THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

a reviewer for Architecture Students

2021
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 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
ELEMENTS OF FORM AND SPACE
TRANSFORMATION AND ARRANGEMENT
SPATIAL ORGANIZATION AND BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN AND PROPORTION
PROXEMICS AND TERRITORIALITY
AESTHETICS AND COLOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION
DESIGNING THE USE OF SPACE: METHODS AND PROCESSES
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION
“When these relationships are perceived as mutually reinforcing and contributing to the
singular nature of the whole, then a conceptual order exists—an order that may well be
more enduring than transient perceptual visions.”
Engineering: functional, structurally sound, economical
Architecture
• functional, structurally sound, beautiful
• the process that we instinctively recognize as the genius of growth and creation.
• gives form to the invisible pulses and rhythm of life.
• The physical manifestation of the power is a consequence of the desire for the
invisible to be made visible.
• A conceived idea rationalized and materialized into a physical structure as a
response to a set of conditions:
o cultural
o technological and material
o environmental or physical
o social
o economic
• Addresses existing unsatisfactory conditions or problems through problem-solving
or design process to create a desirable solution.

Architecture as an Art

• Art: product or result of architectural work

• Architecture manipulates arrangement, ordering of forms, and spaces
determining
o Promotion of endeavors
o Eliciting of responses
o Communicating meaning

Architecture as a Science

• Physical Science: style or method of building

• Social Science: characteristic of people, place, or time
• Architecture’s physical manifestations primarily accommodate human activity.

Design(ing) Process
• profession of designing buildings and other habitable environments.
• recognition of an undesirable condition.
• decision to find a solution. Initial Phase

Design and Designer

Design

• a willful act and a purposeful endeavor

Stages of Design fulfilled by Designer according to Francis D.K. Ching

• Documentation of existing conditions

• Defining of context
• Collecting of relevant data

Designer

• Inevitably and instinctively prefigure solutions.

• Depth and range of one’s design vocabulary are influenced by perception of a
question and shaping of an answer.

Construct(ing)
• conscious act of forming things resulting in a unifying or coherent structure.
• Buildings.
Etymology of Architecture
• Greek Words
o “archi” means first and original
o “tect” means the ability to put things together.
• Sanskrit Root: “arts” means everything in its right place.
Fundamental Desires of Man
• Desire for Preservation: in obtaining food, shelter, clothing and security, civilized
man must have commerce, government and religion. These activities call for their
accompanying structures or architecture.
• Desire for Recognition: This is a desire for prestige, pride and ambition, social status,
physical supremacy, intellectual attainment, personal or civic, result in the struggle
for position. As a result, man build palaces, skyscrapers, or communities may erect
cathedrals or public buildings and monuments.
• Desire for Response: This arises from the gregarious nature of man, from his wish for
love, friendship, and sociability. In seeking the companionship of his fellow
creatures, man congregates. His social instincts call for fraternal buildings and city
clubs. His semi-public buildings must contain banquet halls and ball rooms; his
home must have a living room to make human association possible.
• Desire for Self-Expression: This is the urge of man to assert himself as an individual.
To do things in his own particular way. This is responsible for aesthetic expression;
for architecture in its highest form, which result in building of theatres, museums,
etc. To show that he is the best in sports or recreation, encouraged the building of
stadia, bowling alleys, gymnasiums, etc.
From: Architectural Theories of Design by George S. Salvan.

Theory of Architecture
• presents architecture as logical and artistic endeavor in designing shelters,
buildings, and man-made environment.
• a guide to understanding people’s appreciation, utilization and behavior inside
built environs, which are relevant to the design process.
 • delves in several theories and methodologies, understand the relationships
between the physical environment and human behavior, various ways people
perceive the surroundings, proxemic sensitivities, and sensibilities in organizing
forms and space.
Theory
• structured ideas that explain a phenomenon and allow you to predict future
phenomenon given certain conditions.
• analysis of a set of facts in relation to one another
• belief, policy or procedure proposed or followed as basis of action.
• an ideal or hypothetical set of facts, principles or circumstances of a body of fact
on science or art
• a plausible or scientifically accepted general principle or body of principles
offered to explain phenomenon.
Forms or Types of Theory
• Descriptive: Explains phenomenon or events; neutral – does not lean towards any
ideology
• Prescriptive: Prescribes bases or guidelines
• Critical: Challenges relationships between architecture and society
Architectural Theory
• ideas that explain phenomenon related to spaces or environment, people’s use
of these spaces, people’s perception of these spaces, and people’s behavior
within these spaces.
• a collection of thoughts, views, and ideas
• organized by theme or topic.
• evolution of thoughts
• combination of various thoughts, speculations and concepts
• answer questions in the design of spaces such as:
o How to compose a dynamic character for buildings? A formal character? A
relaxing character? A welcoming character?
o Why is visual appeal essential in architecture?
o How do people identify the main entrances of a building? And why is it
important that people readily identify the entrance of a building?
o Why are churches often symmetrically built, with high ceiling, tall doors, and
windows placed at higher elevation compared to other structures? Why are
churches often monumental? How come toilet doors and ceiling are often
built lower and smaller than those of a church?
o Why are cool colors better used in bedrooms and areas meant for relaxation,
while bright colors are better for activity areas such as gyms, kitchen, and
workshops?
o What spatial qualities are required for work that demand intense
concentration?
o Why is it better to use push plates instead of doorknobs for emergency exits?
“There is no grand theory or unified theory of architecture.”
DESIGN, DESIGNER, AND ARCHITECTURE
Condition
• Set of challenges, opportunities, threats and needs, which when understood
correctly can lead the designer to come up with an architecture which is able to
adopt and improve the original situation for the users of the designated
architecture
Kinds of Conditions
• Cultural
• Technological and material
• Environmental or physical
• Social
• Economic
Design
• A problem-solving process, particularly one that helps improve conditions for
various human activities.
• A process of pre-figuring-out a set of solutions to a given set of conditions that
needs to be addressed.
Designer
• A solution seeker
Designer must-haves
• Depth and range of design vocabulary (come from training and experiences in
architecture)
• Ability to perceive and evaluate design problems (ability to recognize problems
or anomalies, determine the aspects in a certain set of conditions that need to be
resolved, and which can be resolved with architectural solutions)
Components of Architectural Solution
• Beauty or aesthetics
• Space flow
• Adjacency
• Area and space
• Ease of use
These must always lead to the promotion of human activity, particularly that of the
users.
Beauty or Aesthetics
• A structure must be endearing for its users for them to place greater value on the
structure and for the society to consider it as something that adds pride and
character to the neighborhood.
Space Flow
• The experience of space through time and movement of the building’s users
• May define the experience of movement through the building from going to either
a public space to an intimate place, from a less secure area to a high security
place space, from a place of high activity to a place of relaxation, or from a semi-
outdoor area to a completely controlled environment.
Adjacency
• A factor that affects space flow and shows the value of placing certain spaces
near or far from each other.
Area and Space
• What we arranged in an order and as components of a particular space flow
• Require identification of its physical limits, types of enclosure, relevant ambiance,
necessary equipment and allowable occupancy.
• Defined by their function and users and have a significant effect on user’s activity
within the building.
Ease of Use
• Allows building users to better perform their activities within its premises.
Architectural Systems
• Architecture: space, structure, enclosure
o Organizational pattern, relationships, hierarchy
o Qualities of shape, color, texture, scale, proportion
o Qualities of surfaces, edges, and openings
• Experience: movement, space-time
o Approach and entry
o Path configuration and access
o Sequence of spaces
o Light, view, touch, hearing, and smell
• Means: technology
o Structure and enclosure
o Environmental protection and comfort
o Health, safety, and welfare
o Durability
• Accommodation: program
o User requirements, needs, aspirations.
o Socio-cultural factors
o Economic factors
o Legal restraints
o Historical traditional and precedents
• Compatibility: context
o Site and environment
o Climate – sun, wind, temperature, and precipitation
o Geography – soils, topography, vegetation and water
 o Sensory and cultural characteristics of the place
Orders
• Physical:
o Architecture: Spatial System
o Means: Structural System
• Perceptual:
o Experience: Enclosure System
o Accommodation: Circulation System
• Conceptual:
o Compatibility: Context

Table of Architectural Systems and Orders

based on Architecture: Form, Space, & Order 4th ed. By Francis D.K. Ching

Architectural Systems
Order
Feature Function System
Space, Structure,
Architecture Spatial System
& Enclosure Physical
Technology Means Structural System
Movement in
Experience Enclosure System
Space and Time
Perceptual
Circulation
Program Accommodation
System
Context Compatibility Context Conceptual
ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS

Space: is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have
relative position and direction.
The Architecture of Space, Structure, Enclosure
• Organizational pattern, relationships, clarity, hierarchy
• Formal image and spatial definition
• Qualities of shape, color, texture, scale, proportion
• Qualities of surfaces, edges, and openings
Experienced through Movement in Space-Time (Circulation)
• Approach and entry
• Path configuration and access
• Sequence of spaces
• Light, view touch, sound, and smell
Achieved by means of Technology
• Structure and enclosure
• Environmental protection and comfort
• Health, safety, and welfare
• Durability and sustainability
Accommodating a Program (Function)
• User requirements, needs, aspirations.
• Sociocultural factors
• Legal constraints
• Historical tradition and precedents
Compatible with its Context
• Site and environment
• Climate: sun, wind, temperature, precipitation
• Geography: soils, topography, vegetation, water
• Sensory and cultural characteristics of the place
…& Orders
Physical
Form and Space: Solids and voids; Interior and exterior
Systems and organizations of
• Space
• Structure
• Enclosure
• Machines
Perceptual: Sensory perception and recognition of the physical elements by
experiencing them sequentially in time.
• Approach and departure
• Entry and egress
 • Movement through the order of spaces
• Functioning of and activities within spaces
• Qualities of light, color, texture, view, and sound.
Conceptual: Comprehension of the ordered or disordered relationships among a
building’s elements and systems and responding to the meanings they evoke.
• Images
• Patterns
• Signs
• Symbols
• Context
SYSTEMS
Spatial Systems
• The three-dimensional integration of program elements and spaces
accommodates the multiple functions and relationships of a house.
Structural System
• A grid of columns supports horizontal beams and slabs.
• The cantilever acknowledges the direction of approach along the longitudinal
axis.

Enclosure System
• Four exterior wall planes define a rectangular volume that contains the program
elements and spaces.
Circulation System
• The stair and ramp penetrate and link the three levels and heighten the viewers
perception of forms in space and light.

Context
• A simple exterior form wraps around a complex interior organization of
forms and spaces.
• Elevating the main floor provides a better view and avoids the humidity of
the ground.
• A garden terrace distributes sunlight to the spaces gathered around it.
ELEMENTS OF FORM AND SPACE
Architectural Elements
Architectural elements have different forms. Human’s visual stimuli primarily processes
appreciation and interest which is why it is common to notice and appreciate visual
elements first. This makes visual elements the primary architectural elements that are
appreciated and experienced by a building’s viewers and users.
Primary Elements in Architecture

Geometry allows showing some of the most

basic of visual ideas into an abstract yet
graphic representations. Hence, the four
primary elements in architecture are:

• Point
• Line
• Plane
• Volume or 3-dimensional figures or
solids

Point
• A point is a non-dimensional entity in geometry
• No dimension, length, width nor height
• Significance lies on its location in space relative to other entities
• It often defines strategic location, and such as the following:
o vertex
o Center
o Middle
o intersection of 2 or more lines at the same spot
o apex, pinnacle, or summit
o origin or destination
o pivot
• usually defines a focus, a highlight, the beginning,
an end, or an accent
• better defined by its relationship to others
o a corner
o the tip of a spire
o the center of a rose window
o the tip of a lancet arch
• The location of a point with respect to other elements can also evoke a meaning
or a mood
o A central location with respect to a circle can mean a formal stable
relationship
o an off-center location shows a dynamic one.
• Indicates a position in space.
Point as a Marker in Space or Ground Plane
• Projected vertically into linear form because it has no dimension
• Seen physically as a column, obelisk, or tower
• Points in plans are columnar elements
Two Points
• describe the connection between a finite line or a segment of a longer path

• can also suggest an AXIS perpendicular to the line they describe and about which
they are symmetrical
• denote a gateway in plan
Line
• Extension of a point, also referred to as a segment.
• Visually expresses direction, movement, and growth
• Critical element in the formation of any visual
construction
• A line can:
o Join, link, support, surround, or intersect other
visual elements
o Describe the edges of and give shape to
planes
o Articulate the surfaces of planes
• Orientations of lines and its role in visual construction
o Vertical: A state of equilibrium with the force of gravity; symbolize human
condition, or mark a position in space
o Horizontal: stability, ground plane, horizon, body at rest
o Oblique Line: is a deviation from the vertical or horizontal (//) slanted;
dynamic and visually active in its unbalanced state
Linear Elements
• Vertical Linear Elements
o Commemorate significant events and establish particular points in space
o Define transparent volume of space
o Structural functions
o Express movement across space
o Provide support for overhead plane
o Form three-dimensional structural frame for architectural space
• Axis
o A regulating line established by two distant points in space and about
which elements are symmetrically arranged
• Linear form of Architectural Spaces
 o Accommodate path of movement through a building and link its spaces to
one another
• Repetitive spaces organized along a circular path
o Enclose exterior spaces
o Adapt to the environmental conditions of a site
• Articulation of edges and surfaces of planes and volumes
o Use of joints, frames, structural grid of columns and beams
o Depending on the elements’ visual weight, spacing, and direction, linear
elements create distinct surface textures.
Linear Elements Defining Planes
• Two parallel lines: closer lines produce stronger sense of plane
• Series of parallel lines: repetitiveness reinforces human perception of the plane
• Rows of columns and pilasters: articulate penetrable boundaries of spatial zones
• Colonnades: often used for public façade of a building
• Vertical and horizontal linear elements: define a volume of space
Plane
• Intersection of two or more lines
• Serves to define the limits or boundaries of 3D volumes of mass and space
Shape: primary identifying characteristic of a plane
• Square
• Triangle
• Circle
General Characteristics of Planes
• Texture: sensed through touch
• Color: visually sensed
• Shape or form: visually sensed
• Size (area of volume): visually sensed
• Visual Inertia: visual impression depicting stability or movement

Properties of Each Plane determining visual attributes of form and qualities of space
• Size
• Shape
• Color
• Texture
• Spatial Relationship of the Properties to one another
Supplementary properties of a plane affecting visual weight and stability
• Surface
• Color
• Pattern
• Texture
Three generic types of planes
• Overhead Plane: roof plane that spans and shelters
the interior spaces of a building.
• Wall Plane: is active in our field of vision because of
its vertical orientation, shapes and encloses an
architectural space.
• Base Plane: can either be a ground plane or a
physical foundation and visual base for building
forms.
Planar Elements
Ground plane
• Supports all architectural construction
• The building can merge with, rest firmly on, or be elevated above the ground
plane
• Can be manipulated to establish a podium for a building form
o Elevated to honor sacred or significant places
o Bermed to define outdoor spaces or buffer against undesirable conditions
o Carved or terraced for a suitable platform to build on
o Stepped to allow changes in elevation to be easily traversed.
Floor Plane
• Horizontal element sustaining the force of gravity as users move around and place
object to use
• May be:
o A durable covering of ground plane
o Artificial, elevated plane spanning the space between its supports
• Flooring material influences acoustical quality and how users feel upon walking
across the surface
• Form may be:
o Stepped or terraced to break the scale of a space down to human
dimensions and create platforms for sitting, viewing, or performing
o Elevated to define sacred of honorable places
o Rendered as neutral ground against which other elements in a space are
seen as figures
Exterior Wall Planes
• Isolate portions of space creating a controlled interior environment
• Provides privacy and protection from climatic elements
 • Openings within or between boundaries reestablish a connection with the exterior
environment
• Shape exterior space and describe the form, massing, and image of a building in
space
• As a design element, it can be articulated as the front or primary façade of a
building (e.g: walls defining courtyards, streets, public gathering places such as
squares and marketplaces).
Interior Wall Planes
• Govern the size and shape of internal spaces or rooms within a building
• Visual properties, relationships, size, and distributions of openings within boundaries
determine quality of defined spaces and degree to which adjoining spaces relate
to one another
• As a design element, it can merge with the floor or ceiling plane, or be articulated
as an element isolated from adjacent spaces
• Doorways and windows reestablish continuity with neighboring spaces and allow
the passage of light, heat, and sound
• Views seen through the openings become part of the spatial experience
Ceiling Plane
• Often out of reach and is almost always a purely visual event in a space
• Can symbolize the sky vault or be the primary sheltering element unifying different
parts of a space
• Form can be manipulated to control the quality of light or sound within a space
Roof plane
• Essential sheltering element protecting the interior of a building from climatic
elements
• As a design element, the roof plane is significant because of the impact it can
have on the form an silhouette of a building within its setting
• Can be:
o Hidden from view by the exterior walls
o Merge with the walls to emphasize volume of building mass
• Expressed as a single sheltering form encompassing various spaces beneath its
canopy or comprise a number of hats articulating series of spaces within a single
building
• Can extend outward forming overhangs shielding door and window openings
from climatic elements or continue downward further to relate itself more closely
to the ground plane
• Climatic conditions can shape roof planes and forms
Volume
• a plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Has three
dimensions: length, width, and depth.
• Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume
• Can either be:
o Solid: Space displaced by mass
 o Void: Space contained or enclosed by planes
• Can be seen to be:
o Plan and Section: space defined by wall, floor, ceiling or roof planes
o Elevation: Space displaced by the mass of a building
Volumetric Elements
• Building forms that stand as objects in the landscape can be read as occupying
volumes in space
• Building forms that serve as containers can be read as masses that define volumes
of space
Properties of Primary Visual Elements in Architecture
Element Visual Other sensational properties
Point Position (role), location n/a
Position, direction & visual inertia,
Line n/a
length
Position, orientation & visual inertia, Surface texture, rigidity or
Plane
area softness / flexibility
Position, orientation & visual inertia, Surface texture, rigidity or
Solid / 3D Figure
volume softness / flexibility
FORM AND SPACE
Architectural Form
• Suggests reference to both internal structure and external outline and the principle
that give unity to the whole
• The point of contact between mass and space
• Its properties, dimensions, volume, color, texture, and orientation offer large
opportunities for variation and transformation
Properties of Form
• Shape
o Characteristic outline or surface configuration of a particular form
o Principal aspect by which we identify and categorize forms
• Size
o Physical dimensions of length, width, and depth of a form
o Determine proportions of a form
o Scale is determined by the size relative to other forms in its context
• Color
o Phenomenon of light and visual perception described in terms of hue,
saturation, and tonal value.
o Most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment
o Affects visual weight of a form
• Texture
o Visual and tactile quality given to a surface by the size, shape,
arrangement, and proportions of the parts
o Determines the degree to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb
incident light
• Position
o Location of form relative to its environment or the visual field within which it
is seen
• Orientation
o Direction of a form relative to the ground plane, the compass points, other
forms, or to the person viewing the form
• Visual Inertia
o Degree of concentration and stability of a form
o Depends on its geometry and orientation relative to the ground plane, the
pull of gravity, and our line of sight
Overview of Form and Space
• According to Lao Tsu, it is in the void or space that we find the purpose of the
objects that we create. It is the space defined by the objects that we take
advantage of such objects. It is the space defined by the architectural form that
we see the value of architecture. In this sense, the theory on the unity of the
opposites is manifested.
The Unity of Opposites
• Positive elements: perceived figures
 • Negative elements: background for figures
• Positive elements attract attention due to the contrasting background therefore,
figures and their background form an inseparable reality referred to as a unity of
opposites. This is similar to the elements of form and space forming architectural
reality.
Composition
• As a visual stimulus, it depends on how we interpret the interaction between the
negative space and the positive elements (solids) that we see. The play of figures
and space is interpreted by our minds as an organization of sorts from which we
take cue as to how to react, behave, or appreciate the visual stimuli
Figure-Ground Theory
Allows us to study a situation by means of considering either the solid only or the space
on as the focus of investigation
Important Elements Serving as the Surface of Interaction between Solids and Spaces
• Base Plane
• Overhead Plane
• Vertical Plane
• Incline Plane
When combined, these surface allow viewers to appreciate the defined spaces visually
and by their utility. Visual appreciation of spaces are factors not only of the surfaces that
define them, but also by means of how these spaces are physically arranged
(organization), their proximity to each other (adjacencies) and by how we experience
these spaces through movement across them (circulation).
Horizontal Elements Defining Space
• Base Plane: A horizontal plane laying as a figure on a contrasting background
defines a simple field of space.
o Plain base plane: leveled with the ground or surrounding environment or
with limited elevation that is visually negligible (e.g.: plaza, porch, spaces
adjacent to each other with similar floor levels)
o Elevated Base Plane: A horizontal plane elevated above the ground plane
establishes vertical surfaces along its edges that reinforce the visual
separation between its field and the surrounding ground
▪ Visual continuity are inclined with elevated space having the
vantage view
▪ Spatial and visual continuity is maintained
▪ Space discontinued while maintaining visual continuity
▪ Visual and spatial flow is interrupted
• Depressed Base Plane: Depressed or sunken into the ground plane, this utilizes the
vertical surfaces of the lowered area to define a volume of space
• Overhead Plane
o A horizontal plane located overhead defines a volume of space between
itself and the ground plane; least visually stable
 o Least visually stable and generally serve as a roof, ceiling, or canopy
o These elements can significantly affect physical comfort levels and
concentration on detailed tasks.
o Create varying effects with its:
▪ Openings
▪ Light
▪ Height
▪ Curves or inclination
▪ Levels and variety in planes
▪ Acoustic properties

Vertical Elements Defining Space

• Vertical Linear Elements: Define the perpendicular edges of a volume of space
(e.g.: pavilion/pergola, stoa, street lined with trees, arcade, colonnades); least
private, most extrovert
• Single Vertical Plane: Articulates the space on which it fronts (e.g: exterior walls of
buildings, fences, billboards)
• L-shaped Plane: generates a field of space from its corner outward along a
diagonal axis (e.g.: exterior walls of buildings, fences, partitions, private outdoors)
• Parallel Planes: Two parallel vertical planes define a volume of space between
them that is oriented axially toward both open ends of the configuration (e.g.:
hallway walls, fences, street lined with buildings)
• U-shaped Plane or Semi-enclosure: defines a volume of space that is oriented
primarily toward the open end of the configuration (e.g.: alcove, niche, vestibule)
• Four Planes or Closure or Complete Enclosure): Establish the boundaries of an
introverted space and influence the field of space around the enclosure (e.g.:
courtyard, rooms, atrium); most private, introvert
Vertical planes create varying effect with its:
• Texture and color
• Openings
• Light
• Height
• Curves or inclination
• Levels and variety in planes
• Acoustic properties
• Structural stability as overhead planes’ support
Opening in Space-Defining Elements
• Within Planes: located wholly within a wall or ceiling plane and be surrounded on
all sides by the surface of the plane
o Centered
o Off-center
o Grouped
o Deep-set
 o Skylight
• At Corners: located along one edge or at a corner of a wall or ceiling plane
o Along one edge
o Along two edges
o Turning a corner
o Grouped
o Skylight
• Between Planes: extended vertically between the floor and ceiling planes or
horizontally between two wall planes; grows in size to occupy an entire wall of a
space
Qualities of Architectural Space
Properties of Enclosure Qualities of Space
Shape or Figure Form
Color
Surface Texture
Pattern
Surface’s Acoustic Quality Sound
Texture
Edges Pattern
Sound
Proportion
Dimensions
Scale
Orientation & Position or Configuration Definition
Degree of Enclosure
Openings View, outlook, sightlines
Light
TRANSFORMATION AND ARRANGEMENT
Transformation of Plane
It is generally difficult to change the form of a point as it only possesses the most basic
of visual element property, its position or location. If one changes its only property, it
simply is transferred, and not transformed. A line, when transformed can be shortened
or elongated, stretched, or curved, or can be made more stable, more upright, or more
dynamic, depending on its original position. When a line is bent, a new dimension is
added, which may result to a plane, or even a 3-dimensional element.
A plane’s transformation has a more significant visual impact. When planes serving as a
floor are extended/expanded, a different impact is created. In architecture, think of
this as if looking at a wall while moving through space with the wall being extended or
rising in height or falling to a certain depth. Another image of a plane being
transformed in architecture is that of sliding doors that open or fold depending on the
needs of the users.
• Extension or Expansion

• Curving or Rolling

• Rotation

• Folding (e.g: origami)

Primary Solids – basic building blocks of visual figures
• Sphere: solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter,
whose surface is at all points equidistant from the center
• Cone: A solid generated by the revolution of a right triangle about one of its sides
• Pyramid: A polyhedron having a polygonal base and triangular faces meeting at
a common point or vertex
• Cylinder: A solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides
• Cube: A prismatic solid bounded by six equal square sides, the angle between
any two adjacent faces being a right angle
• Prisms
Gestalt Psychology: Human minds simplifying objects to easily grasp and understand their
relationship and structure

Transformation of Form
All other forms can be understood to be transformations of primary solids, variations which
are generated by the manipulation of one or more dimensions or by the addition or
subtraction of elements.
• Dimensional Transformation
o A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and
still retain its identity as a member of a family of forms
 o Change made by means of changing any of the figure’s dimensions
(length, width, height, volume) while maintaining its characteristics that
allow it to remain in its original family of forms

• Subtractive Transformation (resulting to subtractive forms)

o A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume
o Depending on the extent of subtraction, the form can retain its initial
identity or be transformed into a form of another family
o Basically, subtractive transformation may or may not result to the retention
of the figure’s identity

• Additive Transformation (resulting to additive forms)

o A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its volume
o The nature of the additive process and the number and relative sizes of the
elements being attached determine whether the identity of the initial form
is altered or retained.
o It is likely to change the group classification of the figure and possibilities of
resulting to a new form seem endless.
o This transformation has a variety of means of attachment or addition of new
figures into the original object such as:
▪ Spatial Tension: close proximity arrangement and angular vertex
contact (common point)
▪ Edge to edge contact (common lines)
▪ Face to face contact (common surface)
▪ Interlocking volumes
Additive Form
• Centralized form: a number of secondary forms clustered about a dominant,
central form
• Linear form: series of forms arranged sequentially in a row
• Radial form: composition of linear forms extending outward from a central form in
a radial manner
• Clustered form: collection of forms grouped together by proximity or the sharing
of a common visual trait
• Grid form: a set of modular forms related and regulated by a 3D grid
Formal Collisions of Geometry
• When two forms differing in geometry or orientation collide and interpenetrate
each other’s boundaries, each will vie for visual supremacy and dominance

• Forms can evolve:

o The two forms can subvert their individual identities and merge to create a
new composite form

o One of the two forms can receive the other totally within its volume

o The two forms can retain their individual identities and share the interlocking
portion of their volumes
 o The two forms can separate and be linked by a third element that recalls
the geometry of one of the original forms

• Similar to additive transformation in the sense that forms or similar or various shapes
are added to form the final shape.
• Term used when the shapes added compete for visual dominance
• Suggests a movement which adds to the impression created by the resulting figure
• Movement may appear as:
o Head-on collision similar to simple additive transformation
o Combined another movement such as rotation, twisting, sliding, etc.
Articulation of Surfaces, Corners, and Edges in Architecture
Form transformation is only one method with which we enrich the visual impact of our
design. But it is not the only method. We usually combine transformation with other means
that add visual complexity such as by adding texture, pattern, color, highlights, frame,
etc., aside from forms. For this type of visual enrichment, let us use the term “articulation”.
• Articulation refers to the manner in which the surfaces of a form come together to
define its shape and volume.
• An articulated form clearly reveals the precise nature of its parts and their
relationship to each other and to the whole. Surfaces appear as discrete planes
with distinct shapes and their overall configuration is legible and easily perceived.
• An articulated group of forms accentuates the joints between the constituent
parts in order to visually express their individuality.
• Articulation may be achieved through:
o Differentiating adjoining planes by changing material, color, texture,
and/or pattern
o Developing corners as distinct linear elements independent of adjoining
surfaces
o Removing corners to physically separate neighboring planes
o Lightening portions of the form to create contrast in tonal value along
edges and corners
SPATIAL ORGANIZATIONS AND BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
Rationalizations of Spatial Organization
• Physical Structure
o come within any or a combination of additive transformation
o reason for the type of physical arrangement may depend on the
underlying reasons for adjacency and/or circulation and would most
probably include beauty or aesthetics, structural efficiency, or economic
cost.
o Cost is the most common factor for grid organization, particularly with the
popular use of reinforced concrete means of construction
• Adjacencies and Proximity
o Based on how users can be more efficient in doing what they need to do
within the premises of the building.
o Commonly employed methods of analysis and synthesis:
▪ Behavioral pattern studies of users
▪ Adjacency matrix
▪ Bubble Diagram
o Integral Parts of Analysis Methods
▪ Privacy
▪ Security
▪ Hygiene & Sanitation
▪ Users’ Routine (Sequence of Activities)
▪ Set of activities
o Concept of hierarchy of spaces may now come into view as adjacencies
and proximity are often arranged in terms of hierarchy the need for certain
considerations.
o Spatial Relationships
▪ Space within a space: space contained within the
volume of a larger space
▪ Interlocking spaces: field of space overlapping the
volume of another space
▪ Adjacent spaces: two spaces abutting each other or
sharing a common border
▪ Space linked by a common space: two spaces relying
on intermediary space for their relationship
o Spatial Organizations
▪ Centralized Organization: central, dominant space about which a
number of secondary spaces are grouped
▪ Linear Organization: linear sequence of repetitive spaces
▪ Radial Organization: central space from which linear
organizations of space extend in a radial manner
▪ Clustered Organization: spaces grouped by proximity or
the sharing of a common visual trait or relationship
▪ Grid Organization: spaces organized within the field of a
structural grind or other three-dimensional framework
• Circulation
o Both a system (of movement in space through time) and a way to organize
spaces
o Allows users to experience the changing value of spaces, from more public
areas to the most private corners or from the least secured to the maximum-
security spots
o Sequence of Circulation
▪ Approach (The Distant View): first phase which we are prepared to
see, experience, and use the building
• Frontal: leads directly to the entrance of a building along a
straight, axial path
• Oblique: enhances the effect of perspective on the front
façade and form a building
• Spiral: prolongs the sequence of the approach and
emphasizes the 3D form of a building as we move around its
perimeter
▪ Entrance (from outside to inside): may be flushed, projected, or
recessed
▪ Configuration of path (sequence of spaces, starting from
entrances): can be linear, radial, spiral, grid, network, or composite
▪ Path-space relationships: edge, nodes and termination of paths
▪ Form of the circulation space: stairs, hallways, ramps
o Form of Circulation Space
▪ Enclosed: forming a public galleria or private corridor that relates to
the spaces it links though entrances in a wall plane
▪ Open on One Side: forming a balcony or gallery that provides visual
and spatial continuity with the spaces it links
▪ Open on Both Sides: forming a colonnaded passageway that
becomes a physical extension of the space it passes through
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN AND PROPORTION
Design Principles
These are ideas that create the parameters of a good design. This ensures that the design
undergoes creative undertaking to make more visually significant and endearing to users
of the designed object or spaces. These are:
• Balance
• Emphasis
• Rhythm
• Unity
• Harmony
• Movement
• Variety
• Proportion
Balance
• Arrangement of elements based on their weights or value in reference to a certain
frame, composition, or axis.
• Qualifiers “symmetrical” or “asymmetrical” are used as qualifiers to describe the
state of balance in a composition.
• Other terms such as “formal” or “informal” denote rigid order of elements or
organic/natural order
Emphasis
• Refers to the focal object or element of a composition
• In creating emphasis, designers employ various means of placing emphasis on
certain elements such as
o Strategic location (central place, middle, eye-level, etc.)
o Frame
o Base-line or datum
• Used by the designer to guide the eye of the viewer where it should go first, next,
and so on
Rhythm
• The repetition of an element in space in an orderly (not necessarily regular, but
with pattern) beat or interval
• Visual rhythm in architecture is the repetition of a positive element in a negative
space at intervals forming a pattern
• There is either a calming beat which defines the space or momentum guiding the
pulses of the users.
• Innate in our nature (waves, seasons, heartbeat, sound of the rain, birds’ call, etc.)
Unity
• Promotes coherence by means of continuity or similarity in a design or composition
 • Manifested through similar motifs, similar material, same color shade, similar
pattern, or having a common binding element that connects or binds various
parts
Harmony
• Promotes coherence by means of complementation
• Usually shown by elements that may differ but when placed together, it can form
an organized whole
• Shown through combinations of elements, materials, or patterns that when seen
together blend into each other to promote easily absorbed visual composition
which relaxes the senses
Movement
• Sometimes considered a part of balance as it pertains to a composition’s visual
stability and dynamics
• Means less rigidity and definitely not at rest
• To appear moving, a certain imbalance or fluidity must be exhibited
Variety
• Allows for the observer to continue to find new things to appreciate the structure
• Richness in visual appearance that is engaging and not over-powering nor boring
• E.g.: Asian Architecture
Proportion
• Often related to ratio or the dimensional relationship of one element to another
element
• Harmony in dimensional relationship among various elements
• Theories on Proportion
o Golden Section: observed in many classical Greek architecture; also found
in the nautilus (beta = 0.618)

o Fibonacci Series: close approximation of the Golden ratio

o Classical Order: system of scale and proportion where element in a Greek
temple is a measure of the diameter of its column 1/3 of its shaft from its
base.
o Renaissance Theories: ideal proportions used in architectural spaces which
came about as a result of renaissance architects study of the Pythagorean
theorem and the Greek classical architecture as documented in Marcus
Vitruvius’ 10 Books of Architecture
o Modulor by Le Corbusier: based on Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, the golden
ration, Fibonacci series, and human dimensions. The result of Le Corbusier’s
study was published in the “Modulor, a harmonious measure to the human
scale universally applicable to Architecture and Mechanics”; Le Corbusier
standardized measurements for counters, seating, working tops, shelving,
ceiling heights, etc.
o Ken & Shaku
▪ Asian counterparts in proportion developed early in history and are
largely based on human dimension (anthropometrics).
▪ Shaku was a unit of measure based on roughly the length of 4 fore-
arms (or equivalent of four 1-foot) and originated in China. Shaku
was adopted in Japan and later on evolved into Ken (approximately
0.8 of a shaku).
▪ Ken became a measure not only of construction pieces, of room
spaces, but later on of aesthetic proportions. (e.g.: Takonoma)
▪ Ken determines spacing between columns, areas of rooms and
heights of ceilings, windows, and other architectural elements in
Japanese structures.
o Anthropometry
▪ Proportion based on human scale, human appendages, torso, and
height
▪ Most practical proportion used in the design of objects meant for
human consumption and use
PROXEMICS AND TERRITORIALITY
• Key figure: Edward T. Hall
• Proxemics
o as defined by Hall, explain man’s use of space as a specialized
elaboration of culture.
o Study of the space people need for themselves while in interaction
with other people
• Space
o Extension of a creature’s instinctive defense of his lair
• 8 Key Areas of Analysis relating to People’s Perception and Utilization of
Space
o Postural
o Socio-fugal (privacy preservation) and sociopetal (inducing
interaction): how people interact and preserve each other privacy
during interactions
o Kinesthetic factors: tactile and movement
o Touch code: intensity and nature of touch
o Retinal combination: quantifies eye contacts
o Thermal code: body temperature, whether it rises or falls during
certain interactions
o Olfaction code (smell) – bodily smells
o Voice loudness: voice intensity
• Social and personal spaces
o Intimate sphere (0-0.45m from our skin): parties share a unique level
of comfort with one another
o Personal distant (0.45m to 1.2m): used when talking to family and
friends about personal topics
o Social distance (1.2m to 3.6m): used in business transactions,
meeting new people, and interacting with groups of people
o Public distance (beyond 3.6m): used while giving a speech,
performance, or lecture wherein attention is intended to be
focused on them
• Ideas on spatial perception
o Territories and Domain: places that a person or community secures
as a partly or wholly owned spaces
o Territorial Infringement: happens when an outsider entered a
territory with a perceived intention of taking-over it
o Defensible Space: Physical environment that has created a
perceived territory on which a person or a group of people is
expected to exert territorial control and protection
• Types of territories
o Primary territories: body, home, private properties
o Secondary territories: interactional territories; where interaction
happens on a social scale with other people and the community
are involved
o Public territory: least defended, requires sense of community for its
defense, upkeep and maintenance
AESTHETICS AND COLOR
Aesthetic Philosophies
• Wabi-sabi: Japanese aesthetic philosophy that comes from a world view that
everything is ephemeral or fleeting, has imperfections and weaknesses, as well as
strength and character. It includes appreciation of ageing and decay as much
as appreciation of newness and spring. It is anchored strongly on nature, the
passing of seasons, death, and rebirth.
• Biophilia: Coined by Edward O. Wilson, stating that humans’ social behavior is
partially genetics in origin proposing that our sense of beauty is based on how
nature programmed us to appreciate them, mainly as mechanisms for survival,
procreation, and adaptation.
• Genus Loci: literally means “spirit of the palace” in Italian. Used whenever planning
of communities runs on the idea of making the place “one with the divine being”.
Comes out from the community’s faith, beliefs, and need to please and welcome
the Divine in their place
Color Harmony and Color Theories
• Color harmony: coherent combination of colors to create a pleasing impact of
the whole

• Meant to create a sense of order

• Primary colors: strongest and most unadulterated of colors; creates competing
strong stimulants; oftentimes not harmonious since all three colors will compete for
attention
• Analogous: 3 side-by-side color on the color wheel
• Complementary: 2 colors, 1 primary, and 1 secondary which are on opposite sides
of the wheel; vivid and saturated when combines
• Split Complementary: matched with two colors that are secondary to its
complementary color
• Triad combination: primary color is matched with two other primary colors, or an
3-colos that are equidistant from each other in the color wheel
Johann Wolfgang von Goeth’s Color Theory
• Based on study of light-bending with prism
• Yellow and red lights are colors that mark intense presence of light which accounts
for its highly stimulating and warm nature
• Blue and purple are the least stimulating, which he associated with having the
least light intensity (darkness)
Chromodynamics
• Phenomenon when moods and behaviors are affected by color
• Long-wavelength colors: high anxiety responses
• Shorter wave hues: lower anxiety responses
ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION
Behavior
• Observable activity of an organism: anything an organism does that involves
action and/or response to stimulation
• Affected by one’s biological make-up
• Product of environmental stimuli, biological and mental condition, and social
interactions
Stimulation
• What we get from surroundings that are received by any of our senses
Socialization
• Interaction with other people
Human-Environment Relationship Theories
• Social Learning Theories
o We are intrinsically motivated to seek reinforcement
o Our personality represent our interaction with the environment (physical
and social)
o In understanding behavior, it is a must to consider one’s life history and
learning experiences, as well as the society he is in, as it has an influence
on how he interprets the environment
o We learn by first observing others
o Because we learn by means of relating to others, there is the establishment
of social norms
• Integration Theories: operates on the premise that elements of the environment
work in harmony to facilitate a particular behavior
o Generalized characteristics of the environment
o Stimulants that trigger particular behaviors
o Situations causing satisfaction or disappointment
o Environmental factors that facilitate or restrict behaviors
o Environmental or social directors or features telling us where to go and what
to do
• Control Theories: humans control their behavior, when needed
o Controlling their environment
o Changing the way we regard the environment
o Assessing action first and choosing the way we respond
• Behavior-setting Theories: small scale social systems composed of people and
objects in such a way that promote certain actions within a specified time and
place. Operant conditioning is a phenomenon which reinforces behaviors set by
such systems.
• Stimulation Theories: the environment is a source of sensory information evoking
responses from humans and other cultures
Environmental Perception Theories: research guides which aim to explain the meaning
humans derive from the environment, their perception of its beauty, and how it evokes
feeling of comfort or discomfort, safety, inclusivity, etc.
• Probabilistic Lens model: certain stimuli and elements in the environment have
greater probability of being factored-in when perceiving the environment; while
others may be considered negligible
• Affordances: tendency to react or act certain behaviors when presented a
specific element or stimuli
• Collative Properties: people respond to aesthetics based on its collative stimuli
properties or those properties which elicit comparative or investigative responses
and cause perceptual conflict with present or past stimuli
• Attention Restoration Theories: mental fatigue and concentration can be
improved by time spent in, or looking at nature
• Pleasure-Arousal Dominance Hypothesis: environmental elements can either result
to arousal or under-stimulus, provide pleasure or provide displeasure, and affect
dominance or submission to the situation
Theory of Legibility by Kevin Lynch: we perceive, understand, and appreciate a place
neighborhood, community, or a city through distinct elements
• District: part of the city distinct from another by means of a sub-culture, function,
ethnicity or socio-economic status
• Path: linkages used by people in going about their activities in a city
• Node: intersection between two path or any of the other elements of legibility
• Edge: vertical elements bordering paths or districts
• Landmark: directional elements and as highlights of a district
Human Factors Affecting Human Behavior
• Physiological traits
o Physical built-up
o Health (mental health)
o Hormones and neurochemicals
o Genetics
• Psychological Traits
o Extraversion or surgency: talkativeness, energy, and assertiveness
o Agreeableness: sympathy, kindness and affection
o Conscientiousness: organized, through and able to make and execute
plans
o Neuroticisms: tension, moodiness, and anxiety; reverse of emotional stability
o Openness: having wide interests, being imaginative and insightful
• Psychological Traits by Briggs-Myers test (Four Personality Dichotomy)
o Introvert-Extrovert
o Sensory-Intuitive
o Thinker-Feeler
o Judger-Perceiver
• Other studies of Psychology
o Screener: individuals with strong ability to screen out unwanted
environmental stimuli
 o Non-screener: individuals with poor ability to screen out unwanted
environmental stimuli
• Behaviors Affected by the Capacity for
o Perception
o Cognition
o Memory or recall
• Gestalt Psychology
o Similarity
o Proximity
o Continuity
o Closure
o Equilibrium
o Figure and Ground
DESIGNING THE USE OF SPACE: METHODS AND PROCESSES
Design

• Activity of generating proposals that change something that already exists into
something that is better

Design Processes

• Jones (A method of systematic design)

o Divergence (production of programme of requirements)
o Transformation (structuring the problem, conceiving partial solution,
transformation
o Convergence (combination of partial solutions, evaluation of different
designs)
• Three Main Phases in the Design Process according to Jones (1982)
o Analysis: describing the problem in its entirety and breaking it down into
individual components, identifying each requirement the design has to
satisfy and arranging the results to form a consistent set of performance
requirements
o Synthesis: developing solutions for parts of the
problem and ways of satisfying special performance
requirements and achieving the best possible
integration of partial solutions into a complete design
o Evaluation: determining the extent to which total or
partial solutions satisfy the requirements set in
advance
• Steps in the Design Cycle
o Analysis: analysing the task, collecting additional
information and splitting the task into sub-problems
(decomposition) on the basis of various dimensions
such as user function, aesthetics, construction and
urban design.
o Synthesis: solving sub-problems and then solving the
total design problem
by synthesising the solutions to the sub-problems. The
aim of the synthesis is
to integrate the solutions to the sub-problems for
each dimension individually and then to integrate
these solutions to provide a single overall solution.
o Design: giving shape to the solution so that the
design is ‘architecture’, i.e.
aesthetically justified, exciting and elegant (while
remaining economical with resources).
• Foque’s Three Stages of Design
o Structuring Stage: preparatory phase of problem analysis
 o Creative Stage: where people come up with new ideas potentially
leading to new solutions
o Informational Stage: where abstract knowledge is coded and converted
into messages and signals

Design Methods

• Analytical Methods
o Three-step method
▪ With the help of consultants and others involved, draw up a list of
factors that might possibly be relevant, initially without limitation of
any sort. Make a separate list of requirements with which the
design must satisfy, and a list of suggestions and ideas for solutions.
Look for sources of information. Classify the factors, check priorities,
analyse interrelationships and develop the most complete sets
possible of mutually consistent performance specifications. Ensure
sufficient support.
▪ Look for as many total or partial solutions as possible to all
performance specifications. Take into account any preconditions
or restrictions. Combine partial solutions into a total design that
satisfies as many of the requirements as possible.
▪ Before choosing the final design solution, judge each solution
variant on the extent to which it satisfies the requirements, making
use of earlier experiences with comparable solutions, simulations,
logical forecasts of what is likely to happen to the design product
during its lifetime and the testing of prototypes
o Hierarchical decomposition
▪ Dissecting the design task into as many components as possible
o Functional Analysis
▪ Analysis, development, and description of a functional structure
o Analysis of interconnected decision areas (AIDA)
▪ Starts with identifying decision areas
▪ Followed with a prepared chart showing the range within which
partial solutions to sub-problems could be varies whiles still satisfying
the requirements and the extent to which decisions relating to
individual parts of the picture are mutually consistent.
▪ Lastly, decision areas, options and relationships between options
are represented in an option diagram to make decisions in parallel
rather than sequentially and giving a general overview of possible
solutions (partial and total)
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS
Architecture in Use: An introduction to the programming, design, and evaluation of
Buildings by DJM van der Voordt – Chapter 4

Francis DK Ching. Form, Structure, Order. John Wiley & Sons. NJ. 2007

Edward T. Hall. Hidden Dimensions. Garden City/Anchor Books. 1966

Dak Kopec. Environmental Psychology for Design. Fairchild Books. 2012