CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Introduction:

This module is intended to provide an introduction to the non-destructive method of

Liquid Penetrant Testing. Penetrant testing is a non-destructive testing method that builds on the
principle of visual inspection. Penetrant testing increases the seeability of small discontinuities
that the human eye might not be able to detect. Liquid penetrant inspection is a non destructive
method of revealing discontinuities that are open to the surfaces of solid essentially non porous.
Wide range of indications can be found regardless of configuration of work piece and regardless
of flaw indication.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by
bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. In penetrant testing, a liquid with high
surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of a component under test.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors: Its relative ease
of use and its flexibility. Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the
following:Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.), Glass, Many ceramic materials,
Rubber, Plastics.
Advantages &Capabilities:

 Penetrant testing inspection is capable of examing the entire exterior surface in one
operation eventhough object may have complex shape.
 Penetrant inspection can detect very small discontinuities and penetrant bleed out
magnifiesapparent size of discontinuity making them easier to see.
 Penetrant testing indications formed provide information on location, orientation
andapproximate length of discontinuity.
 The process is relatively simple and rapid and can easily be automated where large
volume of parts is to be inspected.
 Penetrant testing inspection can be used on wide variety of materials including, ferrous
and non- ferrous metals, ceramics, cements,glass and many types of plastics.
  The process sensitivity can be varied by selection of materials and processing
procedures.Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.Penetrant
materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.

Disadvantages & Limitations:

 Penetrant testing inspection will not reveal discontinuities that are not open to the surface.
Subsurface discontinuities cannot be detected by penetrant inspection.
 The part surface and interior of any discontinuities must be clean and free of
contaminants, soils and moisture. If it is present organic or inorganic materials of the
surface of the part or inside the discontinuities can interfere with penetrant entering and
filling the discontinuity void.
 Porous material or material with seeped-in penetrant that is not removed during post
cleaning operations is difficult to inspect.
 Penetrants usually contain petroleum base liquids that can soften, craze or attack some
non metallic materials such as certain plastics and rubber.
 Penetrants, emulsifier and developers contain chemicals that have wetting and detergent
properties however they can dissolve and remove natural oil from human tissues if they
come in contact with and remain on skin surfaces for a length of time. This causes drying
and cracking which is a source for secondary infection.
Applications of Liquid Penetrant Testing

Liquid Penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely

used nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity
can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and
its flexibility.   LPI can be used to inspect almost any material
provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous.

Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the following:

 Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.)

 Glass
 Many ceramic materials
  Rubber
 Plastics
LPI offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a large variety of
applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components. Penetrant
materials can be applied with a spray can or a cotton swab to inspect for flaws known to occur in
a specific area or it can be applied by dipping or spraying to quickly inspect large areas. In the
image above, visible dye penetrant is being locally applied to a highly loaded connecting point to
check for fatigue cracking.
 CHAPTER 2
Steps involved in performing LPT
Principle of LPT:

The basic principle of liquid penetrating testing is capillary action.

Capillary Action: The rise or fall of liquid in a narrow opening is called capillary action.
Capillary action is action by which surface of liquid, where it is in contact with solid is elevated
or depressed.
The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be
drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface
penetrant is removed and a developer applied. This acts as a
blotter. It draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its
presence. Colored (contrast) penetrant require good white light
while fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened
conditions with an ultraviolet "black light".

Basic Steps of LPT:

Step 1:- Surface Preparation

Step 2:- Penetrant Application

Step 3:- Penetrant Dwell

Step 4:- Excess Penetrant Removal

Step 5:- Developer Application

Step 6:- Indication Development

Step 7:- Inspection

Step 8:- Clean Surface

SURFACE PREPARATION:
 One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant
inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of
oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require
etching if mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or
grit blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical
operations can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent
the penetrant from entering.

Surface cleaning can be done in three ways

 Vapour Degreasing

 Buffing

 Solvent Cleaning
CAUTION:

Blasting is not allowed before penetrant testing. Blast media may peen in to the surface
discontinuities and affect the sensitivity of penetrant testing.Some machining, surface finishing
and cleaning operations can cause a thin layer of metal to smear on the surface and prevent
penetrant from entering any flaws that may be present.Etching of the surface prior to inspection
is sometimes required.

PENETRANT APPLICATION:

Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant material is applied by
spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.

There are three types of Methods

DIPPING
 BRUSHING

SPRAYING

PENETRANT DWELL

 The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much penetrant as
possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended by the
penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary depending
on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being
inspected, and the type of defect being inspected for. Minimum dwell times typically range from
five to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as
the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation
and may be very specific to a particular application. 

EXCESS PENETRANT REMOVAL

 This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be
removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from
defects.  Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve cleaning with a solvent,
direct rinsing with water, or first treating the part with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.

The removal technique depends upon the type of penetrant used

  Solvent Removable
 Water Washable
 Post Emulsifiable

SOLVENT REMOVABLE:The part is wiped with a clean dry

cloth to remove the bulk of the excess penetrant.Then, a cloth
lightly dampened with solvent is used to remove any
remainingpenetrant on the surface.

WATER WASHABLE: A coarse water spray is used to remove the

excess penetrant. The procedure used as a guideline for the
inspection will specify water temperature typically 50-100°F) and
pressure (typically not more than 40psi).

POST EMULSIFIABLE: When there is concern about removing much of the penetrant from
the defect, a post emulsifiable system is used. This involves an additional step in which an
emulsifier is applied to the surface of the part after the penetrant dwell time. The emulsifier is
given just enough time to react with the penetrant on the surface to render it water washable but
not enough time to diffuse into the penetrant trapped in the defects.

DEVELOPER APPLICATION

 A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws
back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be
applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).

DRY POWDER DEVELOPER: Prior to applying a dry powder developer, the component
must be thoroughly dried. Drying is usually accomplished in a hot air circulating oven.
The developer is then applied by immersing the part in the powder or by dusting of the part with
the powder. The part can also be placed in a developer dust cloud chamber.
WET DEVELOPER: Wet developers (water- suspended and water- soluble) are applied by
immersing or spraying the part while it is still wet from the penetrant removal process. The part
is completely coated and the excess liquid allowed draining to prevent pooling. The part is then
dried in a hot air circulating oven.

NON AQUEOUS DEVELOPER: Nonaqueous

developer is applied by an aerosol spray to a
thoroughly dried and cooled part.A thin even coating
should be applied. The coating should be white but
still slightly transparent when performing a visible
dye penetrant inspectionand even thinner when
performing a fluorescent penetrant inspection.

INDICATION DEVELOPMENT: 

The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time sufficient to
permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes.  Significantly longer times may be necessary for tight cracks.

INSPECTION: 

Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any
flaws which may be present. In this step the inspector evaluates the penetrant indications against
specified accept/reject criteria and attempts to determine the origin of the indication. The
indications
are judged to be
relevant, non-
relevant or false.

Non-relevant weld geometry indications

CLEAN SURFACE: 
 The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove the
developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable. The residual materials could possibly
affect the performance of the part or affect its visual appeal.

Apply Penetrant

Remove Excess

Apply Developer

Visual Inspection

CHAPTER 3
Chemicals used in LPT

Penetrant Testing Materials

The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene and
whiting first used by railroad inspectors near the turn of the 20th century.  Today's Penetrants are
carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector.  To perform
well, a penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics.

A penetrant must easily spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide
complete and even coverage and it can be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary
action. It should remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part. It should
remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part through the drying and developing
steps. Penetrant must be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications. It
should not be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.

All penetrant materials do not perform the same and are not designed to perform the
same. Penetrant manufactures have developed different formulations to address a variety of
inspection applications. Some applications call for the detection of the smallest defects possible
and have smooth surfaces where the penetrant is easy to remove. 

Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:

Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants

Type 2 - Visible Penetrants

Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes

that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.  Visible
penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast
against the white developer background. Fluorescent
penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant
systems because the eye is drawn to the glow of the
fluorescing indication. 

However, visible penetrants do not require a darkened

area and an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less
vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly reduce the
strength of a fluorescent indication.

Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess penetrant from the part. 
The four methods are listed below:

Method A - Water Washable

Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic

Method C - Solvent Removable

Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing with water
alone.  These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it possible to wash
the penetrant from the part surface with water alone.  Water washable penetrants are sometimes
referred to as self-emulsifying systems.

Post-emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic. 

Post-emulsifiable, lipophilic systems (Method B), the penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with
the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible. 

Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), uses an emulsifier that is a water soluble
detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part with waterwashes. 

Solvent removable penetrants (Method C),require the use of a solvent to remove the penetrant
from the part.

Penetrants are then classified based on the strength or detectability of the indication that is
produced for a number of very small and tight fatigue cracks. The five sensitivity levels are
shown below:

Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity

Level 1 - Low Sensitivity

Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity

Level 3 - High Sensitivity

Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity

An interesting note about the sensitivity levels is that only four levels were originally planned. 
However, when some penetrants were judged to have sensitivities significantly less than most
others in the level 1 category, the ½ level was created.  An excellent historical summary of the
development of test specimens for evaluating the performance of penetrant materials can be
found in the following reference.

Developers

The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and
spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. The fine developer
particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to interact with
the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence. The developer also allows more light to be
emitted through the same mechanism. This is why indications are brighter than the penetrant
itself under UV light. Another function that some developers perform is to create a white
background so there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication and the surrounding
background.

Developer Forms:

The developers are classified into six standard forms. These forms are listed below:

Form a - Dry Powder

Form b - Water Soluble

Form c - Water Suspendable

Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (Solvent Based)

Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)

Form f - Special Applications

The developer classifications are based on the method that the developer is applied. The
developer can be applied as a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid carrier. Each of
the developer forms has advantages and disadvantages.

Dry Powder: Dry powder developer is

generally considered to be the least sensitive but
it is inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry
developers are white, fluffy powders that can be
applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number
of ways. The developer can be applied by
dipping parts in a container of developer, or by
using a puffer to dust parts with the developer.
Parts can also be placed in a dust cabinet where
the developer is blown around and allowed to
settle on the part. Electrostatic powder spray
guns are also available to apply the developer. The goal is to allow the developer to come in
contact with the whole inspection area.

Unless the part is electrostatically charged, the powder will only adhere to areas where
trapped penetrant has wet the surface of the part. The penetrant will try to wet the surface of the
penetrant particle and fill the voids between the particles, which brings more penetrant to the
surface of the part where it can be seen. Since dry powder developers only stick to the area
where penetrant is present, the dry developer does not provide a uniform white background as
the other forms of developers do. Having a uniform light background is very important for a
visible inspection to be effective and since dry developers do not provide one, they are seldom
used for visible inspections. When a dry developer is used, indications tend to stay bright and
sharp since the penetrant has a limited amount of room to spread.

Water Soluble: As the name implies, water soluble

developers consist of a group of chemicals that are
dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the
water is evaporated away. The best method for applying
water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The
part can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing the
solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these
methods are less desirable. Aqueous developers contain
wetting agents that cause the solution to function much
like dilute hydrophilic emulsifier and can lead to additional removal of entrapped penetrant.
Drying is achieved by placing the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm air dryer
with the temperature held between 70 and 75°F. If the parts are not dried quickly, the indications
will will be blurred and indistinct. Properly developed parts will have an even, pale white coating
over the entire surface.

Water Suspendable: Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer particles

suspended in water. Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep
the particles from settling out of suspension. Water suspendable developers are applied to parts
in the same manner as water soluble developers. Parts coated with a
water suspendable developer must be forced dried just as parts
coated with a water soluble developer are forced dried. The surface
of a part coated with a water suspendable developer will have a
slightly translucent white coating.

Nonaqueous: Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a

volatile solvent and are typically applied with a spray gun.
Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol spray
cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the
indications by solvent action. Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required. A
nonaqueous developer should be applied to a thoroughly dried part to form a slightly translucent
white coating.

Special Applications: Plastic or lacquer developers are special developers that are primarily
used when a permanent record of the inspection is
required.

Selection of a Penetrant Technique

 The selection of a liquid penetrant system is not a straightforward task. There are a
variety of penetrant systems and developer types that are available for use, and one set of
penetrant materials will not work for all applications. Many factors must be considered when
selecting the penetrant materials for a particular application. These factors include the sensitivity
required, materials cost, number of parts, size of area requiring inspection, and portability.

When sensitivity is the primary consideration for choosing a penetrant system, the first
decision that must be made is whether to use fluorescent penetrant or visible dye penetrant.
Fluorescent penetrants are generally more capable of producing a detectable indication from a
small defect. Also, the human eye is more sensitive to a light indication on a dark background
and the eye is naturally drawn to a fluorescent indication.

Type of Developer Used and Method of Application

Sensitivity Ranking (highest to lowest) Developer Form Application Technique.

Ranking Developer Form Method of Application

1 Nonaqueous, Wet Solvent Spray
2 Plastic Film Spray
3 Water-Soluble Spray
4 Water-Suspendable Spray
5 Water-Soluble Immersion
6 Water-Suspendable Immersion
7 Dry Dust Cloud (Electrostatic)
8 Dry Fluidized Bed
9 Dry Dust Cloud (Air Agitation)
10 Dry Immersion (Dip)

The following table lists the main advantages and disadvantages of the various developer types.

Developer Advantages Disadvantages

Indications tend to remain Does not form contrast

Dry brighter and more distinct over background so cannot be used
time and easy to apply with visible systems and
difficult to assure entire part
 surface has been coated.

Coating is translucent and

Ease of coating entire part and
provides poor contrast (not
white coating for good contrast
recommended for visual
Soluble can be produced which work
systems) and indications for
well for both visible and
water washable systems are
fluorescent systems
dim and blurred

Ease of coating entire part and

indications are bright and sharp
and White coating for good Indications weaken and
Suspendable
contrast can be produced which become diffused after time
work well for both visible and
fluorescent systems

Very portable and easy to

apply to readily accessible
surfaces. White coating for
good contrast can be produced
Difficult to apply evenly to all
which work well for both
Nonaqueous surfaces and more difficult to
visible and fluorescent
clean part after inspection.
systems. Indications show-up
rapidly and are well defined
and Provides highest
sensitivity

Quality Control of Lighting

After a component has been properly processed, it is ready for inspection. While
automated vision inspection systems are sometimes used, the focus here will be on inspections
performed visually by a human inspector, as this is the dominant method. Proper lighting is of
great importance when visually inspecting a surface for a penetrant indication. Obviously, the
lighting requirements are different for an inspection conducted using a visible dye penetrant than
they are for an inspection conducted using a fluorescent dye penetrant. The lighting requirements
for each of these techniques, as well as how light measurements are made, are discussed below.

Lighting for Visible Dye Penetrant Inspections

When using a visible penetrant, the intensity of the white light is of principal importance.
Inspections can be conducted using natural lighting or artificial lighting. When using natural
lighting, it is important to keep in mind that daylight varies from hour to hour, so inspectors must
stay constantly aware of the lighting conditions and make adjustments when needed. To improve
uniformity in lighting from one inspection to the next, the use of artificial lighting is
recommended. Artificial lighting should be white whenever possible and white flood or halogen
lamps are most commonly used. The light intensity is required to be 100 foot-candles at the
surface being inspected. It is advisable to choose a white light wattage that will provide sufficient
light, but avoid excessive reflected light that could distract from the inspection.

Lighting for Fluorescent Penetrant Inspections

When a fluorescent penetrant is being employed, the ultraviolet (UV) illumination and
the visible light inside the inspection booth is important. Penetrant dyes are excited by UV light
of 365nm wavelength and emit visible light somewhere in the green-yellow range between 520
and 580nm. The source of ultraviolet light is often a mercury arc lamp with a filter. The lamps
emit many wavelengths and a filter is used to remove all but the UV and a small amount of
visible light between 310 and 410nm. Visible light of wavelengths above 410nm interferes with
contrast, and UV emissions below 310nm include some hazardous wavelengths.

Since fluorescent brightness is linear with respect to ultraviolet excitation, a change in the
intensity of the light (from age or damage) and a change in the distance of the light source from
the surface being inspected will have a direct impact on the inspection. For UV lights used in
component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000 microwatt per square centimeter
when measured at 15 inches from the filter face (requirements can vary from 800 to 1200
µW/cm2). The required check should be performed when a new bulb is installed, at startup of the
inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours of continuous use.
Regularly checking the intensity of UV lights is very important because bulbs lose intensity over
time.

Black light intensity will also be affected by voltage variations. A bulb that produces
acceptable intensity at 120 volts will produce significantly less at 110 volts. For this reason it is
important to provide constant voltage to the light. Also, most UV light must be warmed up prior
to use and should be on for at least 15 minutes before beginning an inspection.

When performing a fluorescent penetrant inspection, it is important to keep white light to

a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect fluorescent indications.
Light levels of less than 2 fc are required by most procedures with some procedures requiring
less than 0.5 fc at the inspection surface. Procedures require a check and documentation of
ambient white light in the inspection area. When checking black light intensity at 15 inches a
reading of the white light produced by the black light may be required to verify white light is
being removed by the filter.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS IN LPT:

Capillary Action: The tendency of certain liquids to travel or climb when exposed to small
openings.

Contrast: The relative amount of light emitted or reflected between and indication and its
background.

Defect:A discontinuity that affects the usefulness of a part or specimen.

Developer:A finely divided material applied over the surface of a part to help promote reverse
capillary action and thus bring out a penetrant indication.

Discontinuity:Any interruption in the normal physical structure of a part or weld. It may or may
not affect the usefulness of a part.

Dwell Time:The period of time that a penetrant or developer must remain in contact with the
surface of a part under test.

Emulsification Time: The time allowed for the emulsifier to render the penetrant water
washable and thus allow the part to be washed.

Emulsifier: A material applied over a film of penetrant that renders it water washable.

Evaluation: The process of deciding as to the severity of the condition after an indication has
been interpreted.

False Indication: An indication caused by improper processing; not caused by a relevant or non-
relevant condition.

Flash Time:The time required for the solvent to evaporate from the surface of a part when used
to preclean or remove excess penetrant.

Fluorescent Dye:A dye which becomes fluorescent (gives off light) when exposed to short wave
radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Indication:The visible evidence or penetrant bleed-out on the surface of the specimen

Interpretation:The process of evaluating an indication in an attempt to determine the cause and

nature of the discontinuity.

Non-Aqueous Developer: A developer in which developing powder is applied as a suspension

in a quick drying solvent.

Penetrant:A liquid used in fluorescent or visible dye penetrant inspection to penetrate into the
surface openings of parts inspected via these methods.

Relevant Indication:An indication that has been determined not to be false or non-relevant - and
actual discontinuity.

Seeability:The characteristic of an indication that enables it to be seen against the adverse

conditions of background, outside light, etc.

Sensitivity:The ability of a penetrant to detect surface openings. Higher sensitivity indicates

smaller discontinuities can be detected
Ultraviolet Light (or Black Light): Light energy just below the visible range of violet light
(356 nanometers).

Viscosity:The resistance of a fluid to the motion of its particles.

Washability:The property of a penetrant which permits it to be cleaned from the surface of a

part by washing with water.

Properties of Penetrant, Cleaner, and Developer Fluid

Due to common properties of gases and liquids are termed as fluids. In fluids the viscosity is
more.

Viscosity: Resistance of fluid to the motion of its particles. It Is property of fluid that is result of
molecular or internal friction. Viscosity is also is a measure for liquids resistance to change in
physical shape. Viscosity varies widely with temperature, it decreases when temperature is raised
and increase when temperature is lowered. Viscosity is an important factor in application process
of penetrant. Viscosity has no effect has no effect on penetrating ability for ex:- some viscous
fluids like molasses have good penetrating ability while some low viscous fluids like pure water
have very poor penetrating ability. But for application point of view viscosity affects the rate of
penetration. Higher viscosity fluids require longer penetration time.

Diffusion: The property of gases and liquids to spread from one point to another point is called
diffusion.

Cohesive Force: The force of attraction between two different molecules of same matter is
called cohesive force.

Adhesive Force: The force of attraction between two different molecules of different matter is
called adhesive force.

Surface Tension:The force due to cohesive force of molecules is called surface tension.

Contact Angle: The ability of a liquid to spread over spontaneously and adhere to solid surfaces.
Wetting ability depends on contact angle which is angle between liquid and solid surface at the
point of contact. Smaller the angle the better is wetting ability. Water is having high surface
tension but its contact angle with metal is very large and so poor penetrant. Contact angle
between liquid and surface varies widely with materials, surface roughness cleanliness of surface
under test.

Types of defects a penetrant test can find most effectively

Small round defects than small linear defects: Small round defects are generally easier to
detect for several reasons. First, they are typically volumetric defects that can trap significant
amounts of penetrant. Second, round defects fill with penetrant faster than linear defects. One
research effort found that elliptical flaw with length to width ratio of 100, will take the penetrant
nearly 10 times longer to fill than a cylindrical flaw with the same volume. 

Deeper flaws than shallow flaws: Deeper flaws will trap more penetrant than shallow flaws,
and they are less prone to over washing. 

Flaws on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces: The surface roughness of the part primarily
affects the removability of a penetrant. Rough surfaces tend to trap more penetrant in the various
tool marks, scratches, and pits that make up the surface. Removing the penetrant from the surface
of the part is more difficult and a higher level of background fluorescence or over washing may
occur. 

Flaws with rough fracture surfaces than smooth fracture surfaces: The surface roughness
that the fracture faces is a factor in the speed at which a penetrant enters a defect. In general, the
penetrant spreads faster over a surface as the surface roughness increases. It should be noted that
a particular penetrant may spread slower than others on a smooth surface but faster than the rest
on a rougher surface. 

Flaws under tensile or no loading than flaws under compression loading: In a 1987 study at
the University College London, the effect of crack closure on detectability was evaluated.
Researchers used a four-point bend fixture to place tension and compression loads on specimens
that were fabricated to contain fatigue cracks. All cracks were detected with no load and with
tensile loads placed on the parts. However, as compressive loads were placed on the parts, the
crack length steadily decreased as load increased until a load was reached when the crack was no
longer detectable.

System Performance Check

System performance checks involve processing a test specimen with known defects to
determine if the process will reveal discontinuities of the size
required. The specimen must be processed following the same
procedure used to process production parts. A system
performance check is typically required daily, at the
reactivation of a system after maintenance or repairs, or any
time the system is suspected of being out of control. As with
penetrant inspections in general, results are directly dependent
on the skill of the operator and, therefore, each operator should
process a panel.

The ideal specimen is a production item that has

natural defects of the minimum acceptable size. Some
specification delineates the type and size of the defects that
must be present in the specimen and detected. Surface finish is
will affect washability so the check specimen should have the same surface finish as the
production parts being processed. If penetrant systems with different sensitivity levels are being
used, there should be a separate specimen for each system.

Health and Safety Precautions in Liquid Penetrant Inspection

When proper health and safety precautions are followed, liquid penetrant inspection
operations can be completed without harm to inspection personnel. However, there are a number
of health and safety related issues that must be addressed. Since each inspection operation will
have its own unique set of health and safety concerns that must be addressed, only a few of the
most common concerns will be discussed here.

Chemical Safety:Whenever chemicals must be handled, certain precautions must be taken as

directed by the material safety data sheets (MSDS) for the chemicals. Before working with a
chemical of any kind, it is highly recommended that the MSDS be reviewed so that proper
chemical safety and hygiene practices can be followed. Some of the penetrant materials are
flammable and, therefore, should be used and stored in small quantities. They should only be
used in a well ventilated area and ignition sources avoided. Eye protection should always be
worn to prevent contact of the chemicals with the eyes. Many of the chemicals used contain
detergents and solvents that can dermatitis. Gloves and other protective clothing should be worn
to limit contact with the chemicals.

Ultraviolet Light Safety:Ultraviolet (UV) light or "black light" as it is sometimes called, has
wavelengths ranging from 180 to 400 nanometers. These wavelengths place UV light in the
invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and X-rays. The most
familiar source of UV radiation is the the sun and is necessary in small doses for certain
chemical processes to occur in the body. However, too much exposure can be harmful to the skin
and eyes. Excessive UV light exposure can cause painful sunburn, accelerate wrinkling and
increase the risk of skin cancer. UV light can cause eye inflammation, cataracts, and retinal
damage.

Because of their close proximity, laboratory devices, like UV lamps, deliver UV light at a
much higher intensity than the sun and, therefore, can cause injury much more quickly. The
greatest threat with UV light exposure is that the individual is generally unaware that the damage
is occurring. There is usually no pain associated with the injury until several hours after the
exposure. Skin and eye damage occurs at wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter which is well
below the 365 nm wavelength, where penetrants are designed to fluoresce.

Therefore, UV lamps sold for use in LPI application are almost always filtered to remove
the harmful UV wavelengths. The lamps produce radiation at the harmful wavelengths so it is
essential that they be used with the proper filter in place and in good condition.