It is a body which does not allow light to pass

through it and one cannot see through it.

LIGHT ENERGY Examples are moon, human body, wood etc.
Light is a form of energy and electromagnetic
Ray and Beam
radiation which travels in a straight line with a
A ray is a path along which light travels. It is
speed of 3.0 x 108.
represented by a straight line with an arrow
Light promotes vision and helps plants to indicating the direction.
prepare food and therefore provides them with Ray
energy. A beam is a collection of rays put together in
the same direction. There are three types of
Some Basic Terms beam namely : Parallel Beam, Convergent Beam
Luminous body and Divergent Beam.
It is a body which produces light on its own.
Examples are Sun, Stars, Lamps, Fire-Flies,
Candle, Fluorescent Tubes, Glow Worms etc.

Non-Luminous/Illuminated body Parallel Convergent Divergent

It is a body which cannot produce its own light. Beam Beam Beam
It can only reflects light when they are
illuminated by luminous body. Examples are
mirror, moon, glass etc Principle of Rectilinear Propagation of Light
It states that light travels in straight lines.
Incandescence
It is a phenomenon in which a body produces Experiment to show that light travels in straight
light when appreciably heated. Examples of lines
incandescent materials are metals and alloys.

Fluorescence
It is a phenomenon in which a body produces Eye
light when radiation falls on it. Examples of Lamp Cardboard
fluorescent materials are Beryllium compounds
and Zinc Sulphide (ZnS) Three cardboards with holes in the middle are
arranged so that the holes are in line. Light from
Transparent Body a lamp placed in front passes through the holes
It is a body which allows light to pass through it and is observed at the other end with the eye.
and one can see through it. Examples are clean However when one cardboard is slightly
water, glass etc displaced, the light is not seen. This shows that
light travels in a straight line.

Rectilinear propagation of light is applied in

- Pinhole camera
Transluscent Body - Shadow formation
It is a body which allows light to pass through it - Eclipse
but one cannot see through it. Examples are Real and Virtual image
frosted glass, oiled paper etc. Real image is an image that can be formed on a
screen. It is formed by the actual intersection of
Opaque Body light rays.
 Screen
Virtual image is an image that cannot be
formed on a screen. It is formed by the h0
apparent intersection of light rays. hi

u v

PIN-HOLE CAMERA h0 = object height hi = image height

screen u = object distance v = image distance

linear magnification, m = hi = v
h0 u

Object Pin-hole Image For a diminished image, m < 1 and for an

enlarge image, m > 1
External Features
It consists of a closed box whose inside is Examples
painted black to prevent reflection of light 1. A boy 150cm tall stands 2.0m from a
inside. A pin-hole (very small hole) is made in pin-hole camera. If his image is formed
front and a screen at the back to receive the on a screen which is 40cm from the
image. pin-hole, calculate the
(a) linear magnification
Characteristics of Image Formed By Pin-hole (b) height of the image
Camera
The image formed is Solution
- real h0 = 150cm, u = 2.0m = 200cm
- inverted (turned upside down) v = 40cm
- diminished (smaller than the object)
v 40
NB (a) m = = = 0.2
u 200
- If the hole is very small, the image formed is
clear, sharp and distinct. (b)
- If the hole is large or big, the image formed hi
is bright but blurred. m=
ho
Advantage of Pin-hole Camera hi
It has an infinite depth of focusing since no  0.2 =
150
adjustment is needed.
 0.2 x150 = hi
Disadvantage of Pin-hole Camera  hi = 30cm
It takes a long time to form an image on the
screen since small amount of light energy 2. An object of height 300cm is placed at a
enters the small hole. distance 120cm from a pin-hole camera.
If the distance between the pin-hole and
the screen is 80cm, find the
(a) magnification
(b) height of the image
Linear magnification, m
Solution is 10m away from the camera occupies
h0 = 300cm, u= 120cm three-quarters (3/4) of the screen, find
v = 80cm (a) the height of the object
(b) the linear magnification
v 80 Solution
(a) m = = = 0.667 v = 30cm, hi = ¾ x20 = 15cm
u 120
u = 10m = 1000cm
(b) (a)
hi v
m=
hi =
ho ho u
15 30
 0.667 =
hi  =
300 ho 1000
 0.667x300 = hi  15x1000 = 30xho
 hi = 200cm  ho =
15000
= 500cm
3. In a pin-hole camera, the distance between 30
the pin-hole and the screen is 10cm and is used TRY
to photograph a tree of height 5m away. If the A tall man of height 1.8m stands in front of a
magnification is 0.01, calculate pin-hole camera. His image is formed on the
(a) the distance of the tree from the camera screen which is 12.5cm away from the
(b) the height of the image. pin-hole. If the height of the image is 20cm,
how far is the man from the camera?
Solution [ Ans = 1.125m or 112.5cm]
v = 10cm, ho = 5m = 500cm
m = 0.01 SHADOWS
(a) It is a dark area formed when light rays are
v blocked by an opaque body.
m= The shape of the shadow is similar to that of the
u
opaque object.
10
 0.01 =
u Types of Shadow
10 There are two types of shadow namely : Umbra
u= = 1000cm and Penumbra.
0.01

(b) Umbra is a total darkness formed when an

opaque body blocks light rays. It is formed
hi
m= when the opaque body is between a point
ho source of light and a screen.
hi Screen
 0.01 =
500
 0.01x500 = hi
 hi = 5cm Point
source Opaque
4. The height of the screen of a pin-hole object umbra
camera is 20cm and it is 30cm behind
the pin-hole. If the image of a body which
Penumbra is a partial darkness formed when an
opaque body blocks light rays. It is formed Figure 2(b) shows the view of the Sun from
when the opaque body is between an extended the Earth during the eclipse. Diagram (c)
shows the total eclipse. The shadow of the
source of light and a screen.
Moon falls on the Earth and because the
Penumbra Moon and Earth are moving compared with
Extended Opaque the Sun this shadow moves across the
source object Earth's surface during an eclipse.

Annular eclipse is a type of solar eclipse

which occurs when the moon cast only
partial shadow (Penumbra) on the earth
surface due to the earth at far distance away
from the moon. The umbra does not fall on
Umbra the earth surface and a halo (ring) of light is
ECLIPSE seen around the moon.
It is the partial or complete hiding from view of REFLECTION OF LIGHT
the Sun or Moon when another astronomical It is the bouncing back of light rays after hitting
object comes between it and the observer. a hard and polished surface.
Two kinds of eclipses involve the Earth: eclipses
of the Moon, or lunar eclipses, and those of the Types of Reflection
Sun, or solar eclipses. There are two types of reflection namely:
regular reflection and diffuse reflection.
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is
between the Sun and the Moon and its shadow Regular reflection occurs when the light rays hit
darkens the Moon [ see fig 1]. a hard, smooth and highly polished surface such
Lunar eclipse occurs during the night at full as a plane mirror.
moon.
Umbra Incident Reflected
rays rays

smooth surface

Diffuse reflection occurs when the light rays hit

Penumbra a rough and dull surface such as cloth or paper.
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is
between the Sun and the Earth and its shadow Incident Reflected
moves across the face of the Earth. [see fig 2a]. rays rays
Eclipses are rare, however; most of the time,
the shadows do not overlap.
Solar eclipse occurs during the day time. Rough surface

Penumbra
MIRROR
A mirror is a flat piece of glass with one face
being smooth and highly polished and the other
coated with silver. Light is reflected when it falls
on the smooth and polished face. There are two
types of mirror namely: plane mirror and
Umbra spherical or curved mirror.
 d = 2g = 2(90 – i) = 180˚ - 2i

Examples
Plane mirror 1. A ray of light is incident on a plane
A plane mirror is a flat mirror that is usually mirror at an angle of 30˚ with the
made of glass with a very thin layer of silver on normal. Calculate the
the back. The reflection occurs at the silver and (a) angle of reflection
this is protected by a layer of paint. (b) glancing angle
Light hitting a plane mirror is reflected back and (c) angle of deviation
if you look into such a mirror you will see an Solution
image of yourself. This image in the mirror will (a) angle of reflection, r = i = 30˚
be the same size as the object. Plane mirrors (b) glancing angle, g = 90 – i
cannot be used to focus an image of an object = 90 – 30
onto a screen. = 60˚
(c) angle of deviation, d = 2g = 2 x 60
= 120˚
Some mirrors have the silvering at the back
(normal use) but others, like those used in 2. A ray of light is incident on a plane
reflecting telescopes are silvered on the front. mirror at a glancing angle of 40˚.
Calculate the
(a) angle of incidence
(b) angle of deviation

Solution
Normal (a) i + g = 90˚
incident reflected i = 90 – g = 90 – 40 = 50˚
ray ray
i r (b)d = 2g = 2 x 40 = 80˚
g g

Formation of image in a plane mirror

The diagram above shows you a ray of light
hitting a plane mirror. A line drawn at right
angles to the mirror where the light hits it is
called the NORMAL to the surface at that
point. The angle between the incoming light
ray and the normal is called the angle of
incidence (i) and the angle between the
normal and the reflected ray is called the
angle of reflection (r). The angle between
the mirror surface and the incident ray or
reflected ray is called glancing angle (g)

Laws of reflection of light

1. The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane. Figure 2 above shows how an image is formed
in a plane mirror. The image formed is:
2. The angle of incidence is equal to angle - virtual
of reflection. (i = r)
- laterally inverted
NB - erect (upright)
Deviation in plane mirror, - of the same size as the object
- on the opposite side of the mirror The number of images formed when an object
is
The image distance is also equal to the object
distance.

Rotation of a plane mirror

When a mirror rotates through an angle  a
beam of light reflected from it will rotate
through an angle of 2.
(See Figure 4).

placed between them is 3.

Examples
1. The angle between two inclined plane
mirrors is 15˚. How many images of an
object placed between the mirrors
would be formed?
This rotation is applied in instruments such
as Ballistic Galvanometer and Navigator’s
sextant. Solution
 360 
N =  −1
Two inclined plane mirrors   
Consider two plane mirrors inclined at an angle  360 
Ѳ to each other. The number of images formed  N =  −1
when an object is placed between them is given
 15 
by :  N = 24 − 1 = 23

2. The number of images formed when an

 360 
N =  −1 object is placed between two inclined
   plane mirrors is 11. Find the angle of
of inclination between the mirrors.
N = no. of images
Solution
The diagram below shows two plane mirrors
inclined at 90˚ (perpendicular) to each other.
  360 
N =  −1 Convex (diverging) mirrors
   Safety mirror on dangerous comers
 360  Security mirrors on buses
 11 =   −1
   Anti shoplifting mirrors
Car wing mirrors
360
 11 + 1 =

360
 12 =

 12 = 360
360
 = = 30
12

Uses of plane mirrors

Some important definitions
Looking into Optical lever
Seeing round corners
The principal axis of a mirror is a line
Dental mirror
through the centre of the mirror which
Periscope (See Figure 5)
passes through its centre of curvature.
Telescope flat
Illuminating Egyptian tombs
The pole of the mirror is where the principal
Kaleidoscope
axis meets the minor
Overhead projector
Sextant
The centre of curvature of a mirror is the
centre of curvature of the mirror surface

The radius of curvature of a mirror is the

radius of the surface and the distance from
the pole of the mirror (P) to the centre of
curvature (C).
Curved
mirrors The principal focus (F) is the point where
parallel light close to the axis of the mirror is
There are many different types of curved
brought to a focus.
mirrors but we will consider only spherical
The focal length (f) is the distance from
and parabolic mirrors since they are the the principal focus to the pole of the mirror.
most common.

Uses of curved mirrors

Tracing Images in Spherical Mirrors
Concave (converging) mirrors
Reflecting telescopes To trace an image in a spherical mirror, only
Dental mirrors two of the following facts are used at a time.
Headlamp reflectors They are:
Shaving and make up mirrors
(a) When a light ray close and parallel to
Searchlight
the principal axis falls on the mirror,
Projector the ray is reflected to pass through or
telescope appear to come from the principal
 focus.
(b) A ray from the principal focus which object
falls on the mirror is reflected parallel
to the principal axis.
(c) A light ray which passes through the
centre of curvature and falls on the P
mirror is reflected back along the same C F
path. image

Images in Concave Mirror

Object between the principal focus F and the

pole P The image formed is
- real
- magnified
- inverted
object image - formed on the same side as the object
P Object placed at the centre of curvature C
C F

The image formed is object

- virtual P
- erect or upright image C F
- magnified (bigger than the object)
- formed on the other side of the mirror
The image formed is
Object placed at the principal focus F - real
- inverted
- of the same size as the object
( magnification = 1 )
- formed on the same side as the object
P - formed at C
C F
Object placed beyond the centre of curvature
The image formed is
- at infinity object
- real P
- inverted C F
- magnified image
- formed on the same side as the object
The image formed is
- real
- inverted
- diminished (smaller than the object)
Object placed between the principal focus F and - formed on the same side as the object
the centre of curvature C
Image in a Convex Mirror since magnification, m = v/u

object
Also multiplying both sides by u,
P
F C 1 1 1
u  = u + 
f u v
The image formed is always u u u
- virtual
 = +
f u v
- erect
u 1
- diminished  = 1+
- formed on the other side of the mirror f m

NB NB
Convex mirror is used as a car driving mirror Real is positive and virtual is negative
and as a shop security mirror because it has a - For real image, v is positive
wider field of view and also produces erect - For virtual image, v is negative
image. - For convex mirror, f is negative
- For concave mirror, f is positive
MIRROR FORMULAR
Examples
object 1. An object of height 3.0cm is placed 20.0cm
u from a converging mirror of focal length
P 15.0cm.
image F f (a) Determine the nature of the image
v (b) What is the height of the image formed

f = focal length Solution

u = object distance 1 1 1
v = image distance (a) = +
f u v
The mirror formular is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1
= +  = +
f u v 15 20 v
1 1 1
 = −
multiplying both sides by v, v 15 20
1 4−3 1
 = =
1 1 1 v 60 60
v  = v +   v = 60cm
f u v The image is real since the image distance, v is
v v v positive.
 = +
f u v
(b)
v
 = m +1
f
 hi v v
m= = = m +1
ho u f
hi 60  v = f (m + 1)
 = =3
3 20  v = 15(4 + 1) = 15x5 = 75cm
 hi = 3x3 = 9cm
The image is real and formed at a distance of
2. An object is placed at a distance of 30cm 75cm in front of the mirror.
from a convex mirror of focal length 20cm.
Determine the 4. A point object is placed at a distance L,
(a) image distance in front of a converging mirror of focal
(b) nature of the image length, f = 10cm. A real image of the object
(c) magnification of the image is formed at a point 5cm from the principal
focus.
Solution (a) Prove that the focal length, f of the mirror
u = 30cm, f = - 20 (convex mirror) is given by the relation,
(a) 15l
f =
15 + l
1 1 1 (b) Calculate the position of the object.
= +
f u v
Solution
1 1 1
 = + (a) u = L, f = 10cm, v = 10 + 5 = 15cm
− 20 30 v
1 1 1 1 1 1
 =− − = +
v 20 30 f u v
1 −3−2 −5
 = = 1 1 1
v 60 60  = +
f L 15
60
v=− = −12 1 15 + L
5  =
 v = 12cm f 15L
15L
(b) The image is virtual since the image  f =
15 + L
distance is negative.
(b)
(c)
v 12
m= = = 0 .4
u 30

3. A concave mirror of radius of curvature

30cm produces an inverted image which
is 4 times the size of the object. Determine
the position and nature of the image.

Solution
f = r/2 = 30/2 = 15cm
 15L measured and recorded as the image distance,
f = v.
15 + L
The experiment is repeated for four (4)
15L
 10 = different values of u and v is determined in each
15 + L case and tabulated as shown below.
 10(15 + L) = 15L
 150 + 10L = 15L u/cm v/cm (1/u)/cm-1 (1/v)/cm-1
 150 = 15L − 10L
 150 = 5 L Theory
150 1 1 1
L= = 30cm = +
5 f u v
Hence the object is 30cm in front of the 1 1 1
mirror  = −
u f v
TRY graph of 1/u against 1/v is plotted to give a
An object 2cm high is placed 30cm from a straight line with 1/f as intercept on both axes
concave mirror of focal length 10cm. Calculate
the height of the image. and – 1 as gradient.
[ Ans = 1.0cm ] 1/u
1/f

Experiment to determine the focal length of a 1/v

concave mirror using the mirror formular 1/f
Intercept = 1/f
Diagram
Concave Hence f = 1/Intercept
mirror
Precautions
Ray Box - The mirror surface must be cleaned
u - The mirror must be held vertically
- A sharp image must be formed on the
screen before making any measurement.

Screen REFRACTION OF LIGHT RAYS

v It is a phenomenon where there is a change in
the direction and velocity of light ray when the
Method ray travels from one medium into another
The set of the experiment is as shown above. medium of different density.
The ray box with the cross-wire as the
illuminated object is placed at a distance, u
from the concave mirror which is held vertically
in a holder. When the bulb in the ray box is NB
switched on, the screen is adjusted until a sharp If a light ray moves from a denser medium (eg.
image of the cross-wire is formed on it. The glass) into a less dense medium (eg. air), the
distance of the screen from the mirror is refracted ray bends away from the normal.
 Normal Laws of refraction
Law 1 : The incident ray, the refracted ray and
med 1 the normal at the point of incidence
med 2 all lie in the same plane.
refracted
ray Law 2: The ratio of the sine of the angle of
medium 1 is denser than medium 2 incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant for any two given
If a light ray travels from a less dense medium media.
(eg. air) into a denser medium (eg. glass), the
refracted ray bends towards the normal. This law (Law 2) is sometimes called Snell’s Law.
Mathematically,
Normal Sini
=n
Sinr
med 1
med 2 n = constant called Refractive index. It has no
unit.

refracted ray NB
If light ray travels from medium1 to medium 2
then
Sini
Effects of Refraction 1 2 n =
- A swimming pool appears to be shallower
Sinr
than it is in reality when viewed from the
Similarly if the ray travels from air to glass then
top.
Sini
- A straight rod partially immersed in water a ng =
appears bent in the water. Sinr
When light moving through vacuum enters into
a medium, then the refractive index is called
Absolute refractive index of the medium.
However for practical purposes, the absolute
refractive index of a medium is taken to be
Normal when light moves from air to the medium. The
absolute refractive index is written as ‘n’. For
med 1 g i example the absolute refractive index of glass is
med 2 1.5 and this is when light ray moves from air
r into glass.
d
Refractive index can also be defined as the
refracted ray ratio of the speed (or velocity) of light in one
i = angle of incidence medium to the speed (or velocity) of light in
r = angle of refraction another medium of different density.
d = angle of deviation c1 f
g = glancing angle if med 2 is glass
n= = 1 f = frequency
c2 f 2
= speed of light in medium 1
d = (i – r) i + g = 90˚
speed of light in medium 2
 Sini
n is absolute refractive index if the medium 1 is a ng =
Sinr
air or vacuum.
Sin30
 1.5 =
Below are the refractive indices of some Sinr
materials. 0.5
5  1.5 =
Sinr
REFRACTIVE INDEX* 0.5
 Sinr = = 0.333
Vacuum 1.0000 1.5
Air 1.0003  r = Sin−1 (0.333) = 19.45
Ice 1.309
Water 1.33 2. A light ray is incident on a glass surface with a
Ethyl alcohol 1.36 glancing angle of 40˚. Calculate the
Glass (fused quartz) 1.46 (a) angle of incidence
(b) angle of refraction in the glass
Glass (crown) 1.52
(c) angle of deviation
Sodium chloride (salt) 1.54 [refractive index of glass = 1.5]
Zircon 1.92
Diamond 2.42 Solution
(a)
* For light with a wavelength i = 90 − g
of 590 nm (590 x 10-9 m)
 i = 90 − 40 = 50

NB (b)
1 Sini
1. 1 n2 = a ng =
2 n1
Sinr
Sin50
 1.5 =
Sinr
Example: If ang = 1.5 then gna= 1 = 1 = 0. 67
0.766
ang 1.5  1.5 =
Sinr
0.766
2. 1n3 = 1n2 x 2n3 for three given media  Sinr = = 0.51
1.5
 r = Sin−1 (0.51) = 30.66
Example: If ang = 1.5 and gnw = 0.8
anw = ang x gnw = 1.5 x 0.8 = 1.2
Examples
1. A light ray is incident on a glass surface at (c)
an angle of 30˚ with the normal. Calculate d =i−r
the angle of refraction in the glass.
 d = 50 − 30.66 = 19.34
[refractive index of glass is 1.5]
3. Light moving through air with a velocity
Solution
of 2.3 x 107 ms -1 enters into kerosene.
 If the refractive index of kerosene is 1.21, Solution
find the speed of light in kerosene. wnp = wna x anp = 1 x anp = 3 x 5 = 15

anw 4 4 16
Solution
Refractive index in terms of depth
ank = speed of light in air .
speed of light in kerosene
N
1.21 = 2.3 x 107
Ck r
air A B
Ck = 2.3 x 107 = 1.9 x 107ms -1
1.21 AD r i
I
4. (a) Water of refractive index 1.3 is in RD
contact with glass of refractive index D i
of 1.5. Light moving in water enters glass
into glass. Calculate the refractive index O
for water-glass surface. AD = Apparent depth
(b) Find also the angle of refraction in the RD = Real depth
glass if the light moving in the water D = Displacement
strikes the boundary at an angle of 30˚. I = Image
O =Object
Solution
(a) ang = 1.5, anw = 1.3 When the mark, O at the bottom of the glass is
wng = wna x ang = 1 x ang viewed from above, it appears to have moved
anw up and the eye sees it at position, I

wng = 1 x 1.5 = 1.15 The refractive index of the glass is expressed as

1.3 ang = Real depth .
Apparent depth
(b) i = 30˚, wng = 1.15

Sini
w ng =
Sinr Proof
Sin30 The light ray is from the glass into air hence
 1.15 = gna = Sini
Sinr
Sinr
0.5
 1.15 =
Sinr From triangle OAB, Sini = AB
0.5 OB
 Sinr = = 0.43
1.15
From triangle IAB, Sinr = AB
 r = Sin−1 (0.43) = 25.5 IB

Hence gna = Sini = AB AB

5. If anw = 4 and anp=5 determine wnp. Sinr OB IB
3 4
= AB x IB
OB AB
 gna = IB = IA since IB ≈ IA and OB ≈ OA R
OB OA n=
A
4 6
Hence ang = OA = Real depth (R) .  =
3 A
IA Apparent depth (A)
 4 A = (6)(3) = 18
R
n= 18
A A= = 4.5cm
4
A= R−d
d = R − A = 6 − 4.5 = 1.5cm
R
n=
R−d 3. A sheet of glass of thickness 6.6mm is
 n( R − d ) = R placed over a dot on a sheet of white
paper. When the dot is viewed from above,
 nR − nd = R the dot appears to have been displaced by
 nR − R = nd 2.2mm. Calculate the refractive index of the
nR − R R glass.
d = = R−
n n Solution
1 R = 6.6mm, d = 2.2mm
d = R(1 − )
n A = R – d = 6.6 – 2.2 = 4.4mm

d = displacement R = real depth R 6.6

A = apparent depth
n= = = 1.5
A 4 .4
Examples 4. A rectangular glass prism of thickness 6cm
1. A coin is dropped at the bottom of a pool is placed on a mark on a piece of paper
containing water of refractive index 1.3. resting on a horizontal table and viewed
If the real depth is 2.6m, by how much is vertically from the top.
the coin appeared to be from the bottom (a) Draw a ray diagram to show the apparent
when viewed vertically above the pool. position of the mark in the glass prism
Solution (b) Calculate the apparent displacement of
the mark.
R [ Refractive index of the material = 1.5]
n=
A Solution
2.6 (a)
 1 .3 =
A
2.6
 A= = 2m
1.3
d = R − A = 2 .6 − 2 = 0 .6 m
air

2. A pin is placed inside a beaker and water

is poured into the beaker to a depth of I
6.00cm. Calculate the apparent
displacement of the pin. [ n = 4/3]

O
Solution Rectangular glass prism
 A mark O is seen at the position I when viewed Solution
vertically from the top.
6 water
(b) R = thickness = 6cm
1 4.5 liquid
d = R(1 − )
n
8 glass
 1   1.5 − 1   0.5 
 d = 61 −  = 6  = 6  O
 1.5   1.5   1.5 
 d = 2cm Displacement, d = R(1 – 1/n)

5. 2009 (Nov) Q13a For glass, d = 8(1 – 1/1.6) = 3cm

A coin is put in an empty can and an observer
moves gradually away from the can until the For liquid, d = 4.5(1 – 1/1.5) = 1.5cm
coin just disappears from view. When sufficient
water is poured into the can, the coin is brought For water, d = 6(1 – 1 /(4/3))
into view again. By means of ray diagrams, = 6(1 – 3/4) = 1.5cm
explain this observation. Total displacement =3 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 6cm
Apparent position of O is 6cm from bottom
Solution TRY
N (a) Write down an expression for the
apparent displacement of a mark at
r the bottom of a glass of thickness t
air and refractive index n.
(b) A tank contains a slab of glass 6.0cm thick
r i and of refractive index 1.5. Above this glass,
I water of depth 5.0cm and refractive index
Can 1.33. To an observer looking from above,
i what is the apparent position of a mark on
the bottom of the tank.
O (coin) water [ Ans = 3.24cm from the bottom]

The coin at the position O is displaced upwards Experiment to determine the refractive index of
to the position I where it can be seen due to a liquid using real and apparent depth method
refraction.
Diagram Eye
6. A tank contains a slab of glass 8cm thick
and of refractive index 1.6. Above this is a Retort Search Pin
depth of 4.5cm of a liquid of refractive Stand
index 1.5 and upon this floats 6cm of water
(n = 4/3). To an observer looking down from Plane X
above, what is the apparent position of a mirror
mark on the bottom of the tank? Z
Beaker - - -
Liquid - - - Y

Object Pin
 A rectangular glass block is placed on a white
Method sheet which is pinned to a drawing board. The
An optical pin acting as the object pin is placed outline of the glass block ABCD is drawn with a
at the bottom of a clean beaker. The liquid is well sharpened pencil. The glass block is
then poured into the beaker to a reasonable removed and a normal is drawn to the side AB
height and a plane mirror with the reflecting at M. An incident ray making an angle i with the
face upward is placed at the mouth of the normal is drawn from M. Two optical pins P1
beaker. A pin is held in a clamp on a retort and P2 are fixed on the incident ray. The glass
stand as a search pin. The eye is placed above block is carefully placed on its outline and by
the set up and the search pin is adjusted until looking through the side DC, two other pins P3
its image in the mirror coincides with the object and P4 are also fixed so that they are in straight
pin. The distances X, Z and Y as shown in the line with P1 and P2. The glass block and the four
diagram are measured. pins are removed and a straight line is drawn
through P3 and P4 to meet DC at N. A straight
Theory line is drawn to join M and N. The angle r is
The refractive index, n = Real Depth = Y . measured. The experiment is repeated for four
of the liquid Apparent Depth X - Z other values of I and r is determined in each
case. The results are tabulated as shown below:
The experiment is repeated and the average
value of the refractive index, n is determined. i/˚ r/˚ Sin i Sin r

Theory

Sini
n=
Sinr
 Sini = nSinr

A graph of Sin i is plotted against Sin r to give a

straight. the slope of the graph gives the
refractive index, n of the glass.
Experiment to determine the refractive index of
glass.
Sin i
Diagram
Normal
Sin r
P1
Precautions
A P2 i M B
- The glass block must be cleaned before use.
- The optical pins must be placed erect.
r
- The distance between the pins must be at
least 5cm.
D N C
P3
Refraction through a Triangular Prism
Consider a ray passing symmetrically through
P4
the triangular prism.
Method
  A+ D
Sin 
A But n =
Sini
=  2 
Sinr  A
normal D normal Sin 
B C 2
i r1 r2 e Examples
1. A ray of light experiences a minimum
T P deviation when passing symmetrically
through an equilateral triangular prism.
TB = incident ray CP = emergent ray Calculate the
BC = refracted ray e = angle of emergence (a) angle of refraction
i = angle of incidence (b) angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction (c) minimum deviation
A = Refracting angle [ refractive index = 1.5]
A = 60˚ for equilateral triangle Solution
D = minimum deviation (a) A = 60˚ (equilateral triangle)
A = 2r
At minimum deviation,
A 60
- light ray passes symmetrically through the r= = = 30
prism 2 2
- the angles of refraction are the same (r1=r2)
- the angle of incidence = angle of emergence (b)
Sini
n=
Sinr
Refractive index of the prism is expressed as: Sini Sini
 1 .5 = =
Sin30 0.5
 A+ D  1.5 x0.5 = Sini
Sin 
n=  2 
 0.75 = Sini
 A
Sin  i = Sin−1 (0.75) = 48.6
2
(c)
A + D = 2i
Proof
 D = 2i − A
A = 2r  D = 2(48.6) − 60 = 37.2
A 2. (a) Write down the relation between the
r=
2 refracting angle A of a triangular glass
i +e = A+ D prism, minimum deviation Dm and the
refractive index n.
i=e (b) If in a prism, A = 60˚ and n = 1.52,
 i+i = A+ D calculate the
(i) minimum deviation
 2i = A + D
(ii) angle of incidence
A+ D
i=
2 Solution
  A + Dm  Diagram
Sin  Z
(a) n =
 2 
A S
 A
Sin  normal Q d normal
2 B C
i r1 r2 e
(b) (i)
 A + Dm  T P
Sin  Y X
n=  2 
 A Method
Sin 
2 The outline XYZ of the prism is drawn by placing
it on a white sheet.
 60 + Dm 
Sin  The prism is removed and normal is drawn at
 1.52 =  2  the side YZ. A straight line TS representing the
 60  incident ray is drawn making an angle I with the
Sin 
 2  normal. Two pins are placed on the line and the
prism is carefully placed on its outline. By
 60 + Dm 
Sin  viewing through the prism from the side XZ, two
 1.52 =  2  other pins are placed such that they form
Sin30 straight line with the first two pins. The pins and
 60 + Dm  the prism are removed and a straight line PQ is
 1.52xSin30 = Sin  drawn through the positions of the pins. The
 2  angle d as shown in the diagram is measured.
 60 + Dm  The experiment is repeated for different values
 0.76 = Sin 
 2  of I and each time d is measured.
A graph of d against I is plotted to get a curve as
 60 + Dm  −1
  = Sin (0.76) shown below.
 2  d
 60 + Dm 
  = 49.46
 2 
Dm
 60 + Dm = 2 x 49.46
 60 + Dm = 98.92 i
The minimum deviation, Dm is determined as
 Dm = 98.92 − 60 = 38.92
shown above.

(ii) Theory
2i = A + D For equilateral triangle, A = 60˚
A + D 60 + 38.92  60 + Dm   60 + Dm 
i= = = 49.46 Sin  Sin 
2 2
n=  2 
=  2 
Experiment to determine the refractive index of
 60  0.5
the material of an equilateral triangular glass Sin 
prism using the minimum deviation method  2
n = 2Sin(30 + 0.5Dm )
Hence the refractive index n can be calculated
2011 Q13c
A Total Internal Reflection and Critical angle, C
60
D Critical angle, C
20 It is the angle of incidence in a denser medium
45 P R e for which the angle of refraction in the less
Q dense medium is 90˚.
60
The refractive index of a medium is related to
B C the critical angle, C of the medium according to
the equation below:
Calculate the
(i) Values of angles P, Q and R 1
n=
(ii) Refractive index n of the glass SinC
(iii) Value of the angle e
(iv) total deviation D Proof
Consider a light ray moving from a denser
Solution medium (glass or water) to a less dense
(i) P + 20 = 45 medium (air ) and the angle of refraction 90˚
P = 45 – 20 = 250
N
Q + 60 = 180
Q = 180 – 60 = 1200 Denser C
medium (m)
P + R = A = 60 air (a) 90˚ refracted
25 + R = 60 ray
R = 60 – 25 = 350
(ii)
Sini Sin45 Sin45 From the diagram above,
n= = = = 1.67
Sinr sin P Sin25 SinC SinC
na = =
Sin90
m
1
(iii) 1
Sini Sine a nm =
n= = SinC
Sinr SinR
Sine Sine Total Internal Reflection
 1.67 = =
Sin35 0.57 It occurs when light travelling from a denser
 1.67  0.57 = Sine medium to a less dense medium is incident at
an angle greater than the critical angle.
 0.9519 = Sine
e = Sin−1 (0.9519) = 72.16

(iv) i + e = A +D
45 + 72.16 = 60 + D
117.16 = 60 + D
D =117.16 – 60 = 57.160 How it occurs
Consider light ray moving from a denser 1
medium to a less dense medium. The refracted a ng =
SinC
ray bends away from the normal.
1 1
Normal  SinC = = = 0.667
i<C a ng 1.5
glass C = Sin−1 (0.667) = 41.8
air
refracted
(b)
ray
1
a nw =
When the light is incident at the critical angle, SinC
the angle of refraction becomes 90˚. 1 1
N  SinC = = = 0.752
a nw 1.33
i=C C = Sin−1 (0.752) = 48.8
glass
air 90˚ refracted
ray 2. Calculate the refractive index of a medium
whose critical angle is 40˚.

Solution
If the critical angle is exceeded, the light is 1 1 1
reflected back into the denser medium (glass). n= = = = 1.56
SinC Sin40 0.643
N
total internal
i>C reflected ray 3. The speeds of light in air and water are
glass 3.0 x108 ms -1 and 2.25 x 108 ms -1
air respectively. Calculate the critical angle
for water when light travels from water
to air.
Conditions for the occurrence of total internal
reflection. Solution
- the light ray must travel from a denser anw = speed of light in air = 3.0 x 108
medium to a less dense medium speed of light in water 2.25 x 108
- the critical angle must be exceeded (i > C)
anw = 1.33

Examples 1
a nw =
1. Calculate the critical angle for SinC
(a) air- glass surface 1 1
(b) air-water surface  SinC = = = 0.752
a nw 1.33
[ ang = 1.5, anw = 1.33]
C = Sin−1 (0.752) = 48.8
Solution
(a) Effects and Practical applications of Total
Internal Reflection
The following effects and instruments use the
idea of total internal reflection: Prism Periscope
- Mirage It is an optical instrument used to see objects
- Dazzling appearance of diamond over and behind obstacles as applied in armour
- Optical Fibres tanks and submarine. It consists of two
- Fish eye view isosceles triangular glass prism fixed at the far
- Prism periscope ends of a long tube.
- Prism binoculars
- Erecting prism Object

Mirage
A mirage is an illusive and deceptive image Long
formed on a tarmac road on a hot day or image Tube
formed on the sea on a cold day as a result of
total internal reflection. Isosceles Glass
Prism
During the hot day, the ground becomes very Eye
hot and the air in contact is also hot and less
dense. However as one goes up from the Deviation of images by right-angled isosceles
ground, the air gets denser and denser. glass prisms
A ray from the top a tree by the road side
undergoes successive refraction as it travels O
downwards through different layers of air –
from denser air to less denser air. O
At a particular layer of air the light ray is
incident at an angle greater than the critical I
angle and total internal reflection occurs. The
light ray then bends upwards and enters the I
eye of an observer. The observer sees an 180˚ Deviation 90˚ Deviation
inverted image of the tree formed on the road. NB
This image is called Mirage. As the observer Prism periscope and Prism binoculars are two
moves closer, the image also moves away and optical instruments which make use of right-
can never be reached. Sometimes the sky angled isosceles glass prisms drawn.
appears as a pool of water on the road as a
mirage. Optical Fibre
It is a very pure glass rod which is very long and
very thin in dimension. Light easily travels
through it even when it is bent.

It is a very important application of total

internal reflection. Electromagnetic
radiation, this can be light or infra red, is
shone along a thin glass fiber and as it hits
the glass-air boundary at more than the
critical angle it reflects along inside the
fiber.
 It is for this behavior that a convex lens is called
a converging lens.

Concave Lens
It is a type of lens which diverges parallel rays
passing through it. That is why a convex lens is
sometimes called a diverging lens.

Uses of Fibre Optics Below are diagrams of concave and convex

In many of the following uses each fibre has an lenses:
outer cladding of glass and a bundle of the
fibres can be enclosed by a plastic cover.

1. Communications – sending information along

a light beam. This is useful for telephone,
television, radio, computer networks, stereo
links, control in aircraft .
2. Endoscopy - seeing down inside a patient's
body
3. Illuminating models or road signs using only
one bulb. Basic terms about lenses
4. Security fencing – very difficult to bypass.

Advantages of fibre optics over copper wire

1. Cheap – glass is made from silica, the basic
principal axis
constituent of sand
2F F C F 2F
2. Light in weight – and so it is useful in
aircraft. f
3. The light beam can carry a huge amount of
r
information because its frequency is so high
Convex lens
LENSES
A lens is a piece of a transparent substance
bounded by two spherical surfaces or one plane
surface and the other a spherical surface.
Lenses are used in almost all optical
instruments such as microscopes, telescopes,
binoculars, film projectors etc.

There are two types of lenses namely: Convex

2F F C F 2F
(converging) lens and Concave (diverging) lens.

Convex Lens
f
It is a type of lens which converges parallel rays r concave lens
passing through it to a common point.
 Principal axis
It is an imaginary straight line joining the The image formed is
centres of curvature of the two surfaces of the - virtual
lens. - erect (upright)
Optical centre, C - magnified (enlarged)
It is a point in the lens through which rays of - formed on the same side as the object
light pass without deviation by the lens. It can Object placed at the Principal focus (F)
also be defined as a point in the lens where the
principal axis passes. O = Object

Principal focus, F O
It is the point on the principal axis at which all
rays parallel and close to the principal axis 2F F C F 2F
either converge (for convex lens) or appear to
diverge from (for concave lens) after refraction
through the lens.
The image is formed at infinity
Focal length, f
It is the distance between the optical centre and
the principal focus of a lens. Object placed between F and 2F

Tracing of Images in Lenses O = Object

Tracing an image formed by a lens two of the I = Image
following principles are used: O

1. A ray parallel and close to the principal axis 2F F C F 2F I

passes through the principal focus after
refraction through the lens
2. A ray passing through the principal focus
becomes parallel to the principal axis after
refraction through the lens. The image formed is
3. A ray passing through the optical centre is - real
undeviated after refraction. - inverted or turned upside down
- magnified or enlarged
- beyond 2F
Images formed by Convex lens
Object placed at 2F
Object between the Optical centre(C) and
Principal focus (F) O = Object
I = Image
O = Object O
I I = Image I
2F F C F 2F
O image

2F F C F 2F
The image formed is
- real
- inverted
- of the same size as the object (m = 1) 1 1 1
- at 2F = +
f u v

- Real is positive and virtual is negative.

- convex (converging) lens has a real focus
(f = +ve)
- Concave (diverging) lens has a virtual focus
Object placed beyond 2F (f = - ve)

O = Object
I = Image
O Power of a lens, P
I Power of a lens is the reciprocal of the focal
2F F C F 2F length in units of metres.

1
P=
f
The image formed is
- real The S.I unit is dioptre (D) or m – 1
- inverted
- diminished (smaller than the object) Examples
- between F and 2F 1. An object is placed 30cm from a converging
lens of focal length 20cm. Find the
(a) power of the lens
NB (b) position and nature of the image
If an object is at infinity, the image is formed at
the principal focus, F. Solution
(a) f = 20cm = 0.2m

Images formed by a Concave (diverging) lens 1 1

P= = = 5D
O O = Object f 0.2
I = I mage (b)
1 1 1
= +
F I C F f u v
1 1 1
 = +
No matter where the object is placed, the 20 30 v
image formed is always virtual, diminished, 1 1 1
erect and formed on the same side as the
 = −
v 20 30
object.
1 3−2 1
 = =
Lens Formular v 60 60
If an object is placed at a distance u from a lens  v = 60cm
of focal length f and the image is formed at a
distance v from the lens, then
Hence the image is real and at 60cm at the used to obtain the image of an object
other side of the lens. placed 20cm away from the lens. Calculate
(a) the power of the lens
(b) the linear magnification of the image
2. A point object is placed at a distance L, (c) the least possible distance between the
in front of a convex lens of focal object and its image.
length, f = 10cm. A real image of the object
is formed at a point 5cm from the principal Solution
focus. (a) f = 15cm = 0.15m
(a) Prove that the focal length, f of the lens
is given by the relation, 1 1
15l P= = = 6.67D
f = f 0.15
15 + l (b)
(b) Calculate the position of the object.
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Solution 1 1 1
(a) u = L, f = 10cm, v = 10 + 5 = 15cm  = +
15 20 v
1 1 1
1 1 1  = −
= + v 15 20
f u v 1 4−3 1
1 1 1  = =
 = + v 60 60
f L 15  v = 60cm
1 15 + L v 60
 = m= = =3
f 15L u 20
15L
 f = (c) The least possible distance between an
15 + L object and its image = 4f = 4 x 15 = 60cm
(b)
15L
f =
15 + L
15L
 10 =
15 + L 4. (a) Define focal length of a convex lens.
 10(15 + L) = 15L (b) When an object is placed 10cm from a
 150 + 10L = 15L convex lens, a real image enlarged four
times is formed. Where must the object
 150 = 15L − 10L
be placed to give a real image of the
 150 = 5 L same size as the object.
150
L= = 30cm Solution
5
(a) Focal length of a convex lens is the
Hence the object is 30cm from the lens.
distance between the optical centre and the
principal focus of the lens.
3. A converging lens of focal length 15cm is
(b) The object must be placed at 2f
 points F1 and F2 are known as conjugate foci or
u =10cm, m = v = 4 points.
u
 v = 4u = 4x10 = 40cm
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1 F1 C F2
 = +
f 10 40
1 4 +1 5 1
 = = =
f 40 40 8 Newton’s Formular
 f = 8cm object
Hence the object must be placed at 2x8 =16cm
x f f y
F1 C F2
u v image
5. An object is placed 20cm from a diverging
lens of focal length 10cm. Find the
(a) power of the lens
F1 and F2 are conjugate points.
(b) position and nature of the image
x =distance of the object from F1
y = distance of the image from F2
Solution
Object distance, u = x + f
(a) f = - 10cm = - 0.1m (diverging lens,f= - ve)
Image distance, v = y + f
1 1
P= = = −10D
f − 0.1
(b) Using the lens formular
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
f u v f u v
1 1 1 1 1 1
 = +  = +
− 10 20 v f x+ f y+ f
1 1 1 1 y+ f +x+ f x+ y+2f
 =− −  = =
v 10 20 f ( x + f )( y + f ) xy + xf + yf + f 2
1 1 1   2 +1 3  1( xy + xf + yf + f 2 ) = f ( x + y + 2 f )
 = − +  = − =−
v  10 20   20  20  xy + xf + yf + f 2 = xf + yf + 2 f 2
20  xy = xf + yf + 2 f 2 − xf − yf − f 2
v=− = −6.67cm
3
Hence the image is virtual and 6.67cm from  xy = f 2
the lens and at the same side of the object.
Displacement of lens
Newton’s Formular and Conjugate foci (points An object O is placed at a distance u from a
convex lens at a position A to form an image I at
Conjugate foci (points) a distance L from the object. If the lens is
If a distant object is focused at a point F1 at one displaced a distance d to a new position B to
side of a convex lens and at the other side at F2 form an image at the same position, then
without changing the position of the lens, the
 L2 − d 2 = 4 Lf focal length of the lens.
f is the focal length of the lens.
A B Solution
u d u
O O
25cm f f 18cm
I A B
L I
v f = 25x18 = 450
2

 f = 450 = 21.2cm
2u = L − d
L−d
u=
2 2. An object is placed at a distance of 12.0cm
1 2 beyond the principal focus of a converging
 = lens. If the image is formed at a distance of
u L−d 8.0cm beyond the other focus, calculate
(a) the focal length of the lens
v = L−u (b) the magnification of the image formed
L−d  L d L d
 L−  = L− + = + Solution
 2  2 2 2 2
O
L+d
v= 12cm f f 8cm
2 A B
1 2 (a) I
=
v L+d f = 12x8 = 96
2

 f = 96 = 9.8cm
Using the lens formular (b) Object distance, u = 12 + f = 12 +9.8 =21.8
Image distance, v = 8 + f = 8 + 9.8 = 17.8
1 1 1
= +
f u v v 17.8
m= = = 0.82
1 2 2 u 21.8
 = +
f L−d L+d
1 2( L + d ) + 2( L − d ) 2009 Q13
 =
f ( L − d )(L + d ) O
1 2 L + 2d + 2 L − 2d 4L a b
 = = 2 f f
f L −d
2 2
L − d2
I
 L2 − d 2 = 4 Lf
(a) A thin converging lens of focal length f has
an object O on and perpendicular to its
Examples principal axis. A real image I is produced by
1. Two points A and B are conjugate points the lens as illustrated in the diagram above
with respect to a converging lens. If A and (i) Given that the principal foci of the lens are
B are 25.0cm and 18.0cm from the object the points marked f , use the lens formula
and its image respectively, calculate the to show that f2 = ab
(ii) If a = 16cm and b = 25cm, determine f. 1 1 1
(iii) Calculate the magnification of the image. = +
f u v
1 1 1
(b) Explain the following terms:  = −
(i) principal focus u f v
(ii) optical centre
graph of 1/u against 1/v is plotted to give a
(iii) focal length
straight line with 1/f as intercept on both axes
Solution and – 1 as gradient.
(a) (i) Refer to notes
1/u
(ii)
1/f
f 2 = 16x 25 = 400
 f = 400 = 20cm 1/v
(iii) 1/f
Object distance, u = 16 + f = 16 +20 =36 Intercept = 1/f
Image distance, v = 25 + f = 25 + 20 = 45
Hence f = 1/Intercept
v 45
m= = = 1.25
u 36 Precautions
- The lens must be cleaned
(b) Refer to notes - The lens must be held vertically in the holder
- A sharp image must be formed on the
Experiment to determine the focal length of a screen before making any measurement
converging lens using the lens formular
Experiment to determine the focal length of a
Diagram convex lens screen converging lens using the displacement method
Ray Box
Diagram
A B screen
u v Ray box d

Method L
A ray box is placed at a distance u from a Method
converging lens. The screen is adjusted until a A ray box with a cross-wire as illuminated
sharp image of the cross-wire in the ray box is object is placed at a reasonably distance L from
formed on it. The image distance v between the a screen. A convex lens held vertically in its
lens and the screen is measured using a metre holder is placed between the ray box and the
rule. The experiment is repeated for four other screen and adjusted until a sharp image of the
values of u and v is measured in each case. The cross-wire is formed on the screen. The position
results are tabulated as shown below: of the lens is marked as A. The lens is moved to
a new position B where another sharp image is
u/cm v/cm (1/u)/cm-1 (1/v)/cm-1 formed on the screen. The distance between
the positions A and B is measured using a metre
Theory rule and recorded as d. The experiment is
repeated for four different values of L and d is
measured in each case. The results are 0.45
tabulated as shown below: 0.4
L/cm d/cm L2/cm2 d2/cm2 L2- d2/cm2 0.35
0.3

l2 - d2
0.25
Theory 0.2
L2 – d2 = 4Lf 0.15
A graph of L2 – d2 is plotted against L to give a 0.1
straight line and 4f as the slope. 0.05
0
L2 – d2/cm2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
l/m

(ii)
L/cm 0.41 − 0.25 0.16
Slope = = = 0.4
Slope = 4 f 1 − 0.6 0.4
Slope  4 f = 0.4
 f =
4 0.4
 f = = 0.1m = 10cm
4
Precautions
- The lens must be cleaned Experiment to determine the focal length of a
- The lens must be held vertically in the holder convex lens using Newton’s Formular
- A sharp image must be formed on the
screen before making any measurement Diagram
2000 Q6c Ray box screen
The following set of readings was obtained in an
experiment to determine the focal length, f of a x f f y
converging lens by the lens displacement F1 C F2
method. u v
l/m 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
d/m 0.22 0.35 0.46 0.57 0.67 0.77 Method
l is the distance between the object and the The converging lens is mounted vertically in a
screen and d is the distance between the two holder. A screen is arranged behind the lens and
positions of the lens. a far distant object is focused on the screen.
(i) Plot a graph with (l2 – d2) on the vertical The position of the screen is marked F1. The
axis and l on the horizontal axis screen is brought to the other side of the lens
(ii) Use the graph to determine the value of f and again a far distant object is focused on it.
The position of the screen is marked F2. F1 and
Solution F2 are the conjugate points.
l/m 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 A ray box is placed at a distance x from F1 and
d/m 0.22 0.35 0.46 0.57 0.67 0.77 the screen is adjusted until a sharp image of the
l2-d2 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.41 cross-wire is formed on it. The distance y
(i) between F2 and the screen is measured.
The experiment is repeated for four different
values of x and y is measured in each case.
Theory

xy = f 2
 x = f 2 y −1
Hence a graph of x is plotted against y -1 to give
a straight line with f2 as the slope.

x/cm

Parts of the eye

Our eyes have a number of different parts,
each of which do different things. The most
y -1/cm-1 important parts are:

(a) lens - this makes fine adjustments to the

Slope = f 2 focus of the view that we see
 f = Slope (b) cornea – the transparent part at the
front of our eye. This helps to focus the view
Defect of Lenses on the retina. Most of the refraction of the
The defect of a lens is called Spherical light occurs here.
Aberation. This defect is avoided by using a lens
(c) retina – the part of the eye that is
with a small aperture. sensitive to light. It is on the retina that the
image of the view that we are looking at is
focused.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Optical Instruments are instruments which (d) optic nerve - this takes the signals
operate using mirror, glass prism or lens or any from the retina to our brain so that we can
see
two combined. Examples are human eye,
camera, microscope, telescope, periscope, slide (e) muscles – there are two different sets of
projector etc. muscles in your eyes.
(i) One set goes round the lens. These are
used in fine focusing of the eye. When these
Human Eye muscles contract they squeeze the lens and
so it gets fatter, this enables you to focus on
It is spherical in shape having a diameter of things close to you. When the muscles relax
about 2.5cm. The image formed is always real the lens becomes thinner and in this
and inverted condition one can see distant objects.

(ii)The ones at the top and bottom and on

the two sides of the eye swivel the eye in its
socket so that you can look in different
directions without turning your head.

(f) iris – this is the coloured part of the eye.

If someone has blue eye it is the iris that is
blue. This part of the eye controls how much
light gets into the eye, it behaves just like
the diaphragm in a camera. In bright light
the iris expands so that the hole in the
middle of it, the pupil, is small and only lets
a small amount of light into the eye. In dim
light the iris contracts so that the pupil gets
bigger allowing more light to get into the
eye.

Definition of some terms

Accomodation
It is the ability of the eye to adjust the focal
length of its lens to focus an object at any
distance on the retina.
Long-sightedness (hypermetropia)
Near Point It is a defect where the eye can only see far
It is the closest point from where an object distant objects clearly but cannot see clearly
can be focused on the retina. close objects.
It is 25cm from the normal eye.

Far Point
The eye has a normal far point but its near point
It is the most distant point from where an is farther than the normal least distance of
object can be focused on the retina. It is at distinct vision, 25cm. This defect is due to the
infinity from a normal eye. fact that the eye-ball is too short and the focal
length too long. Close objects are focused
Visual angle behind the retina.
It is the angle an object subtends at the eye
lens.
This defect is corrected using a suitable
Defects of the Eye converging (convex) lens.
The common defects of the eye are:
- short-sightedness (myopia)
- long-sightedness (hypermetropia)
- presbyopia
- astigmatism
- colour blindness

Short-sightedness (myopia)
It is a defect where the eye can only see Presbyopia
short distant object clearly but cannot see If the eye suffers from both long-sightedness
clearly far distant object.
and short-sightedness then the defect is called
The eye has a normal near point but its far presbyopia (lack of accommodation).
point is not at infinity. This defect is due to
the fact that the eye-ball is too long or big This defect is caused by the fact that, as one
and the focal length too short. Far distant gets older, the ciliary muscles become less able
objects are focused in front of the retina. to adjust the focal length of the lens enough to
focus far or near distant objects on the retina.
This defect is corrected using a suitable
diverging (concave)lens so that the far
distant objects are focused on the retina. The defect is corrected using a bi-focal lens.
A bi-focal lens consists of both convex and
concave lens.

Astigmatism
It is a defect in the outer curvature on the
surface of the eye that causes distorted vision.
In a patient with astigmatism, the cornea or Since the focal length is negative, the
sometimes the lens of the eye is curved prescribed spectacle is the one with a diverging
abnormally. This causes light rays to refract lens of focal length 200cm.
unevenly inside the eye. While some light rays
focus on the retina, other light rays focus in f = -200cm = -2m
front of or behind the retina, resulting in
blurred vision. 1 1
Power = = = −0.5D
f −2
Astigmatism is usually present at birth, but
sometimes is caused by disease or injury to the
eye later in life. 2. Mary has a near point of 40cm from her
This defect is corrected using a cylindrical lens. eye. If the least distance of distinct vision
of a normal eye is 25cm, prescribe the
Colour Blindness suitable spectacle she must wear to correct
This is a defect where the eye cannot recognize this defect.
any colour at all and everything appears as Solution
black and white. Mary has problem with her near point hence
she is long-sighted.
This defect is caused by a deficiency of some of
the cone cells. u = 25cm, v = −40cm
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
f u v 25 − 40
Calculations involving defects of the eye
1 1 1 8−5 3
Since in all the defects the images are not  = − = =
focused on the retina which acts as the screen, f 25 40 200 200
the images are virtual. 200
 f = = 66.67cm
3
The object distance, u = infinity (∞) for short- Since the focal length is positive, the prescribed
sightedness and 25cm for long-sightedness. spectacle is the one with a converging lens of
focal length 66.67cm
Examples
1. A man cannot see objects clearly when they 3. A short-sighted person cannot see objects
are 200cm away. Prescribe the type of clearly when they are beyond 100cm from
spectacles he must wear to allow him to see his eyes. What is the focal length of the
distant objects clearly. Find the power of correcting lens he should use?
the lens.
Solution
Solution u = , v = −100cm
The man has problem with his far point hence
1 1 1 1 1 1
he is short-sighted. = + = + =−
f u v  − 100 100
u = , v = −200cm  f = −100cm
1 1 1 1 1 1 The person needs a diverging lens of focal
= + = + =−
f u v  − 200 200 length 100cm.
 f = −200cm
4. A man wears spectacles whose lenses have a
power of +2.5D in order to bring his near point
to 25cm. What is his near point
distance when he is not wearing the
spectacles?

Solution
1
Power =
f
1
 2.5 =
f
1
 f = = 0.4m = 40cm
2.5
Since f is positive the spectacle is made of
converging lens and the defect is long-
sightedness.
The diagram at the top of the page shows a
drawing of a modern camera. It is very much
u = 25cm, v = ?, f = 40cm
better for taking pictures than a pinhole camera
1 1 1 because it takes in much more light through the
= +
f u v lens than could pass through a pinhole and so
the exposure times can be much shorter. Also
1 1 1 1 1 5−8 3
 = − = − = =− the amount of light getting into the camera can
v f u 40 25 200 200 be controlled.
200
v=− = −66.67cm The essential parts of the camera are:
3
Hence without the spectacle his near point is (a) a lens - this focuses the light onto the
66.67cm from his eyes. film.
(b) the film - the image is produced here.
TRY (c) the diaphragm - this controls the
(a) Define accommodation of the eye. amount of light that enters the camera.
(b) A short-sighted person cannot see clearly (d) the shutter - this controls the length of
when an object is placed beyond 80.0cm time that light falls on the film.
from his eye.
(i) What type of lens does he have to use? The diaphragm opens and closes; in dull
(ii) Calculate the focal length of the lens. conditions it is opened to allow as much light as
[Answer : f = - 80cm] possible to enter the camera, and in bright
conditions it is nearly closed. Both the
PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERA diaphragm and lens are fixed to rings so that
they can be adjusted. The image formed on the
film is real, inverted and diminished as shown
below camera.
 I = Image
I O = Object

F F

D = 25cm

Angular magnification or the magnifying power

of the microscope in normal use is :
Differences between Human eye and Camera
D 
Human Eye Camera M =  + 1 , f = focal length of the lens
1. The focal length of 1. The focal length of  f 
lens can be the lens is fixed.
adjusted. Abnormal adjustment or Abnormal use
2. The lens is flexible 2. The lens is rigid. In the abnormal use, the object is placed at the
principal focus of the lens and forms an image
at infinity.
Similarities between the Human Eye and
Camera
1. Both use converging lens
2. Images formed in both are real, inverted
and diminished.

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
A simple microscope also known as a O
magnifying glass is an optical instrument which
produces a virtual, erect and magnified image F F
of a small object.

It consists of a single converging lens and is

used to view very small objects especially Angular magnification or the magnifying power
biological specimens. of the microscope in abnormal use is :

Normal adjustment or Normal use D

M =   , f = focal length of the lens
In normal use, the object is placed between the
 f 
principal focus and the optical centre of the lens
Example
so that the image is formed at a distance equal
A magnifying glass has a focal length of 5.0cm. If
to the least distance of distinct vision, D = 25cm
the least distance of distinct vision is 25cm, find
from the lens. This means the image is formed
(a) the angular magnification of the glass in
at the near point
normal use.
(b) the position of the object.
 from the lens. This means the image is formed
Solution at the near point.
 25  Eyepiece Lens
(a) M =  + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6
 5  Objective Lens
(b)
v = −25cm, f = 5cm Fe FO O
1 1 1
= + I1
f u v
v
1 1 1 1 1
 = − = −
u f v 5 − 25 I
1 1 1 5 +1 6
= + = =
u 5 25 25 25
25
u= = 4.17cm
6
D = 25cm
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Compound microscope is an optical instrument In normal adjustment, the real intermediate
used to produce a highly magnified image. It image I1 forms between the optical centre and
consists of two converging lenses combined to the principal focus Fe of the eyepiece lens.
produce very high magnification. The
magnifying power of the compound microscope Angular magnification or the magnifying power
is much higher than that of simple microscope. of the microscope in normal use is :

The lens nearer to the object is called Objective  v  D 

lens and the one nearer the eye is called M =  − 1 + 1
Eyepiece lens. Both lenses have short focal  fo  f e 
lengths. fo = focal length of objective lens
fe = focal length of eyepiece lens

Abnormal adjustment
In abnormal adjustment, the real intermediate
imageI1 is formed at the principal focus of the
eyepiece lens, Fe
so that the final image is formed at infinity.

Angular magnification or the magnifying power

of the microscope in normal use is :

 v  D 
Normal adjustment M =  − 1 
In normal use, the object is placed between the  fo  f e 
principal focus and the optical centre of the lens
so that the image is formed at a distance equal fo = focal length of objective lens
to the least distance of distinct vision, D = 25cm fe = focal length of eyepiece lens
NOTE u = 1.2cm , fo = 1.0cm , v = ?
The angular magnification M can be expressed
as M = mo x me 1 1 1
= +
f u v
mo = linear magnification produced by the 1 1 1 1 1
 = − = −
objective lens v f u 1 1.2
me = linear magnification produced by the
1 1 1 1.2 − 1 0.2
eyepiece lens = − = =
v 1 1.2 1.2 1.2
1.2
v= = 6cm
0.2

Examples
1. A compound microscope has objective and
and eyepiece lenses of focal lengths 1.0cm (a) V = 6cm, D = 25cm, fo = 1.0cm, fe = 5cm
and 5.0cm respectively. An object is placed  v  D 
1.2cm from the objective lens. If a virtual M =  − 1 + 1
image is formed 25cm from the eyepiece,  fo  f e 
calculate the  6  25 
(a) angular magnification  M =  − 1 + 1
(b) distance of separation between the lenses  1  5 
 M = (6 − 1)(5 + 1)
 M = 5 x6 = 30

(b) u = x, v = - 25cm (virtual), fe = 5cm

1 1 1
Solution = +
f x v
Eyepiece Lens 1 1 1 1 1
 = − = −
x f v 5 − 25
Objective Lens
1 1 1 5 +1 6
= + = =
Fe FO O x 5 25 25 25
25
I1 x= = 4.17cm
6
v u
The distance between the lenses = v + x
= 6 + 4.17
I
= 10.17cm
x
2. A compound microscope has objective and
eyepiece lenses of focal lengths 2.0cm and
5.0cm respectively. An object is placed 3cm
from the objective lens. If the final image is
D = 25cm
 formed at infinity, calculate the - Astronomical telescope
(a) distance of separation between the lenses - Galilean telescope
(b) angular magnification if it is used by a man - Terrestrial telescope
whose near point is 25cm away. - Reflecting telescope

Astronomical Telescope
Solution It is used to view and study the stars, moon, sun
u = 3cm, f o = 2cm and other planets. It is also known as Refracting
Telescope.
1 1 1
= + In normal adjustment, the final image is formed
f u v at infinity. The intermediate image is formed at
1 1 1 1 1 principal focus of both the objective and
 = − = − eyepiece lenses. The focal points of both the
v f u 2 3
objective and eyepiece therefore coincide.
1 1 1 3−2 1
= − = = eyepiece lens
v 2 3 6 6 objective lens
v = 6cm Fe
Fo
(a) Since the final image is formed at infinity,
the intermediate image is formed at the
principal focus of the eyepiece lens fo fe

The distance of separation = v + fe

= 6 + 5 = 11cm The distance of separation between the two
lenses = fo + fe
(b) In abnormal adjustment,
The angular magnification is :
 v  D  f 
M =  − 1  M =  o 
 f o  f e   fe 
fo = focal length of the objective lens
 6  25 
 M =  − 1  fe = focal length of the eyepiece lens
 2  5 
 M = (3 − 1)(5) When the telescope is not in normal use, the
 M = 2 x5 = 10 final image is formed at a distance from the
eyepiece lens.

TELESCOPES NB: If the eyepiece lens is adjusted so that a

Telescope is an optical instrument mainly used final image is formed then the separation btn
to view far objects clearly. It has Objective lens the lenses = f0 + ue
and Eyepiece lens. When a telescope is in
normal adjustment, the final image is formed at Examples
infinity. However when the telescope is not in 1. An astronomical telescope has objective
normal use, the final image is formed at the and eyepiece lenses of focal lengths 20cm
near point from the eyepiece lens (about and 5cm respectively. If the telescope is in
25cm). normal use, find the
(a) angular magnification
Different types of telescopes are : (b) distance of separation between the lenses
 eye piece lens. Calculate the new
Solution separation of the lenses
fo = 20cm, fe = 5cm (iii) Sketch a ray diagram to illustrate the
(a) image formed in (ii) above
 f  20
M =  o  = =4 Solution
 e
f 5 (a) (i) It is a point on the principal axis from
which all rays parallel and close to the principal
(b) Separation between the lenses = fo + fe axis appear to diverge after refraction through
= 20 + 5 = 25cm the lens

(ii) It is an imaginary straight line linking the

principal focus to the optical centre of the lens
2009 Q13c (Nov)
A simple refracting astronomical telescope (b) When the light travels from a denser/less
made of a converging objective lens of focal dense medium to a less dense/denser medium
length 144cm and a converging eyepiece lens of
focal length 6cm is set in normal adjustment. fo
(i) With the aid of a diagram, explain normal (c) (i) Angular magnification = =8
fe
adjustment.
(ii) Calculate the angular magnification of the  f o = 8 f e − − − −(1)
system in normal adjustment. f o + f e = 36 − − − −(2 )
(iii) Calculate the distance of separation
 8 f e + f e = 36
between the lenses.
 9 f e = 36
Solution 36
(i) Refer to notes fe = = 4cm
9
(ii) fo = 144cm, fe = 6cm
f o = 8 f e = 8  4 = 32cm
 f  144
M =  o  = = 24
 fe  6 (ii)
(iii) Separation = fo + fe = 144 + 6 = 150cm ve = −30cm, f e = 4cm
1 1 1
2013 Q13(Nov-Dec) = +
(a) Define f u v
(i) principal focus for a diverging lens 1 1 1 1 1
(ii) principal axis for a diverging lens
 = − = −
ue f e ve 4 − 30
1 1 15 + 2 17
(b) State a situation under which the speed = + = =
of light can change 4 30 60 60
60
(c) The separation between the lenses of an ue = cm = 3.53cm
17
astronomical telescope in normal
adjustment is 36.0cm and the angular New Separation =
maginification is 8 f o + ue = 32 + 3.53 = 35.53cm
(i) Calculate the focal lengths of the lenses
(ii) The lenses separation is adjusted to
produce the final image 30cm from the
(c) eyepiece lens Example
objective lens The focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece
FE lenses of a Galilean telescope are 15.0cm and
Fo 6.0cm respectively. Calculate the
(a) distance of separation between the lenses
(b) angular magnification in normal use

Solution
fo = 12cm, fe = - 6cm (diverging lens)
(a) Separation between the lenses = fo - fe
= 15 – 6 = 9cm
Galilean Telescope (b)
Galilean telescope has a converging lens as the f o 15
objective lens and a diverging lens as the M = = = 2.5
eyepiece lens. The diverging lens helps to form
fe 6
a final erect image.

In normal use, the final image is formed at Slide Projector

infinity A projector is an instrument used to produce a
large image of a small object. The slide, or film,
Eyepiece lens is placed behind the projector lens outside its
focal length and is illuminated by a small but
powerful source of light.
FO/Fe
The image formed is real, magnified and
inverted so for an image to appear erect on the
screen, the object or the slide is turned upside
Objective lens down.

The amount of light from the source actually

going through the transparent slide or film is
increased by using a condenser and a concave
Both lenses are arranged so that their principal mirror.
foci coincide.

Separation between the lenses = fo - fe

Angular magnification , M is given by :

fo
M =
fe
fo = focal length of the objective lens
fe = focal length of the eyepiece lens

This telescope is very easy to handle because it

is short but it cannot be used to view a large
area.
 Spectrum of white light
Red,Orange,Yellow,Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

Increasing wavelength and refractive index

Decreasing order of frequency

Formation of Pure Spectrum of White Light

A pure spectrum can be produced by adding
two lenses to focus each colour to a point on
the screen. If this is not done the colours will
overlap.

Filament bulb Glass Prism

The small intense light source gets very hot and

so to avoid damaging it, you should never move
a projector until it has cooled down. Most
projectors have a cooling fan fitted which slit screen
carries on running even after the light source
has been turned off. Red and violet are at the extreme ends. The red
colour has the least wavelength and refractive
index hence it is least deviated and violet
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT because of its greatest wavelength and
White light consists of seven colours and these refractive index is the most deviated.
are : red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. These colours are sometimes referred to Monochromatic light is a light with only one
as Rainbow colours. wavelength. An example is the light from
White light is got from the sun, stars, filament sodium bulb.
bulbs etc.
COLOURS
Dispersion of white light is the separation of a There are three types of colours and these
beam of white light into seven different colours are : Primary colours, Secondary colours and
of different wavelengths after refraction Complementary colours.
through a glass prism.
Primary colours
Spectrum of white light is the arrangement of These are colours that cannot be produced by
the seven colours of white light in a certain mixing other colours. These colours are : Red,
order. Green and blue.

The seven colours separate because each has When the primary colours are mixed together,
different wavelength and refractive index. they produce white colour.
 Red + Green + Blue = White colour

Secondary colours
These are the colours produced when any two
primary colours are mixed. These colours are
Yellow, Cyan and Magenta. When all the
secondary colours are mixed they produce
white colour.

Red + Green = Yellow

Blue + Green = Cyan
Red + Blue = Magenta

Complementary colours
When two colours are mixed to produce white
colour then those pair of colours are called
Complementary colours.

One of the colours is primary and the other

secondary.

Examples of complementary colours are :

yellow and blue, cyan and red, magenta and
green.

NB
An opaque body can only be seen if light falls on
it. A body appears for example blue because
when light falls on it, only blue light is reflected
towards the eye and the other colours are
absorbed.
Black is the absence of light or colour.