Accreditation
Council for Teacher Education
5. Describe the standards developed by NACTE for accreditation of teacher education
programs

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