• Job Fairs - A recruitment method in which several employers are

Employee Selection: Recruiting available at one location so that many applicants can obtain information at one
and Interviewing time.

Employee recruitment Realistic Job Previews

An important step in selecting employees is recruitment: attracting people with the A realistic job preview offers a realistic look into what a job is actually like – no
right qualifications (as determined in the job analysis) to apply for the job. sugar coating – showing both the positives and the negatives so the candidate can
• External recruitment - The process of attracting employees to an organization get a real feel for what skills and qualifications are needed on the job, as well as
• Internal recruitment - Recruiting employees already employed by the what a typical day would look like.
organization. For example, instead of telling the applicant how much fun she will have working on
the assembly line, the recruiter honestly tells her that although the pay is well
Kinds of recruitment above average, the work is often boring and there is little chance for advancement.
• Media Advertisements/ Newspaper Ads - Running ads in periodicals such as
local newspapers or professional journals is a common method of recruiting Employment Interviews
employees A method of selecting employees in which an interviewer asks questions of an
applicant and then makes an employment decision based on the answers to the
As shown in Figure 4.2, newspaper advertisements questions as well as the way in which the questions were answered.
typically ask the applicant to respond in one of four ways:
1. respond by calling, Types of Interviews
2. applying in person, • Structured interview - Interviews in which questions are based on a job
3. sending a résumé directly to the organization, or analysis, every applicant is asked the same questions, and there is a standardized
4. Sending a résumé to a blind box. scoring system so that identical answers are given
identical scores.
• Electronic Media • Unstructured interview - An interview in which applicants are not asked the
Digital advertising (also known as online advertising) is a form of marketing used by same questions and in which there is no standard scoring system to score applicant
companies to promote its brand, product, or service through digital channels. It answers.
consists of actions in web browsers, social media pages, blogs, apps, or any other • Style - The style of an interview is determined by the number of interviewees
form of contact through the Internet. and number of interviewers. One-on-one interviews involve one interviewer
• Point-of-Purchase Methods interviewing one applicant. Serial interviews involve a series of single interviews.
Or POP, is a marketing material that retailers use in their stores to promote • Medium - Interviews also differ in the extent to which they are done in person.
products, catch consumers' attention and incite them to buy. It is also a term In face-to-face interviews, both the interviewer and the applicant are in the same
referring to the strategic placement of products in the store. room. Face-to-face interviews provide a personal setting and allow the participants
to use both visual and
Recruiters vocal cues to evaluate information.
• Campus recruiters
At its simplest level, campus recruitment involves finding, engaging and hiring Employee Reference and testing
interns and entry-level employees on college campuses. Predicting Performance Using references and letters of Recommendation
Due to cost considerations, many employers have cut back on the use of on-campus • Reference Checks - the process of confirming the accuracy of information
recruiting. As a result, an increasing number of colleges are organizing virtual job provided by the applicant
fairs, in which their students and alumni can use the web to “visit” with recruiters • Reference - is the expression of opinion might be oral or written checklist
from hundreds of organizations at one time. In a virtual job fair, applicants can talk regarding applicant’s ability, previous performance, work habits, character or
to or instant message a recruiter, learn more about the company, and submit potential for future success.
resumes.
• Outside Recruiters Letter of Recommendation
Outside recruiters work independently on behalf of any number of companies Reasons for Using References and Recommendation
(a.k.a. their clients). These recruiters might work for themselves, or they may be • Confirming Details on a resume – As it is uncommon that applicants resort to
employed by an executive recruiting firm. Their job is to find potential candidates resume fraud
for their client to interview and hire. • Checking for Discipline Problems - History is important for an organization to
discover to avoid future problems as well as to protect itself from a potential charge
Employment Agencies and Search Firms of negligent hiring.
• Employment Agencies - An organization that specializes in finding jobs for • Discovering New information About the applicant
applicants and finding applicants for organization looking for employees • Predicting Future Performance
• Executive Search Firms - Employment agencies, often also called headhunters • Leniency
that specialize in placing applicants in high-paying jobs. • Knowledge of the applicant
• Public Employment Agencies - An employment service operated by a state or • Reliability
local government, designed to match applicants with job openings. • Extraneous Factors
Employee Referrals Ethical Issues
A method of recruitment in which a current employee refers a friend or family Because providing references and letters of recommendation is a rather subjective
member for a job. process, several ethical problems can arise involving their use.
Direct Mail Predicting Performance Using Applicant Training and Education
A method of recruitment in which an organization sends out mass mailings of According to Ng and Feldman (2009), better educated employees had higher
information about job openings to potential applicants. performance, most likely to engage in on-the –job substance abuse than were
employees with lower levels of education
Internet
The Internet continues to be a fast-growing source of recruitment. Internet Predicting Performance Using Applicant Knowledge
recruiting efforts usually take one of three forms: employer-based websites, job Used primarily in the public sector, especially for promotions, job knowledge tests
boards, and social networking sites. are designed to measure how much a person knows about a job. Even though job
• Employer-Based Websites - An employment website is a website that deals knowledge tests o good job of predicting performance, they often result in adverse
specifically with employment or careers. Many employment websites are designed impact and can be used only for jobs in which applicants are expected to have job
to allow employers to post job requirements for a position to be filled and are knowledge at the time of hire or promotion.
commonly known as job boards.
• Social Media - Social media recruiting is the process of using social media Predicting Performance Using Applicant Ability
platforms, like LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, to share job postings, Ability tests tap the extent to which an applicant can learn or perform a job-related
network with professionals, and research potential job candidates. skill. This is utilized primarily for occupations in which applicants are not expected
to know how to perform the job at the time of hire. Instead, new employees will be Predicting Performance Limitations Due to Medical and Psychological Problems
taught the necessary job skills and knowledge. • Drug testing - Tests that indicate whether an applicant has recently used a drug
• Cognitive Ability - is important for professional, clerical, and supervisory jobs, • Psychological exams - In jobs involving public safety (e.g., law enforcement,
including such occupations as supervisor, accountant, and secretary. One of the nuclear power, transportation), it is common for employers to give psychological
most widely used cognitive ability tests in industry is the Wonderlic Personnel Test. exams to applicants after a conditional offer of hire has been made. If the applicant
The short amount of time (12 minutes) necessary to take the test, as well as the fact fails the exam, the offer is rescinded. . It is important to keep in mind that
that it can be administered in a group setting, makes it popular. psychological exams are not designed to predict employee performance. Therefore,
• Perceptual Ability - consists of vision (near, far, night, peripheral), color they should only be used to determine if a potential employee is a danger to himself
discrimination, depth perception, glare sensitivity, speech (clarity, recognition), and or others.
hearing (sensitivity, auditory attention, sound localization) (Fleishman & Reilly, • Medical Exams - In jobs requiring physical exertion, many employers require
1992b). Abilities from this dimension are useful for such occupations as machinist, that a medical exam be taken after a conditional offer of hire has been made. In
cabinet maker, die setter, and tool and die maker. these exams, the physician is given a copy of the job description and asked to
• Psychomotor Ability - includes finger dexterity, manual dexterity, control determine if there are any medical conditions that will keep the employee from
precision, multi coordination, response control, reaction time, arm-hand steadiness, safely performing the job.
wrist-finger speed, and speed-of-limb movement (Fleishman & Reilly, 1992b).
Psychomotor abilities are useful for such jobs as carpenter, police officer, sewing- Rejecting applications
machine operator, post office clerk, and truck driver. - Once a decision has been made regarding which applicants will be hired, those
• Physical Ability - Are often used for jobs that require physical strength and who will not be hired must be notified. Rejected applicants should be treated well
stamina, such as police officer, firefighter, and lifeguard. Physical ability is measured because they are potential customers and potential applicants for other positions
in one of two ways: job simulations and physical agility tests. that might become available in the organization (Koprowski, 2004; Waung & Brice,
• Job relatedness 2003).
• Passing cores • Rejection letter - A letter from an organization to an applicant informing
• When the ability must be present the applicant that he or she will not receive a job offer. It could consists
of the following:
Predicting Performance Using Applicant Skill • A personally addressed and signed letter
• Work Sample - are excellent selection tools for several reasons. First, because • The company’s appreciation to the applicant for applying for a position
they are directly related to job tasks, they have excellent content validity. with the company
Second, scores from work samples tend to predict actual work performance and • A compliment about the applicant’s qualifications
thus have excellent criterion validity (Callinan & Robertson, 2001; Roth, Bobko, & • A comment about the high qualifications possessed by the other
McFarland, 2005). applicants
Third, because job applicants are able to see the connection between the job • Information about the individual who was actually hired
sample and the work performed on the job, the samples have excellent face validity • A wish of good luck in future endeavors
and thus are challenged less often in civil service appeals or in court cases • A promise to keep the applicant’s résumé on file
(Whelchel, 1985).
Finally, work samples have lower racial differences in test scores than do written
cognitive ability tests (Roth, Bobko, McFarland, & Buster, 2008), although the actual
extent of the difference is still under debate (Bobko, Roth, & Buster, 2005).
• Assessment Centers- A method of selecting employees in which applicants HIRING, FIRING, LEGAL ISSUES
participate in several job-related activities, at least one of which must be a
simulation, and are rated by several trained evaluators. A method of selecting HIRING
employees in which applicants participate in several job-related activities, at least • After valid and fair selection, tests have been administered to a group of
one of which must be a simulation, and are rated by several trained evaluators applicants, a final decision must be made.
• This may seem to be an easy decision - hire the applicants with the highest test
Predicting Performance Using Prior Experience score.
• Experience Ratings - The basis for experience ratings is the idea that past • The decision becomes more complicated as both the number and variety of tests
experience will predict future experience. In giving credit for experience, one must increase
consider the amount of experience, the level of performance demonstrated during
the previous experience, and how related the experience is to the current job. That Multiple Regression
is, experience by itself is not enough. Having 10 years of low-quality unrelated • If more than one criterion-valid test is used, the scores on the tests must be
experience is not the same as 10 years of high-quality related experience. combined through this statistical procedure.
• Biodata - A method of selection involving application blanks that contain • In multiple regression, each test score is weighted according to how well it
questions that research has shown will predict job performance predicts the criterion.
• Linear approaches to hiring usually take one of four forms: unadjusted top-down
Predicting Performance Using Personality, Interest and Character selection, rules of three, passing scores, or banding.
• Personality Inventories - Personality inventories fall into one of two categories
based on their intended purpose: measurement of types of normal personality or Compensatory Approach
measurement of psychopathology (abnormal personality) • The assumption is that if multiple test scores are used, the relationship between a
• Interest Inventories - These tests are designed to tap vocational interests. The low score on one test can be compensated for by a high score on another.
most commonly used interest inventory is the Strong Interest Inventory (SII), which • To determine whether a score on one test can compensate for a score on another,
asks individuals to indicate whether they like or dislike 325 items such as bargaining, multiple regression is used in which each test score is weighted according to how •
repairing electrical wiring, and taking responsibility. well it predicts the criterion.
• Integrity Test - (also called honesty tests) tell an employer the probability that • When considering the use of a compensatory approach, it is essential that a high
an applicant would steal money or merchandise. score on one test would actually compensate for a low score on another
• Conditional Reasoning test - Conditional reasoning tests were initially • For example, in a recent audit, the OFCCP argued that the organization being
developed by James (1998) to reduce these inaccurate responses and get a more audited should let a high score on a personality inventory compensate for a low
accurate picture of a person’s tendency to engage in aggressive or score on a physical ability exam.
counterproductive behavior. Conditional reasoning tests provide test takers with a
series of statements and then ask the respondent to select the reason that best Rule of Three
justifies or explains each of the statements. The type of reason selected by the • A technique often used in the public sector in which the names of the top three
individual is thought to indicate his or her aggressive biases or beliefs. scorers are given to the person making the hiring decision.
• Credit History - These credit checks are conducted for two reasons: • This person can then choose any of the three based on the immediate needs of
(1) Employers believe that people who owe money might be more likely to steal or the employer.
accept bribes, and • This method ensures that the person hired will be well qualified but provides
(2) Employees with good credit are more responsible and conscientious and thus more choice than top-down selection.
will be better employees. • Passing scores are a means for reducing adverse impact and increasing flexibility.
• Graphology - an interesting method to select employees is handwriting analysis, • With this system, an organization determines the lowest score on a test that is
or graphology. The idea behind handwriting analysis is that the way people write associated with acceptable performance on the job.
reveals their personality, which in turn should indicate work performance.
• There is also a multiple-cutoff approach or a multiple-hurdle approach. Both • Rules communicated in handbooks are the most legally defensible.
approaches are used when one score can’t compensate for another or when the • To prove that an employee knew a rule, organizations require employees
relationship between the selection test and performance is not linear. to sign statements that they received information about the rule, read the rule, and
• With a multiple-cutoff approach, the applicants would be administered all of the understand the rule.
tests at one time. If they failed any of the tests (fell below the passing score), they o The third factor
would not be considered further for employment. • The ability of the employer to prove that an employee actually violated the
rule.
There are also several methods such as: • Proof is accomplished through such means as witnesses, video recordings,
Multiple-hurdle approaches and job samples.
• The applicant is administered one test at a time, usually beginning with the least • Human resources professionals almost have to be detectives because
expensive. proving rule violations is often not easy
• Applicants who fail a test are eliminated from further consideration and take no o The fourth factor
more tests. • Considered by the courts is the extent to which the rule has been equally
• Applicants who pass all of the tests are then administered the linearly related enforced
tests; the applicants with the top scores on these tests are hired. • That is, if other employees violated the rule but were not terminated,
terminating an employee for a particular rule violation may not be legal.
Banding o The fifth factor
• Banding takes into consideration the degree of error associated with any test • The extent to which the punishment fits the crime.
score. • Employees in their probationary period (usually their first 6 months) can be
• Thus, even though one applicant might score two points higher than another, the immediately fired for a rule infraction.
two-point difference might be the result of chance (error) rather than actual • For more tenured employees, however, the organization must make a
differences in ability. reasonable attempt to change the person’s behavior through progressive discipline.
• The question then becomes, “How many points apart do two applicants have to
be before we say their test scores are significantly different?” Inability to Perform
• Employees can also be terminated for an inability to perform the job.
FIRING • To do so, an organization will need to prove that the employee could not perform
the job and that progressive discipline was taken to give the employee an
Terminate Employees
opportunity to improve.
• The primary use of performance appraisal results is to provide feedback to
• For an employer to survive a court challenge to terminating a poor-performing
employees about their behavior.
employee, it must demonstrate that a reasonable standard of performance was
• Performance appraisal results are also used to make positive personnel decisions
communicated to the employee.
such as raises and promotions.
• The organization must next demonstrate that there was a documented failure to
• Unfortunately, there are times when managers have to terminate an employee’s
meet the standard. Such documentation can include critical-incident logs and work
employment.
samples
• A properly designed performance appraisal system is the key to legally
Employment-at-Will Doctrine
terminating an employee.
• In the United States, there is a big difference between terminating an employee in
the public sector and terminating an employee in the private sector.
Reduction in Force (Layoff)
• Employees can be terminated if it is in the best economic interests of an
• In the private sector, the employment-at-will doctrine in most states allows
organization to do so.
employers freedom to fire an employee without a reason—at will. In the public
• Reductions in force, more commonly called layoffs, have been used by the vast
sector, an employee can be fired only for cause.
majority of
• Fortune 500 companies in the past few decades.
Limitations to the employment-at-will doctrine
• In cases of large layoffs or plant closings, the Worker Adjustment and Retraining
• State law - States such as California, Montana, and New York have laws that an
Notification Act (WARN) requires that organizations provide workers with at least 6
employee can be fired only for cause—e.g.
days’ notice.
• Provisions of federal or state law - Employees cannot be fired for reasons
protected by federal or state law. For example, an employer cannot fire an
The Termination Meeting
employee because she is female, pregnant, nonwhite, or over the age of 40
■ Prior to the Meeting
• Public policy/interest - Employers cannot terminate an employee for exercising a
• The first step is to ensure that the legal process has been evaluating employee
legal duty such as jury duty or refusing to violate the law or professional ethics.
performance followed.
• Contracts - If an individual employee has a signed employment contract
• The next step is to determine how much help, if any, the organization wants to
stipulating a particular period of employment, an organization cannot fire the
offer the employee. Forms of help can include references, severance pay, and
employee without cause. Unions enter into collective bargaining agreements
outplacement assistance.
(contracts) with employers that also limit or negate employment-at-will.
• Usually, greater levels of help are given to employees who sign agreements not
• Implied contracts - Employment-at-will is nullified if an employer implies that an
to sue the organization.
employee “has a job for life” or can be fired only for certain reasons.
• The final step is to schedule an appropriate place and time for the meeting to
• Covenants of good faith and fair dealing - Though employers are generally free to
occur.
hire and fire at will, the courts have ruled that employers must still act in good faith
• The meeting should be held in a neutral, private location. To avoid potential
and deal fairly with an employee.
damage caused by a hostile reaction to the termination decision, the meeting
should not be held in a supervisor’s office.
Legal Reasons for Terminating Employees
■ During the Meeting
■ Probationary Period
• During the meeting, the supervisor should get to the point about terminating
• In many jobs, employees are given a probationary period in which to prove that
the employee.
they can perform well.
• The employee usually knows why she has been called in, and there is no reason
• Though most probationary periods last 3 to 6 months, those for police officers
to prolong the agony.
are usually a year, and the probationary period for professors is 6 years!
• The supervisor should rationally state the reasons for the decision, express
• Employees can be terminated more easily during the probationary period than
gratitude for the employee’s efforts (if sincere), and offer whatever assistance the
at any other time.
organization intends to provide.
■ Violation of Company Rules
• Administrative duties such as obtaining copies of keys and completing
• Courts consider five factors in determining the legality of a decision to
paperwork are then performed.
terminate an employee
• Finally, the employee is asked to gather personal belongings and is escorted out
o The first factor
the door.
• A rule against a particular behavior must actually exist.
■ After the Meeting
• Organizations often have “unwritten” rules governing employee behavior.
• Once the meeting is over, the natural reaction of the supervisor is to feel guilty.
These unwritten rules will not hold up in court.
To relieve some of this guilt, a supervisor should review the facts.
o The second factor
• If a rule exists, a company must prove that the employee knew the rule.
 • When an employee is fired, other employees will be tense. It is important to be • An EEOC complaint must be filed within 180 days of the discriminatory act, but
honest with the other employees about what happened; at the same time, negative within 300 days if the complainant has already filed a complaint with a state or local
statements about the terminated employee’s character must be avoided. fair-employment practice agency.
• The government agency will try to notify the employer within 10 days about the
COMPENSATION complaint, obtain further information from both parties if necessary, and review
the charge to determine whether it has merit.
• Compensation refers to the monetary and nonmonetary rewards employees
• It is important to note that the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, signed into law by
receive in exchange for the work they do or an organization.
President Barack Obama in 2009, clarified that the 180-day period for filing a
• Compensation can be either direct or indirect.
lawsuit alleging pay discrimination begins at the time of the last paycheck rather
than when the employee’s salary was determined.
Compensation Philosophy
• Supports the goals of the organization
Outcome
• Communicates what's valued by the organization
If Charge has merit:
• Enhances the likelihood of consistency
• If the EEOC believes that the discrimination charge has merit, it will try to work
• Helps attract, motivate, and retain employees
out a settlement between the claimant and employer without taking the case to
court.
Equity Theory
• These settlements might include an employer offering a job or promotion to the
• Equity theory, you and your employees will be motivated to work harder (provide
person filing the complaint, the payment of back wages, and the payment of
inputs) when you believe that your compensation (outcome received) is at the right
compensatory or punitive damages.
level for the work you are doing
• These settlements can range in size from a few dollars to more than $100
million.
Job Evaluation
If charge does not have merit:
The most common job evaluation approaches:
• If, after reviewing a complaint, the governmental agency does not find merit,
• Job Ranking
one of two things can happen based on whether the person filing the complaint
• Job Classification
accepts the decision.
• Point Method
• If the complainant accepts the decision, the process ends.
• Factor Comparison
• If the complainant does not accept the decision, he is issued a “right to sue”
letter that entitles him to hire a private attorney and file the case himself.
Salary Surveys
• System way to collect wage information
Harassment
• Carefully constructed to be reliable and valid
• An issue of growing concern in the workplace is sexual harassment.
• Conduct your own or purchase from a vendor
• In 2013, 21,371 complaints of harassment were filed with the EEOC; 7,256 of
• Information gathered from similar organizations
these were for sexual harassment.
• From geographic labor market
• Of these 7,256, 17.6% were filed by males.
• Approximately 40% involve racial harassment, 34% sexual harassment, and 26%
Job Pricing
harassment of other protected classes.
• Job pricing is the systematic process of assigning monetary rates to jobs so that a
• Research indicates that as many as 44% of women and 19% of men have been
firm’s internal wages are aligned with the external wages in the marketplace.
victims of sexual harassment (U.S. Merit Systems Board,
1995).
LEGAL ISSUES FOR EMPLOYEE SELECTION • These percentages increase when employees are the sole representative of their
The Legal Process gender (called gender pioneers) or consist of a small minority of the employees in a
• To know whether a given employment practice is legal, it is important to particular work setting (called gender isolates)
understand the legal process as it relates to employment law.
• The first step in the legal process is for some legislative body, such as the U.S. Types of Harassment
Congress or a state legislature, to pass a law. If a law is passed at the federal level, 1. Quid Pro Quo
states may pass laws that expand the rights granted in the federal law; states may 2. Hostile environment
not, however, pass laws that will diminish the rights granted in federal legislation - Pattern of behavior
• For example, if Congress passed a law that gave women six months of maternity - Based on gender
leave, a state or local government could pass a law extending the leave to eight - Negative to reasonable person
months, but it could not reduce the amount of maternity leave to less than the
mandated six months. Organizational Liability for Sexual Harassment
• Once a law has been passed, situations occur in which the intent of the law is not • Preventing Sexual Harassment
clear. For example, a law might be passed to protect disabled employees. Two years • Correcting Sexually Harassing Behavior
later, an employee is denied promotion because he has high blood pressure. 1. All complaints, no matter how trivial or far-fetched they appear, must be
• The employee may file a charge against the employer claiming discrimination investigated.
based on a disability. He may claim that high blood pressure is a disability but that 2. The organization’s policy must encourage victims to come forward and afford
he can still work in spite of the disability and consequently deserves the promotion. them multiple channels or sources through which to file their complaint.
• The organization, on the other hand, might claim that high blood pressure is not a 3. Complaints must be kept confidential to protect both the accused and the
disability and that even if it were, an employee with high blood pressure could not accuser. Information from the investigation should be kept in a file separate from
perform the job. It would then be up to the courts to decide. the employee’s personnel file.
4. Action must be taken to protect the accuser during the time the complaint is
Resolving complaint privately being investigated. Actions might include physically separating the two parties or
• Before a complaint can be filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity limiting the amount of contact between them.
Commission (EEOC), an employee must utilize whatever internal resolution process 5. Both the accused and the accuser must be given due process, and care must be
is available within the organization. taken to avoid an initial assumption of guilt
• As a result, most organizations have formal policies regarding how discrimination 6. The results of the investigation must be communicated in writing to both parties.
complaints will be handled internally. With a grievance system, employees take 7. The severity of the punishment (if any) must match the severity of the violation.
their complaints to an internal committee that makes a decision regarding the
complaints. Family Medical Leave Act
• If employees do not like the decision, they can then take their complaints to the • In 1993, Congress passed the Family Medical Leave act, or FMLA, which entitles
EEOC. eligible employees (both male and female) to a minimum of 12 weeks of unpaid
• With mediation, employees and the organization meet with a neutral third party leave each year to deal with the following family matters:
who tries to help the two sides reach a mutually agreed upon solution. o Births, adoptions, or placement for foster care
• If they cannot reach a solution, the complaint can be taken to arbitration or to the o To care for a child, parent, or spouse with a serious health condition
EEOC. o For employee’s own serious health condition that makes him or her
• A charge of discrimination is usually filed with a government agency. unable to perform the job
• A state agency is used if the alleged violation involves a state law; a federal
agency, usually the EEOC, handles alleged violations of federal law.
Eligibility • Preference can be given to a qualified minority over a qualified nonminority, but
• Employees are eligible if they: an unqualified minority can never be hired over a qualified nonminority.
o work for a covered employer;
o have worked for the organization for at least one year; and End Point of the Plan
o have worked at least 1,250 hours over the previous 12 months. • The fifth and final criterion concerns setting an end point for the plan. That is, an
• Because the FMLA allows employees to take leave for the serious illness of a child, affirmative action plan cannot continue indefinitely; it must end when certain goals
parent, spouse, or themselves, there has been some debate about how serious an have been obtained.
illness has to be to qualify.
• The Department of Labor defines a serious health condition this way: Unintended Consequences of Affirmative Action Plans
o Any period of incapacity of more than three consecutive calendar days • Though affirmative action and diversity programs are an important tool in
and at least two visits to a health-care provider or one visit and issuance ensuring equal opportunity, they can result in some unintended negative
of prescription medicine (or) consequences for people hired or promoted as the result of affirmative action
o Any period of incapacity due to a chronic serious health condition (Kravitz et al., 1997).
requiring periodic treatment covering an extended period of time (or)
o Any period of absence to receive multiple treatments for a condition Privacy Issues
that would result in a three or more day period of incapacity if left • As discussed previously in the chapter, an employment practice is illegal if it
untreated. results inadverse impact and is not job related.
• An employment practice can also be illegal if it unnecessarily violates an
Affirmative Actions individual’s right to privacy.
■ Reasons for Affirmative Action Plans • The Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects citizens against
• Organizations have affirmative action plans for one of four reasons, two of unreasonable search or seizure by the government.
which are involuntary and two voluntary (Robinson, Allen, & Abraham, 1992). • Its importance to I/O psychology is in the area of drug testing and locker searches.
o Involuntary: Government Regulation • Several courts have ruled that drug testing is considered a “search” and that
o Involuntary: Court Order therefore, to be legal in the public sector, drug testing programs must be
o Voluntary: Consent Decree reasonable and with cause.
o Voluntary: Desire to Be a Good Citizen • It is important to understand that the Fourth Amendment is limited to public
Affirmative Action Strategies agencies such as state and local governments.
1. Monitoring Hiring and Promotion Statistics • Private industry is not restricted from drug testing by the Fourth Amendment but
2. Intentional Recruitment of Minority Applicants government regulation may require drug testing (e.g., for trucking companies and
3. Identification and Removal of Employment railroads), but drug testing and searches by a private organization must be
4. Practices Working Against Minority Applicants and Employees conducted in “good faith and with fair dealing.”
5. Preferential Hiring and Promotion of Minorities • Generally, employers are free (even encouraged by the government) to test job
applicants for current drug use.
Legality of Preferential Hiring and Promotion Plans • In fact, the federal Drug-Free Workplace Act requires employers with federal
• Recently, the courts have indicated that any form of preferential hiring or contracts of $100,000 or more to maintain a drug-free workplace. Furthermore,
promotion must undergo a “strict scrutiny analysis,” in which the plan must be such states as Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, and Georgia provide discounts on
narrowly tailored and meet a compelling government interest (Gutman, 2004). workers’ compensation rates to employers with a drug-free workplace program
• The various courts have ruled that achieving diversity in such settings as a (Steingold, 2013).
university (Grutter v. Bollinger, 2003) and a police department (Petit v. City of o Drug Testing
Chicago, 2003) are compelling government interests. o Office and Locker Searches
o Psychological Tests
A History of Discrimination o Electronic Surveillance
• The first criterion examined is whether there has been a history of discrimination
by a particular organization (Western States Paving v. Washington State
Department of Transportation, 2005).
• If there is no strong basis in evidence to indicate that discrimination has recently
occurred, then preferential hiring is neither necessary nor legal. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
• For example, if 30% of the qualified workforce is African American, as is 30% of a
police department’s officers, it would be illegal to engage in preferential hiring TRAINING
based on race. A SYSTEMATIC ACQUISITION OF SKILLS, RULES, CONCEPTS, OR ATTITUDES THAT
• However, if 25% of the qualified workforce is African American and there are no RESULT IN IMPROVED PERFORMANCE (GOLDSTEIN & FORD, 2022)
African American state troopers (as was the case in Alabama in 1980), preferential
hiring could be justified (U.S. v. Phillip Paradise, 1987). DEVELOPMENT
Broader; it encompasses the functions of training
Beneficiaries of the Plan
• The second criterion concerns the extent to which the plan benefits people who DIFFERENCE
were not actual victims of discrimination. TRAINING is concerned with the immediate improvement of employees; whereas
• If the plan benefits only actual victims, it will probably be considered legal, but if it DEVELOPMENT is concerned with handling critical situations in the future.
benefits people not directly discriminated Against by the organization, other criteria
will be considered. WHY DOES TRAINING EXIST?
To help employees in getting equipped and acquiring the knowledge and skills in
Population Used to Set Goals performing well in a certain job without having to ask for help
• The third criterion concerns which of two types of populations was used to
statistically determine discrimination and to set affirmative action goals. DETERMINING TRAINING NEEDS
• With area populations, an organization compares the number of minorities in the NEEDS ANALYSIS – the first step in developing an employee training system
general area with the number of minorities in each position in the organization. wherein the training needs are determined in order to achieve the goals established
• If a discrepancy occurs, the organization sets hiring goals to remedy the
discrepancy. 3 TYPES OF NEEDS
• For example, if 80% of the area surrounding an organization is Hispanic but only ANALYSIS
20% of the salaried workers in the organization are Hispanic, the organization might • ORGANIZATIONAL
set hiring goals for Hispanics at 90% until the workforce becomes 80% Hispanic. ANALYSIS
• TASK ANALYSIS
Impact on Nonminorities • PERSON ANALYSIS
• The fourth criterion used by courts to determine the legality of an affirmative
action program is whether the remedy designed to help minorities is narrowly
tailored:
• Does the plan “unnecessarily trammel” the rights of nonminorities? That is, a plan
that helps women cannot deny the rights of men.
ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS CHOOSE THE BEST TRAINING METHOD
The process of determining the organizational factors that will either facilitate or
inhibit training effectiveness

TASK ANALYSIS
The process of determining job analysis methods in order to identify the tasks
performed, conditions, and competencies needed to perform
1. The tasks and competencies should be identified
2. Determined how employees learn to perform each task and obtain
competencies

When doing task analysis, tasks are listed on the first column. While, the skills that
need to be learned are listed on the second column.
CLASSROOM SETTING
■ LECTURES
Lectures are a good training source if the goal is for employees to obtain knowledge
HANDOUT
• a cover sheet
• a list of goals and objectives
• a schedule for the training
• a biographical sketch of the trainer
\
• the notes
• activity sheets
PERSON ANALYSIS
• a form
The final step in which an employee is determined whether he/she needs further
training for every task performed ■ CASE STUDY
• to determine the individual training needs for each employee, person analysis A training technique in which employees are presented with a real or hypothetical
uses performance appraisal scores, surveys, interviews, skill and knowledge tests, workplace problem and are asked to propose the best solution.
and/or critical incidents. Trainees should first be taught the principles involved in solving a particular type of
problem
SURVEYS
Questionnaires asking employees about the areas in which they feel they need ■ SIMULATION
training Exercises allow the trainee to practice newly learned skills
ADVANTAGES Place an applicant in a situation that is similar to the one that will be encountered
• Eliminate the problems of performance rating errors on the job.
• Employees know their strengths and weaknesses
• Training needs can be determined with surveys ■ ROLE-PLAY
A training technique in which employees act out simulated roles
DISADVANTAGES
• Employees may lie ■ BEHAVIOR MODELING
• The organization may not be able to afford the training Employees observe correct behavior, practice that behavior, and then receive
feedback about their performance.
INTERVIEWS MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES TO ATTEND TRAINING
It is done with selected number of employees, extensive, and can yield even more 1. Relate the training to an employee’s immediate job.
in-depth answers to questions 2. Make the training interesting.
ADVANTAGE 3. Increase employee buy-in.
• The feelings and attitudes of the employees are revealed more clearly. 4. Provide incentives
DISADVANTAGE 5. Provide food
• Difficult to quantify and analyze 6. Reduce the stress associated with attending
SKILL AND KNOWLEDGE TESTS DELIVERING THE TRAINING PROGRAM
SKILL TEST – a test that measures an employee’s level of some job-related skill 1. Classroom training
KNOWLEDGE TEST – a test that measures the level of an employee’s knowledge 2. Distance learning
about a job-related topic 3. On the job training
PROBLEM ■ CLASSROOM TRAINING
There are few tests and an organization have to construct its own test which time- Who will conduct the training? In-house trainers and external trainers
consuming and expensive. Where will the training be held? On-site and off-site
How long should the training be? Distributed learning and massed learning
CRITICAL INCIDENTS
A method by which the observations of human behavior that comply with defined ■ Distance learning
criteria are gathered Asynchronous - employees can complete the training at their own pace and at a
ADVANTAGES time of their choosing.
• Information collected is behavioral Synchronous - require employees to complete the training at the same time and at
• Information is critical the same pace although they may be in different physical locations.
DISADVANTAGES
• Incidents don’t represent the full job ■ ON THE JOB TRAINING
• Process is labor extensive doubtful that the • MODELING - learning through watching and imitating the behavior of others.
• Information is transferrable from one situation to another. • JOB ROTATION - employees are given the opportunity to perform several
different jobs in an organization.
ESTABLISHING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES APPRENTICE TRAINING - employees combine formal coursework with formal on-
1. What learners are expected to do the-job training.
2. The conditions at which they are expected to do it • COACHING
3. The level at which they are expected to do it EXPERIENCED EMPLOYEES - a new employee is assigned to an experienced
employee
PROFESSIONAL COACHES - hired to coach a particular employee, usually a
manager
• MENTORING - a form of coaching that has recently received much attention.
 To increase self-esteem, employees can attend workshops in which they are given
EVALUATION OF TRAINING RESULTS insights into their strengths.
RESEARCH DESIGNS FOR EVALUATION: ■ Experience with Success
• PRACTICALITY • Self-fulfilling prophecy - The idea that people behave in ways consistent with
• EXPERIMENTAL RIGOR their self-image.
PRETEST - a measure of job performance or knowledge taken before the • Galatea effect - When high self-expectations result in higher levels of
implementation of a training program. performance.
POSTTEST - a measure of job performance or knowledge taken after a training ■ Supervisor Behavior
program has been completed. • Pygmalion effect - The idea that if people believe that something is true, they
will act in a manner consistent with that belief.
DIAGRAM FOR A PRETEST/POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN • Golem effect - When negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease
in that individual’s performance.

Intrinsic Motivation
They will seek to perform well because they either enjoy performing the actual
SOLOMON FOUR-GROUPS DESIGN tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully completing the task.
An extensive method of evaluating the effectiveness of training with the ■ Extrinsic motivation – Work motivation that arises from such nonpersonal
use of pretests, posttests and control groups. factors as pay, coworkers, and opportunities for advancement.
■ Work Preference Inventory (WPI) - A measure of an individual’s orientation
toward intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.

Needs for Achievement and Power

A theory developed by McClelland (1961) suggests that employees differ in the
EVALUATION CRITERIA extent to which they are motivated by the need for achievement, affiliation, and
• CONTENT VALIDITY - the only way that training can be evaluated is by comparing power.
training content with the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform a job. ■ Need for achievement - According to trait theory, the extent to which a person
Content validity the only way that training can be evaluated is by comparing training desires to be successful.
content with the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform a job. ■ Need for affiliation - The extent to which a person desires to be around other
• EMPLOYEE REACTIONS - a method of evaluating training in which employees are people.
asked their opinions of a training program. ■ Need for power - According to trait theory, the extent to which a person
• EMPLOYEE LEARNING - valuating the effectiveness of a training program by desires to be in control of other people.
measuring how much employees learned from it.
• APPLICATION OF TRAINING - measurement of the effectiveness of training by Are Employees Effectively Involved in Self-Regulating
determining the extent to which employees apply the material taught in a training Behavior?
program. Most psychologists believe that the answer comes from the process of self-
• BUSINESS IMPACT - a method of evaluating the effectiveness training by regulation: a person’s ability to select, set, and modify goals to adapt to changing
determining whether the goals of the training were met. conditions. Self-regulation is a four-step process in which people:
• RETURN ON INVESTMENT - the amount of money an organization makes after 1. Choose their goals and set levels for each goal
subtracting the cost of training or other interventions. 2. Plan how they will accomplish those goals
3. Take action toward accomplishing the goals (goal striving)
4. Evaluate progress toward goal attainment and either maintain, revise, or
abandon a goal

Have the Employee’s Values and Expectations Been Met?

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES The extent to which we might select a work goal and apply energy toward that goal
is influenced by the discrepancy between what we want, value, and expect and
EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION what the job actually provides.
Industrial psychologists generally define work motivation as the internal force that ■ Realistic job preview (RJP) - A method of recruitment in which job applicants
drives a worker to action as well as the external factors that encourage that action are told both the positive and the negative aspects of a job
(Locke & Latham, 2002). • Job Expectations
A discrepancy between what an employee expected a job to be like and the reality
Various theories suggest that employees will be highly motivated if they have a of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction.
personality that predisposes them to be motivated; • Job Characteristics
• their expectations have been met; A discrepancy between what an employee expected a job to be like and the reality
• the job and the organization are consistent with their values; of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction.
• the employees have been given achievable goals; • Needs, Values, and Wants
• the employees receive feedback on their goal attainment; A discrepancy between an employee’s needs, values, and wants and what a job
• the organization rewards them for achieving their goals; offers can also lead to low levels of motivation and satisfaction (Morris & Campion,
• the employees perceive they are being treated fairly; and 2003). Three theories focus on employees’ needs and values: Maslow’s needs
• their coworkers demonstrate a high level of motivation hierarchy, ERG (existence, relatedness, and growth) theory, and two-factor theory.
■ Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
Is an Employee Predisposed to Being Motivated? 1. Basic biological needs - The first step in Maslow’s needs hierarchy,
Researchers have found four individual differences that are most related to work concerning survival needs for food, air, water, and the like.
motivation: 2. Safety needs - The second step in Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning the need
• Personality - most psychologists believe that there are five main personality for security, stability, and physical safety.
dimensions: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, 3. Social needs - The third step in Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning the need to
agreeableness, and stability. interact with other people.
• Self-Esteem - is the extent to which a person views himself as valuable and 4. Ego needs - The fourth step in Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning the
worthy. individual’s need for recognition and success.
■ Korman’s consistency theory 5. Self-actualization needs - The fifth step in Maslow’s hierarchy, concerning
• Chronic self-esteem - The positive or negative way in which a person views the need to realize one’s potential.
himself or herself as a whole. ■ ERG Theory
• Situational self-esteem - The positive or negative way in which a person Aldefer’s needs theory, which describes three levels of satisfaction: existence,
views him or herself in a particular situation. relatedness, and growth
• Socially influenced self-esteem - The positive or negative way in which a ■ Two-Factor Theory
person views him or herself based on the expectations of others. Herzberg (1966) believed that job-related factors could be divided into two
■ Self-Esteem Workshops categories—hygiene factors and motivators—thus the name two-factor theory.
 1. Hygiene factors - are those job-related elements that result from but don Expectancy Theory
not involve the job itself. Which was first proposed by Vroom (1964) and then modified by others, including
2. Motivators - are job elements that do concern actual tasks and duties. Porter and Lawler (1968). This theory has three components, the definitions of
which vary with each modification of the theory.
Do Employees Have Achievable Goals? ■ Expectancy (E): The perceived relationship between the amount of effort an
To increase motivation, goal setting should be used. With goal setting, each employee puts in and the resulting outcome.
employee is given a goal such as increasing attendance, selling more products, or ■ Instrumentality (I): The extent to which the outcome of a worker’s
reducing the number of grammar errors in reports. performance, if noticed, results in a particular consequence.
• Specific ■ Valence (V): The extent to which an employee values a particular consequence.
• Measurable
• Attainable To understand or predict an employee’s level of motivation, these components are
• Relevant used in the following formula:
• Time-Bound Motivation = E (I x V)
• Employee Participation Thus, all possible outcomes of a behavior are determined, the valence of each is
multiplied by the probability that it occurs at a particular performance level, and
Are Employees Receiving Feedback on Their Goal Progress? then the sum of these products is multiplied by the expectancy of an employee
To increase the effectiveness of goal setting, feedback should be provided to putting in the effort to attain the necessary level of performance. As can be seen
employees on their progress in reaching their goals. Feedback can include verbally from this formula, the higher the score on each component, the greater the
telling employees how they are doing, placing a chart on a wall, or using nonverbal employee’s motivation.
communication such as smiles, glares, and pats on the back. Feedback best
increases performance when it is positive and informational rather than negative Are Other Employees Motivated?
and controlling. Employees observe the levels of motivation and satisfaction of other employees and
then model those levels. Thus, if an organization’s older employees work hard and
Are Employees Rewarded for Achieving Goals? talk positively about their jobs and their employer; new employees will model this
An essential strategy for motivating employees is to provide an incentive for behavior and be both productive and satisfied.
employees to accomplish the goals set by an organization.
■ Operant conditioning - A type of learning based on the idea that humans learn EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT
to behave in ways that will result in favorable outcomes and learn not to behave in ■ Job satisfaction - the attitude has toward her job.
ways that result in unfavorable outcomes. ■ Organizational commitment - the extent to which an employee identifies with
and is involved with an organization.
Six factors must be considered in determining the effectiveness of incentive
programs: What Causes Employees to Be Satisfied with and Committed to Their Jobs?
1. Timing of the incentive - Research indicates that a reinforcer or a punisher is ■ Affective commitment - The extent to which an employee wants to remain
most effective if it occurs soon after the performance of the behavior. with an organization and cares about the organization.
Unfortunately, if the timing of the incentive is too long, the effectiveness of the ■ Continuance commitment - The extent to which employees believe they must
incentive to improve performance will be hindered. remain with an organization due to the time, expense, and effort they have already
2. Contingency of the consequences - If it is not possible to immediately reward or put into the organization.
punish a behavior, it should at least be made clear that the employee understands ■ Normative commitment - The extent to which employees feel an obligation to
the behaviors that brought reward or punishment. remain with an organization.
3. Type of incentive used
• Premack Principle - The idea that reinforcement is relative both within an Individual Difference Theory
individual and between individuals. Postulates that some variability in job satisfaction is due to an individual’s personal
• Financial Rewards tendency across situations to enjoy what she does.
• Recognition ■ Genetic Predispositions
• Travel ■ Core Self-Evaluations
4. Use of individual-based versus group-based incentives • Internal locus of control - The extent to which people believe that they are
■ Individual Incentive Plans - designed to make high levels of individual responsible for and in control of their success or failure in life.
performance financially worthwhile. ■ Culture
• Pay for performance - A system in which employees are paid on the basis of ■ Intelligence
how much they individually produce.
• Merit pay - An incentive plan in which employees receive pay bonuses based Are Employees Satisfied with Other Aspects of Their Lives?
on performance appraisal scores. Judge et al. (1998), Judge and Watanabe (1993), and Tait et al. (1989) have
■ Group Incentive Plans theorized not only that job satisfaction is consistent across time but that the extent
• Profit-sharing - programs provide employees with a percentage of profits to which a person is satisfied with all aspects of life (e.g., marriage, friends, job,
above a certain amount. The profits to be shared can be paid directly to employees family, and geographic location) is consistent as well.
as a bonus (cash plans) or placed into the employees’ retirement fund (deferred
plans). Is the Employee a Good Fit with the Job and the Organization?
• Gainsharing - A group incentive system in which employees are paid a bonus They consider the extent to which their values, interests, personality, lifestyle, and
based on improvements in group productivity. skills match those of their vocation (e.g., a career such as nursing, law enforcement,
• Baseline - The level of productivity before the implementation of a or psychology), job (its particular tasks), organization, coworkers, and supervisor
gainsharing plan. (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005).
5. Use of positive incentives (rewards) versus negative incentives (punishment)
Rather than rewarding desired behaviors, we can change employee performance by Social Information Processing Theory Also called social learning theory, postulates
punishing undesired behaviors. That is, instead of rewarding employees who do not that employees observe the levels of motivation and satisfaction of other
miss work, we punish those who do. employees and then model those levels (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977).
6. Fairness of the reward system (equity)
Are Rewards and Resources Given Equitably?
Are Rewards and Resources Given Equitably? ■ Equity theory - A theory of job satisfaction stating that employees will be
Another factor related to motivation and job satisfaction is the extent to which satisfied if their ratio of effort to reward is similar to that of other employees.
employees perceive that they are being treated fairly. The first theory on this topic • Organizational justice - A theory that postulates that if employees perceive
was equity theory (Adams, 1965). they are being treated fairly, they will be more likely to be satisfied with their jobs
■ Equity theory - A theory of job satisfaction stating that employees will be and motivated to do well.
satisfied if their ratio of effort to reward is similar to that of other employees. • Distributive justice - The perceived fairness of the decisions made in an
• Inputs - In equity theory, the elements that employees put into their jobs. organization.
• Outputs - In equity theory, what employees get from their jobs. • Procedural justice - The perceived fairness of the methods used by an
• Input/output ratio - The ratio of how much employees believe they put into organization to make decisions.
their jobs to how much they believe they get from their jobs. • Interactional justice - The perceived fairness of the inter-personal treatment
that employees receive in an organization.
 ■ Unmeet needs - Employees whose needs are unmet will become dissatisfied
Is There a Chance for Growth and Challenge? and perhaps leave the organization.
• Job rotation - A system in which employees are given the opportunity to perform ■ Escape - A common reason employees leave an organization is to escape from
several different jobs in an organization. people, working conditions, and stress
• Job enlargement - A system in which employees are given more tasks to perform ■ Unmeet Expectations - Employees come to an organization with certain
at the same time. expectations about a variety of issues, such as pay, working conditions, opportunity
• Job enrichment - A system in which employees are given more responsibility over for advancement, and organizational culture.
the tasks and decisions related to their job
Counterproductive Behaviors
Job characteristics theory Employees who are unhappy with their jobs miss work, are late to work, and quit
The theory proposed by Hackman and Oldham that suggests that certain their jobs at higher rates than employees who are satisfied with their jobs and are
characteristics of a job will make the job more or less satisfying, depending on the committed to the organization.
particular needs of the worker.
Lack of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
Measuring Job Satisfaction and Commitment Employees who engage in Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs) are
motivated to help the organization and their coworkers by doing the “little things”
Measures of Job Satisfaction
that they are not required to do.
■ Faces Scale - A measure of job satisfaction in which raters place a mark under a
facial expression that is most similar to the way they feel about their jobs.
■ Job Descriptive Index (JDI) - A measure of job satisfaction that yields scores on
five dimensions.
■ Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) - A measure of job satisfaction
that yields scores on 20 dimensions.
■ Job in General (JIG) Scale - A measure of the overall level of job satisfaction.

Measures of Commitment
■ Allen and Meyer 1990 - survey has 24 items, 8 each for the 3 factors of
affective, continuance, and normative commitment.
■ Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) - A 15-item questionnaire
developed by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) to measure three commitment
factors: acceptance of the organization’s values and goals, willingness to work to
help the organization, and a desire to remain with the organization.
■ Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS) - A nine-item survey developed by
Balfour and Wechsler (1996) that measures three aspects of commitment:
identification, exchange, and affiliation.

Consequences of Dissatisfaction and Other Negative Work Attitudes

Absenteeism - when employees are dissatisfied or not committed to the
organization, they are more likely to miss work and leave their jobs than are
satisfied or committed employees.
■ Linking Attendance to Consequences - The basis behind rewarding
attendance and punishing absenteeism is that employees make a decision each day
as to whether they will or will not attend work.
■ Rewards for Attending - Attendance can be increased through the use of
financial incentives, time off, and recognition programs.
• Financial incentive - programs use money to reward employees for achieving
certain levels of attendance.
1. Well pay - A method of absenteeism control in which employees are paid for
their unused sick leave.
2. Financial bonus - A method of absenteeism control in which employees who
meet an attendance standard are given a cash reward.
3. Games - An absenteeism control method in which games such as poker and bingo
are used to reward employee attendance.
• Paid time off program (PTO) - An attendance policy in which all paid
vacations, sick days, holidays, and so forth are combined.
• Recognition programs
■ Discipline for Not Attending - Absenteeism can be reduced by punishing or
disciplining employees who miss work. Discipline can range from giving a warning or
a less popular work assignment to firing an employee.
■ Clear Policies and Better Record Keeping - Another way to increase the
negative consequences of missing work is through policy and record keeping. Most
organizations measure absenteeism by counting the number of days missed, or
frequency. Perhaps a better method would be to record the number of instances of
absenteeism rather than the number of days.
■ Increasing Attendance by Reducing Employee Stress - Absenteeism can be
reduced by removing the negative factors employees associate with going to work.

Turnover
Cost of Turnover - The first step in reducing turnover is to find out why your
employees are leaving.
■ Unavoidable Reasons - Unavoidable turnover includes such reasons as school
starting (e.g., quitting a summer job) or ending (e.g., a student quits her job as a
part-time receptionist because she has graduated and will be moving), the job
transfer of a spouse, employee illness or death, or family issues (e.g., employees
staying home to raise their children or take care of their parents).
■ Advancement - Employees often leave organizations to pursue promotions or
better pay.