PHY 103 – ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Introduction
Electricity and magnetism has revolutionized modern society and various fields of endeavor (like
engineering and medicine among others). For example, Electromagnetic waves (gamma rays, x-
rays, u-v light, visible light, infrared, micro waves, radio waves) are a consequence of electric and
magnetic phenomena. Electricity has brightened our homes and our streets, powered our
appliances (at home, in industries and research laboratories), facilitated the development of
computers, phones and many devices we depend on. The law of electricity and magnetism play
a central role in the operation of these devices.
The discovery and harnessing of magnetic/electric forces and fields has made all these inventions
and technologies possible.
The famous Maxwell’s equations are the equations that describe how electric and magnetic
fields propagate, interact and how they are influenced by objects. Modern communication is a
consequence of Maxwell’s equation, the equations led to the invention of radar (Radio
Detection and Ranging: an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the
range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrains). Terahertz waves (with potential
application in Security inspections of sealed packages and containers) also rely on Maxwell’s
equation.
As all basic interactions between matter can be described in terms of the fundamental forces of
nature, we shall consider the electromagnetic force which is the force at play when electricity
and magnetism is involved.

Figure 1.1 – Forces of nature

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Fundamental forces of nature
1) The strong interaction or the strong nuclear force:
This force binds the nuclei of atoms together. Recall that protons and neutrons make up
the atom’s nucleus. This interaction is carried by gluons which bind quarks together to
form hadrons (protons and neutrons are the most stable hadrons). The strong force acts
over a short distance, of the order of 10-15 m.

2) Electromagnetic interaction:
The electromagnetic force is responsible for the atomic and molecular interactions that
determine the properties of inanimate matter and living organisms.
This force plays a major role in determining the internal properties of most materials
encountered in daily life. It is responsible for chemical bonding and allows single atoms
to combine into different materials. This interaction is carried through the
electromagnetic field by a particle called a photon. They are long range interactions
which act over extremely large distances.

3) Weak interaction or the weak nuclear force:

This type of interaction is carried by W and Z bosons and acts on the nucleus of atoms
mediating radioactive decay (e.g. alpha, beta and gamma decay).
The range over which this interaction act is of the order of 10-18 m.

4) Gravitational interaction or the gravitational force is that attractive force between

masses. This is the dominant force determining the motion of moons, planets, stars and
galaxies. They are also long-range forces.

1.0 ELECTROSTATICS IN VACCUM

Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest, forces between static charges, fields and
potentials due to these charges.

1.1 Electric charge

▪ This quantity called charge is a property of materials whereby a balance or imbalanced

amount largely dictates how a material behave with another material.

▪ The electric charge is carried by certain subatomic particles.

E.g. – Leptons: electrons, muons, nutrinos, pions

Charges have their origin in these elementary particles. The electron carry a unit of
charge represented by the symbol e having a value of

e = 1.602 𝑥 10−19 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠

2
 The electron has a negative charge –e

The proton is positively charged while the neutron has no charge.

Quarks which make up the protons and neutrons have fractional charges. One could
2 1
have ± 3 𝑒, ± 3 𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

The magnitude of the charge e on an electron is taken to be the fundamental unit of charge.
In this regard an electric charge say q can be expressed as an integral multiple of the
fundamental unit e

i.e. q = ne

Where n is an integer that quantizes the charge.

The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C) named after a French Physicist Charles de Coulomb
(1736-1806).

Table 1.1: Charge and mass of some elementary particles

PARTICLE ELECTRIC CHARGE MASS

Electron –1.602 X 10-19 C Me = 9.11 x 10-31kg

Proton +1.602 X 10-19 C Mp = 1.672 x 10-27kg

Neutron No charge Mn = 1.674 x 10-27kg

In the 18th century, it was known there were two types of observed electric charge, which was
designated as positive and negative.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) came up with the sign convention.

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, electrons are transferred from the rod to the silk
leaving the rod positively charged. When ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, electrons are
transferred from the fur to the ebonite.

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 Figure 1.2 – Glass rod rubbed with silk and ebonite rubbed with fur

Attraction is observed between the ebonite rod and the glass rod while repulsion between
like rods occur

Figure 1.3 – Attraction and repulsion between glass rod and ebonite

It therefore follows that:

▪ An object that has unequal numbers of electron and protons is electrically charge.
▪ An atom with a net positive charge is a positive ion; it has lost one or more electrons.
▪ An atom with a net negative charge is a negative ion; it has gained one or more
electrons.

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1.2 Conservation of charge

The law of conservation of electric charge states that, during any process, the
net electric charge of an isolated system remains constant (is conserved).

OR

Electrons are neither created nor destroyed but are simply transferred from one
material to another.

1.3 Coulomb’s law:

It states that the force of attraction/repulsion between two charges is directly

proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The force is of repulsive nature if both charges are of the same sign and it is of attractive
nature if both charges are of different sign.

Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2, separated by a distance r in vacuum. The
force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law. Mathematically,
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗12 = 𝐾 𝑟̂ (1.1)
𝑟2
⃗⃗
𝒓
Where K is the Coulomb constant, and 𝒓̂ = is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 as
𝒓
illustrated in figure below:

Figure 1.4 – Coulombic repulsion and attraction

Note: Coulombs law describes the electrostatic force, it only deals with static (ideal)
situations i.e. when the particles in the system are not moving, and the law describes the
magnitude of the force between these charged particles.

The electromagnetic force, deals with the above and a changing magnetic or electric field,
e.g. a change in a magnetic field induces a current and vice versa.

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Example 1.1

Compare the magnitudes of the electric and the gravitational force between the electron
and proton of the hydrogen atom which are separated by an approximate distance of
5.3 x 10-11m.

Solution:

The magnitude of the electric force of attraction is given by

|𝑞𝑒 ||𝑞𝑝|
𝐹E = 𝐾 (1.2)
𝑟2

K = 8.988 x 109 Nm2/C2, qe = – 1.602 x 10-19C, qp = +1.602 x 10-19C, r = 5.3 x 10-11m

|– 1.602 x 10−19 C||1.602 x 10−19 C|

|𝐹E | = 8.988 x 109 Nm2 /C2
(5.3 x 10−11 𝑚)2

FE = 8.2 x 10-8 N

Next, using Newton’s law of universal gravitation,

𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑝
𝐹G = 𝐺 (1.3)
𝑟2

G is gravitation constant = 6.674 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2, me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

−34
N. m2 9.11 x 10−31 kg 𝑥 1.67 𝑥 10−27 kg
𝐹G = 6.674 𝑥 10 𝑥
kg 2 (5.3 x 10−11 𝑚)2

𝐹G = 3.6 𝑥 10−47 𝑁

Apparently, the gravitational force is negligible when compared to the electric force
between the electron and proton.

When considering the interactions of atomic constituents, gravity is entirely negligible. It

becomes only important on a very large scale. This is because the masses of all the
constituents of ordinary matter add. Because we live on the surface of a very massive object
we are very aware of the gravitational force. We usually do not observe the electric force
between macroscopic objects because ordinary matter is overall electrically neutral. But on a
microscopic scale gravity can be neglected and the electric force dominates.

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Example 1.2

At six corners of a hexagon inscribed in a circle of radius r = 1 m are placed electrons

and at the center is placed a proton. (a) What is the force on the proton? (b) Now remove
the electron in the northeast corner and recompute the total force on the proton.

Solution:
e e

e +
00000000000
000 e

e e
The symmetry of the problem tells us immediately that the force on the proton is zero. For
each electron that attracts the proton there is an electron on the opposite side canceling out
the force of the first. Removing any one electron has the effect that one electron is without
a pair and thus the magnitude of the resulting force on the proton (in the direction of the
electron) simply is

|𝑒 2 | 9 2 2
(1.602 𝑥 10−19 𝐶 )2
𝐹=𝐾 = 8.988 𝑥 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝐶
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 12 𝑚 2

𝐹 = 2.3 𝑥 10−28 𝑁

1.4 Principle of superposition of electrostatic forces

The total electric force is the vector sum of all the electric forces acting on
the object.

Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted
on it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant
force experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be

𝐹⃗3 = 𝐹⃗13 + 𝐹⃗23

Example 1.3

What is the net force and its direction that the charges at the vertices O and Q of the
right triangle OPQ exert on the charge at vertex P?

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 O(7µC) 4cm P(2µC)

2cm

Q(–2µC)

Solution:

Let Fop be the force of repulsion exerted by the charge at O on the charge at point P
and Fqp be the force of attraction exerted by charge at point Q on the charge at point
Y. The diagram below shows the direction of the two forces.

O P Fop

Fqp

|7 x 10−6 C||2 x 10−6 C|

|𝐹𝑜𝑝 | = 8.988 x 109 Nm2 /C2
(4 x 10−2 𝑚)2

|𝐹𝑜𝑝 | = 78.6𝑁

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|−2 x 10−6 C||2 x 10−6 C|
2 2
|𝐹𝑞𝑝 | = 8.988 x 10 Nm /C
(2 x 10−2 𝑚)2

|𝐹𝑞𝑝 | = 89.9𝑁

|𝐹| = √𝐹𝑜𝑝 2 + 𝐹𝑞𝑝 2

|𝐹 | = √78.62 + 89.92

|𝐹 | = √14259.97 = 1.2 𝑥 102 𝑁

𝑦 𝑦
Using 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = , ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥 𝑥

89.9
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1.14) = 48.70 ≈ 490
78.6

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1.5 Electric Field

The force exerted by one object onto another a distance away is conveyed through a field.

The field or space around a charge particle where its force can be experienced by any other
charged particle is called the Electric field of the former charge.

If a unit positive charge is placed near a positive charge, the unit positive charge will
experience a repulsive force, due to which the unit positive charge will move away from the
said charge. The imaginary line through which the unit positive charge moves, is known as line
of force. Similarly, if a unit positive charge placed in the field of negative electric charge, the
unit positive charge will experience an attractive force, due to which the unit positive charge
will come closer to the said negative charge. In that case, line through which the positive unit
charge moves, also known as line of force.

Figure 1.5 – Electric lines of force due to positive and negative charge

Hence, we can say, for a positive charge, the lines of force come out of this charge. But for a
negative charge, the lines of force come into this charge.

When a charge particle enters the electric field of another charge particle it experiences a
force as per Coulomb’s law. In other words, electric field is the region around a charge particle
where the lines of force can be felt by another charge by getting repulsed or attracted as per
their sign of charge.

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1.5.1 Electric field due to a point charge

The electric field E at a point P in space is a vector quantity which can be measured by
placing a small test charge q at that point and determining the force F on q due to all other
charges. The electric field at that point is given by Point charge: Any charge whether
𝐹⃗ positive or negative, whose electric field is
𝐸⃗⃗ = (1.4) to be found at a particular distance
𝑞 (point) is called point charge.

Test charge: Any charge whose

The unit of electric field is Newton per Coulomb (N/C) magnitude is very small, in fact negligible,
If the electric field felt by the charge q is due to a point charge as compared to that of the point charge,
and which does not affect the electric field
Q, located a distance r from q, then its magnitude is given by of the point charge, whose magnitude is to
be found out, is called test charge.
𝐹⃗ 𝐾𝑄𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑟̂
𝑞 𝑟2

𝐾𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂ , (1.5)
𝑟2
1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = = 8.988 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
4𝜋𝜀0

1.5.2 Electric Field of Several Point Charges

Apply the superposition principle. This principle states that the resulting electric field is the
sum of all fields, without any interference of one field upon another. Alternatively, the total
electric field, at a point, due to a collection of charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric
fields at that point due to the individual charges

Figure 1.6 – Resultant field at a point P due to two positive charges q1 and q2

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 Figure 1.7 – Fields due to a configuration of n charges.

This principle is useful in calculating the field created by multiple point charges. If charges q1,
q2, …, qn are stationary in space at points r1, r2, …, rn, in the absence of currents, the
superposition principle says that the resulting field is the sum of fields generated by each
particle as described by Coulomb's law:

For example, the total electric field at some point P from n charges is:

1 𝑞𝑖
𝐸⃗⃗𝑃 = 𝐸⃗⃗1 + 𝐸⃗⃗2 + 𝐸⃗⃗3 + 𝐸⃗⃗𝑛 = ∑𝑁 ⃗⃗
𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 (𝑟𝑖𝑃 )2
𝑟̂𝑖𝑃 (1.6)
4𝜋𝜀0

In other words, the fields from each point particle i a distance rip away from point P all add

together, without any field affecting another.

1.5.3 Electric potential

The electric potential, symbolized by V, is defined as the electrical potential energy, U,

required to bring unit electric charge from infinity to the point in an electric field at which the
potential is being specified.

Infinity as used here indicates the reference point which may be any point beyond the
influence of the electric field. Work is usually done against the electric field in order to move
charges against this field.

Alternatively,

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The electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit positive charge from a
reference point to a specific point inside the field.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊)
𝑉= (1.7)
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)

The unit is Joules/Coulomb or Volts (1 J/C = 1 V)

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (𝑞𝐸)𝑥 𝑑

𝑞𝐸𝑑
𝑉= = 𝐸𝑑 (1.8)
𝑞

𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
⟹𝐸= (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 )
𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑄 𝑄
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐸 = 𝐾 2
= 𝐾 2
𝑟 𝑑
𝑄
⟹𝑉=𝐾 𝑥𝑑
𝑑2
𝑄
𝑉=𝐾 (1.9)
𝑑

1.5.4 Potential difference

The potential difference between two points in an electric field or circuit is the difference in
the values of the electric potentials at the two points; in other words, it is the work done in
moving unit charge from one point (say A) to the other (say B).

Consider two points A and B

The electric potential difference ΔV between point A and B is the change in electric potential
energy as a charge q moves from A to B divided by the charge q

𝑊𝐵𝐴
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = (1.10)
𝑞

𝑄 𝑄 1 1
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐾 − 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑄 ( − ) (1.11)
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵

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1.5.5 Potential difference – Relation with electric field

Consider two points A and B separated by a small distance dl in a constant electric field.

𝐸⃗⃗

A B

The work done in moving a charge q from point B to A can be evaluated as follows:

Since the field is to the right, work is done in moving the charge against the field. The force
acting on the charge q in the electric field is F = qE and this force is in the direction of the
field. If the displacement and force are opposite to each other then, ϴ = 1800 and Cos 1800 = -1

𝑊𝐵𝐴 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = =
𝑞 𝑞

𝑊𝐵𝐴 𝑞𝐸 𝑥 𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 180

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = = = −𝐸 𝑑𝑙
𝑞 𝑞

𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑙 (1.12)

1.5.6 Electron volt (eV)

The electron volt is a unit of energy which equals 1.6 x 10-19 Joules. It is defined as the work
done on an electron in moving it through a potential difference of one volt.

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules

1.6 ELECTRIC DIPOLE

An electric dipole consists of two point charges of equal magnitude, but opposite sign,
separated by a finite distance.

The “di” means 2 and “pole” refers to the opposite nature of the particles involved. In
chemical compounds, we have a positive ion like hydroden H+ and chloride ion Cl– bonding
together to form a molecule HCl. Many molecules have charge distributions which can be
approximated as an electric dipole, water being one of the most common.

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 Figure 1.8 – Water molecule as a dipole

1.6.1 ⃗⃗⃗
Dipole moment 𝑷

The dipole moment ⃗𝑷 ⃗⃗ is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the separation
distance between the two charges. The direction of the dipole moment is from the negative
charge to the positive charge.

The dipole is electrically neutral, but due to the separation of its charges gives rise to an
electric field in its vicinity. We shall consider the field on the equatorial axis and on the axial
line of the dipole.

Study of electric dipole helps to understand the applications and behaviour of polar molecules
having permanent electrical dipole moment even in absence of electric field.

In most molecules, the centre of positive charge and centre of negative charge coincide,
hence their dipole moment is zero. But when electric field is applied the centre of positive
charge and centre of negative charge will shift giving rise to dipole moment. But some
molecule like H2O have permanent dipole moment even in absence of electric field. Study of
behaviour of these dipoles of different materials gives intresting properties and important
applications.
Equatorial axis

Axial line

-Q O +Q
2d

𝑃⃗⃗

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 Figure 1.9 – Axial and Equatorial locations of an electric dipole

1.6.2 Electric field of a dipole on an axial line.

Consider the figure below

O P
-Q +Q
d d
r

The electric field due to the charge +Q at the point P is given by

1 +𝑄
𝐸+ = (1.13)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑑)2
Similarly,

1 −𝑄
𝐸− = (1.14)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑑)2

The magnitude of the resultant electric field at the point P will be

1 +𝑄 1 𝑄
𝐸= (𝑟−𝑑)2
− (1.15)
4𝜋𝜀 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑑)2

𝑄 1 1
𝐸= ( − ) (1.16)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑑)2 (𝑟+𝑑)2

𝑄 (𝑟+𝑑)2 −(𝑟−𝑑)2
𝐸= ( (𝑟−𝑑)2(𝑟+𝑑)2 ) (1.17)
4𝜋𝜀

𝑄 (𝑟+𝑑)2 −(𝑟−𝑑)2
𝐸= ( (𝑟 2 −𝑑 2 )2
) (1.18)
4𝜋𝜀
𝑄 4𝑟𝑑
𝐸= ( ) (1.19)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2 −𝑑 2 )2

1 2𝑃⃗⃗𝑟
𝐸= ( ) (1.20)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2 −𝑑 2 )2

Where 2dQ = ⃗𝑷
⃗⃗ is the dipole moment

We further make the assumption that for small d, r is large compare to d (i.e. d < < r)
so the contribution of d can be negligible, hence

1 2𝑃⃗⃗
𝐸= ( ) (1.21)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟3

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This resultant field 𝐸⃗⃗ will be in the direction of the dipole moment 𝑃⃗⃗

1.6.3 Electric Dipole – Electric field on an equatorial (transversal) line.

Consider the diagram below

The electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ at the point P due to charges +q and –q will be given by the vector sum of
𝐸⃗⃗1 and 𝐸⃗⃗2 [as in figure (a)]. The magnitudes of both fields are the same since they are at the
same distance from P and have the same magnitude of charge.

1 𝑄
|𝐸1 |= |𝐸2 | = (1.22)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2 +𝑑 2 )

𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗1 + 𝐸⃗⃗2 (1.23)

⃗⃗1 and 𝐸⃗⃗2 have vertical and horizontal components has shown in figure (b). The
However, 𝐸
vertical components cancel out because they are of same magnitude and opposite sign.

Hence

⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐸 | = 𝐸1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2𝐸1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1.24)

1 𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐸 | = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1.25)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2 +𝑑 2 )
𝑑
But 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 so then,
(𝑟 2 +𝑑2 )2

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 1 𝑄 𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐸 | = 2 1 (1.26)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2 +𝑑 2 ) (𝑟 2 +𝑑 2 )2
1 2𝑞𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =
|𝐸 3 (1.27)
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2
+𝑑 2 )2

For r > > d,

1 𝑃⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐸 | = (1.28)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 3

1.7 ELECTRIC FLUX

Electric flux is the number of electric field lines passing through a surface. The electric field
can be uniform or non-uniform.

1.7.1 Electric flux in a uniform field

Electric flux passing through a surface A when the field E is uniform

▪ Consider a rectangular surface area A, normal to the field lines and the electric field
lines passing through it. The electric flux ΦE passing through this surface [as shown in
the (a)], is given by the product of electric intensity and the surface area perpendicular
to the field lines.
ΦE = EA (1.29)
Where ΦE is electric flux and A is the surface area.
▪ If the surface is not perpendicular to the field lines [as shown in (b)], then the electric
flux is given by the equation,
ΦE = EA cos ϴ (1.30)
Where ϴ is the angle between the direction of electric field E and the normal drawn
to the surface in the outward direction.

17
 ▪ The electric flux becomes zero if the normal to the surface is perpendicular to the
electric field as shown in (c) i.e. ΦE = EA cos 900 = 0

1.7.2 Electric flux in a non-uniform field

Consider a surface M placed in a non-uniform electric field E as shown below, to determine

the electric flux ΦE passing through the surface M, we consider a small element of area with
a normal vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 and the direction of the field vector which makes an angle ϴ with the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
area vector 𝒅𝒔

Electric flux through a surface M in a non-uniform field

If dΦE be the small flux through the small area ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝒅𝒔, then we can write

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐸⃗⃗ | |𝑑𝑠

dΦE = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos ϴ (1.31)

So the total flux through the entire surface M can be given by the sum (called integral in
mathematics) of all the infinitely small flux through all infinitely small areas

ΦE = ∫ dΦE = ∫ E ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ E ds cosθ

⃗⃗ . ds (1.32)

1.7.3 GAUSS THEOREM

It states that:

The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the total electric
charge enclosed by this surface.

1.7.3.1 Application of Gauss Theorem

Gauss theorem can be used to determine the electric field for different configuration or
distribution of charges. For example:

i. a point charge configuration

ii. a charge distribution over a length
iii. a charge distribution over a sphere

18
The electric field may be different for each charge configuration due to different distances
from charge, different area vectors, at different angles, different permittivity etc.

1.7.4 Flux due to a point charge at the center of a sphere

By convention, a positive electric charge generates a positive electric field whose direction is
radially outward from the charge.

Maxwell’s first equation is a statement of Gauss theorem and can be expressed in integral
form as:

𝑞
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀 (1.33)
0

1.7.5 Field due to an infinite long straight charged wire

19
Consider a uniformly charged wire of infinite length having a constant linear charge density λ
(charge per unit length). Let P be a point at a distance r from the wire (Figure) and E be the
electric field at the point P. A cylinder of length l, radius r, closed at each end by plane caps
normal to the axis is chosen as the Gaussian surface. Consider a very small area ds on the
Gaussian surface.

By symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field will be the same at all points on the curved
surface of the cylinder and directed radially outward. 𝐸⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 are along the same direction.

To determine the electric field E at the point P using Gauss theorem, we divide the Gaussian
surface into 3 parts.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 (1.34)

∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝐶.𝑆 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 + ∫𝑇.𝑆 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠900 + ∫𝐵.𝑆 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠900 (1.35)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 (1.36)
𝐶.𝑆

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸𝑆 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 (1.37)
𝐶.𝑆

But from Gauss theorem,

𝑄 𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⟹ ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 (1.38)
𝜀0 𝜀0

For distributed charges along a line, we make use of the linear charge density in order to
obtain Q.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜆) = ⟹ 𝑄 = 𝜆𝑙
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑙)

Hence, the magnitude of the electric field due to an infinite long charged wire is given as

𝜆𝑙
𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0
𝜆
𝐸 = (1.39)
𝜀0 2𝜋𝑟

20
1.7.6 Field due to an infinite large sheet of charge

Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge with surface charge density σ. Let P be a point at a
distance r from the sheet (as shown in the figure above) and 𝑬⃗⃗ be the electric field at P.

First, we consider a Gaussian surface in the form of the cylinder of cross− sectional area A
and length 2r perpendicular to the sheet of charge. By symmetry, the electric field is at right
angles to the end caps and away from the plane. Its magnitude is the same at P and at the
other cap at P′.

Therefore, the total flux through the closed surface is given from Gauss theorem

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 (1.40)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 + ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1.41)

∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 𝐶.𝑆 𝐿.𝑆 𝑅.𝑆

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 + 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 + 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 2 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 2 𝐸 𝐴
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 (1.42)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡: 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜎) = ⟹ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑄
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
= 𝜎𝐴

So then using Gauss theorem,

𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 =2𝐸𝐴 (1.43)
𝜀0

𝑄 𝜎𝐴 𝜎
⟹ 2𝐸𝐴 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = (1.44)
𝜀0 𝜀0 2𝜀0

21
From this equation, it follows that the electric field is independent of r in the limit that the
plane is infinitely large.

1.7.7 Electric field due to pair of sheets with charge

Consider two sheets of surface charge density +σ and –σ placed close to each other and of
the same magnitude. From previous calculations, the magnitude of electric field produces by
𝝈
each sheet is given as: 𝐸0 = 𝟐𝜺 . It is apparent that between the sheets, the total field is zero
𝟎
as the fields cancel out, and that the fields are reinforced to the left and right of both sheets.
The sign of the total fields on either sides are reversed for each charged sheet.

When the sheets are of opposite charges, then there is a reinforcement of the fields
between the sheets and a cancellation on other sides.

1.8 CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS

Capacitors are devices typically composed of two electrical conductors separated by a non-
conducting medium (known as the dielectric medium or simply the dielectric) or by a vacuum
of distance d. the capacitor stores energy in the electric field between the conductors.

It is represented by the electrical symbol

22
Capacitors are characterized by how much charge and therefore how much electrical energy
they are able to store at a fixed voltage. Quantitatively, the energy stored at a fixed voltage is
captured by a quantity called capacitance which depends entirely on the geometry of the
capacitor (the physical configuration of conductors).

The capacitance (C) of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of magnitude of charge (Q) on either
plate to the magnitude of the potential difference (ΔV) across the plate, i.e.
𝑄
𝐶= (1.45)
∆𝑉

Q and ΔV are taken to be positive when used in the above equation.

The unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt (C/V) or farad (F).

1 Farad = 1 Coulomb / Volt

1.8.1 The Parallel-Plate Capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends on the geometric arrangement of the
conductors. The capacitance depends on the area A of each conductive plate, the separation
between the plates d, and the dielectric constant of the insulating material between the
plates. Recall that the magnitude of the electric field between two plates is given by
𝜎
𝐸𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 , where σ is the charge per unit area on each plate.
0
𝜎
We know that 𝐸 = , ΔV = E d and Q = σ A
𝜀0
Substituting the above 3 facts into the definition of capacitance yields,

23
 𝑄 𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐴 𝐴
𝐶= = = 𝜎 = 𝜀0
∆𝑉 𝐸𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝜀0
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 (1.46)
𝑑

𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space. If follows from this equation that plates with larger area
will store more charge. Also for small separation d, the capacitance will be large because the
positive charges on one plate will exert a stronger force on the negative charges on the other
plate paving way for more charge to be held on the plates.

In the presence of a dielectric, the equation becomes

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝑘𝜀0 (1.47)
𝑑

𝑘𝜀0 = 𝜀𝑟 (1.48)

𝜀𝑟 is relative permittivity of the medium, K is the dielectric constant. For air, K = 1.0006. For
pure vaccum K = 1. For a substance like quartz, K = 4.3. For water, K = 80.

Several capacitors can be connected together to be used in a variety of applications. Multiple

connections of capacitors behave as a single equivalent capacitor. The total capacitance of
this equivalent single capacitor depends both on the individual capacitors and how they are
connected. Capacitors can be arranged in two simple and common types of connections,
known as series and parallel, for which we can easily calculate the total capacitance.

1.8.2 Capacitors in Series

In series, capacitors will each have the same amount of charge stored on them because the
charge from the first one travels to the second one, and so on.

24
The total charge stored is the charge that was moved from the cell, which equals the charge
that arrived at the first capacitor, which equals the charge that arrived at the second, etc...

So, QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3, etc.

The voltage of the circuit is spread out amongst the capacitors (so that each one only gets a
portion of the total).

Taking the three capacitor values from the above example, we can calculate the total
capacitance, CT for the three capacitors in series as:

1.8.3 Capacitors in Parallel

Since the capacitors are connected in parallel, they all have the same voltage V across their
plates. However, each capacitor in the parallel network may store a different charge

The p.d. across each capacitor is the same as the total p.d. Let's call it V.

25
QT = Total charge stored = Q1 + Q2 +Q3

Using Q = VC

VCT = VC1 + VC2 + VC3

As the capacitors or in parallel they each have the same voltage across them, so cancel the
V's.

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 for capacitors in parallel.

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 = 0.1 µF + 0.2 µF + 0.3 µF = 0.6 µF

One important point to remember about parallel connected capacitor circuits, the total
capacitance (CT) of any two or more capacitors connected together in parallel will always be
GREATER than the value of the largest capacitor in the group as we are adding together
values. So in our example above CT = 0.6 µF whereas the largest value capacitor is only 0.3 µF.

Capacitors in Parallel Example 1.

Calculate the combined capacitance in micro-Farads (µF) of the following capacitors when
they are connected together in a parallel combination:

a) Two capacitors each with a capacitance of 47 nF

b) One capacitor of 470 nF connected in parallel to a capacitor of 1 µF

Solution:
a) Total Capacitance,

CT = C1 + C2 = 47 nF + 47 nF = 94 nF or 0.094 µF

b) Total Capacitance,

CT = C1 + C2 = 470 nF + 1 µF

therefore, CT = 470 nF + 1000 nF = 1470 nF or 1.47 µF

QUESTION:
If you wish to store a large amount of energy in a capacitor bank, would you
connect capacitors in series or parallel? Explain.

26
1.8.4 Energy stored in a charged capacitor

To find the electrical energy stored in a capacitor, we calculate the work required to charge
it. When a battery is connected across the capacitor plates, a potential difference ΔV = q/C is
developed. Initially, the charge on the plates is Q=0. As the capacitor is being charged, the
charge gradually builds up on its plates, and after some time, it reaches the value Q. To move
an infinitesimal charge dq from the negative plate to the positive plate (from a lower to a
higher potential), the amount of work dW that must be done on dq is

𝑑𝑊 = ∆𝑉𝑑𝑞 (1.49)
But
𝑞 𝑞
𝐶= ⟹ ∆𝑉 = (1.50)
∆𝑉 𝐶

𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑞 (1.51)
𝐶

This work becomes the energy U stored in the electrical field of the capacitor. In order to
charge the capacitor to a charge Q, the total work required is

𝑊(𝑄) 𝑄 𝑞
𝑈 = ∫0 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0
𝐶
𝑑𝑞 (1.52)

1 𝑄 1 𝑄2
𝑈= ∫0 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 = (1.53)
𝐶 𝐶2
1 𝑄2 1
𝑈= = 𝐶∆𝑉 2 (1.54)
2𝐶 2

Equation (1.54) is the energy stored in a capacitor

When the charge is expressed in coulombs, potential is expressed in volts, and the
capacitance is expressed in farads, this relation gives the energy in joules.

27
2.0 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

The branch of Physics that deals with the study of the motion of electric charges is known
as current electricity.

2.1 Electric Current (I)

The rate of flow of electric charges through any cross-sectional area of a conductor is called
electric current. If a net charge q passes through any cross section of a conductor in time t,
then the current I is given by

𝑞
𝐼= (2.1)
𝑡

where q is in coulomb and t is in second. Its SI unit is ampere (A).

1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

1 ampere is defined as the current in a wire if one coulomb of charges flows through it in one
second.

If the rate of flow of charge is not uniform, the current varies with time and the instantaneous
value of current i is given by,

𝑑𝑞
𝑖= (2.2)
𝑑𝑡

Current is a scalar quantity. The conventional direction of electric current is the direction of
motion of positive charge or opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.

i. In a metallic conductor current flows due to motion of free electrons.

ii. In liquids like electrolytic compounds (HCl, HNO3, NaOH, H2SO4, CaCl2, KNO3 etc.),
positive and negative ions are the charge carriers. (Electrolytes are substances that
dissociates into ions in solution and acquires the capacity to conduct electricity).
iii. In semiconductors, the charge carriers are electrons and holes.
iv. Gases are bad conductors. However, at very low pressures, if a high voltage is applied,
then some particles become ionized resulting in negative and positive ions. Electrons
and cations of ionized gases act as charge carriers.

28
2.2 Types of Electric Current

Electric current is of two types:

i. Direct Current (DC) - Its magnitude and direction do not change with time. A cell,
battery or DC dynamo are the sources of direct current.
ii. Alternating Current (AC) - An electric current whose magnitude changes continuously
and changes its direction periodically is called alternating current. AC dynamo is source
of alternating current.

Figure 2.1 (a) – DC current and voltage are constant in time, once the current is established.

Figure 2.2 (b) – A graph of voltage and current versus time for 60-Hz AC power. The
voltage and current are sinusoidal and are in phase for a simple resistance circuit.

2.3 Current Density

The electric current flowing per unit area of cross-section of a conductor is called current
density.

𝐼
Current density 𝐽= (2.3)
𝐴

Its SI unit is ampere metre-2 and dimensional formula is [AL-2].

29
Current density is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of motion positive
charge or in the direction of flow of current.

2.4 Thermal Velocity of Free Electrons

Thermal velocity results from the thermal motion of free electrons in the metal. At room
temperatures valence electrons in metals possess inherent thermal energy that enables them
break away from the attractive force to the nucleus. They then wander randomly in the bulk
of the crystal. This thermal motion is random and results in a zero net current.

Free electrons in a metal move randomly with a very high speed of the order of 105 m/s. This
speed is called thermal velocity of free electron.

Average thermal velocity of free electrons in any direction remains zero.

2.5 Drift Velocity of Free Electrons

Drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron attains in a material
due to an electric field. When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a conductor,
the free electrons in it move with an average velocity opposite to direction of electric field.

Figure 2.3 Electron drift in a conductor

In conductors, a large number of free electrons are present, which move in random directions.
If 𝑢
⃗⃗1 , 𝑢
⃗⃗2 , 𝑢3 , … , 𝑢𝑛 are their random initial velocities, then the average thermal velocity is

⃗⃗1 ,𝑢
𝑢 ⃗⃗2 ,𝑢3 ,…,𝑢𝑛
=0 (2.4)
𝑛

When an external electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ is applied across the conductor, the electrons experience a
force

𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸⃗⃗ (2.5)

If 𝑚𝑒 be the mass of electron, then the acceleration of the electron will be,

30
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
−𝑒𝐸
𝑎= (2.6)
𝑚𝑒

Under the influence of electric field, electrons move and subsequently collide with the ions.
The time between two successive collisions is called Relaxation time given by 𝜏. The velocity
of electron just before collision is given by

𝑣⃗1 = 𝑢
⃗⃗1 + 𝑎𝜏1 (2.7)

Where 𝑣⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢

⃗⃗1 are the final and initial velocities and 𝜏1 is the relaxation time of the electron.

The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which free electrons in a conductor
get drifted under the influence of an external field 𝐸⃗⃗ . It is represented by 𝑉
⃗⃗𝑑

⃗⃗1 +𝑣
𝑣 ⃗⃗2 +𝑣
⃗⃗3 +⋯+𝑣
⃗⃗𝑛
⃗⃗𝑑
Hence, 𝑉 = (2.8)
𝑁

⃗⃗𝑑 = 𝑢⃗⃗1 +𝑢⃗⃗2 +𝑢⃗⃗3 +⋯+𝑢⃗⃗𝑛 + 𝑎 𝜏1 +𝜏2 +𝜏3 +⋯+𝜏𝑛

𝑉 (2.9)
𝑁 𝑁
𝜏1 +𝜏2 +𝜏3 +⋯+𝜏𝑛
Where = 𝜏 (2.10)
𝑁

−𝑒𝐸⃗⃗𝜏 −𝑒𝑉𝜏
⃗⃗𝑑
Drift velocity 𝑉 = = (2.11)
𝑚 𝑚𝑙

𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝜏 𝑒𝑉𝜏
⃗⃗𝑑 | =
|𝑉 = (2.12)
𝑚 𝑚𝑙

where, τ = relaxation time, e is charge on electron, 𝐸⃗⃗ is electric field intensity, l is the length
of the conductor, V is potential difference across the ends of the conductor.

2.6 Relation between electric current and drift velocity

Consider a conductor of cross section area A and length l. The volume of the conductor is
given by

V=Al (2.13)

If n be the number of free electrons per unit volume, then the total charge on all the free
electrons is given by,

q=nAle (2.14)

31
under the influence of electric field, the electrons will travel the distance l with drift velocity
Vd in time t given by

𝑙
𝑡= (2.15)
𝑉𝑑

𝑞
From 𝐼= (2.16)
𝑡

𝐼
⟹ 𝐼 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑉𝑑 or 𝑉𝑑 = (2.17)
𝑛𝐴𝑒

2.7 Mobility

The drift velocity of electron acquired per unit electric field applied is known as the mobility
of electron.

Mobility of electron (μ) is given by,

𝑉𝑑
𝜇= (2.18)
𝐸⃗⃗

Its SI unit is m2 s-1V-1 and its dimensional formula is [M-1T2A].

2.8 Ohm’s Law

If physical conditions of a conductor such as temperature remains unchanged, then the

electric current (I) flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) applied across its ends.

I ∝ V or V = IR (2.19)

where R is the electrical resistance of the conductor

2.9 Electrical Resistance

The obstruction offered by any conductor in the path of flow of current is called its electrical
resistance. Electrical resistance,

𝑉
𝑅= (2.20)
𝐼

Its SI unit is ohm (Ω) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-3A-2].

32
Also, electrical resistance of a conductor

𝜌𝑙
𝑅= (2.21)
𝐴

where, l is the length of the conductor, A is the cross-section area and ρ is the resistivity of the
material of the conductor.

Electrical resistance can also be expressed as,

𝑚𝑙
𝑅= (2.22)
𝑛𝐴𝑒 2 𝜏

2.10 Resistivity

Resistivity of a material of a conductor is given by

𝑅𝐴
𝜌= (2.23)
𝑙

Its dimensional formula is [ML3T-3A-2].It can also be expressed as,

𝑚
𝜌= (2.24)
𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏

where, n = number of free electrons per unit volume.

Resistivity of a material depend on temperature and nature of the material. It is independent

of dimensions of the conductor, i.e., length, area of cross-section etc.

2.11 Effects of temperature on materials carrying current

1) For Metals:

Consider a metal of resistance 1 Ω. Increase in temperature by 1oC increases its resistance by a

quantity denoted by 𝛼, known as the temperature coefficient of resistance. If by 1o increase,
resistance increase by 𝛼, then by ΔT change in temperature, resistance will change by 𝛼 ΔT.
Total resistance is therefore given by,

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜 𝛼∆𝑡 (2.25)

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑡) (2.26)

𝑅𝑡 will be the resistance at any temperature t° C, and 𝑹𝒐 is the resistance at 0° C.

33
It follows that,

𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅𝑜 𝛼∆𝑡
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜
𝛼= (2.27)
𝑅𝑜 ∆𝑡

Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature as

𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑡) (2.28)

where 𝝆𝒐 and 𝝆𝒕 are resistivity of metals at 0° C and t° C. α is the temperature coefficient of

resistivity of the material.

Metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their resistance increases with
increase in temperature.

2) For insulators, semiconductors and alloys:

Insulators and semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their
resistance decreases with increase in temperature. The temperature coefficient is low for
alloys. For some alloys like nichrome, manganin and constantan, α is positive but very low.

(In magnetic field the resistivity of metals increases. But resistivity of ferromagnetic materials
such as iron, nickel, cobalt etc. decreases in magnetic field.)

2.12 Electrical Conductivity

The reciprocal of resistivity is called electrical conductivity.

Electrical conductivity (σ) is given by

1 𝑙 n 𝑒 2𝜏
𝜎= = = (2.29)
𝜌 𝑅𝐴 𝑚

Its SI units is ohm-1 m-1 or Ω-1 m-1 or Siemens m-1 (S/m).

Relation between current density (J) and electrical conductivity (σ) is given by

n 𝑒 2𝜏
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 = 𝐸 (2.30)
𝑚

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where, E = electric field intensity.

2.13 Ohmic Conductors and Non-ohmic Conductors

Those conductors which obey Ohm’s law, are called ohmic conductors. In other words there
is a linear relationship between voltage and current for all values e.g. metals.

Those conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law, are called non-ohmic conductors. In other
words the relationship between voltage and current is not linear for all values. e.g., diode
valve, triode valve, transistor, vacuum tubes etc.

For ohmic conductors, current vs voltage graph is a straight line. For non-ohmic conductors,
current vs voltage graph is not a straight line.

Figure 2.4: Graph of ohmic and non-ohmic conductors

2.14 Superconductors

When few metals are cooled, then below a certain critical temperature their electrical
resistance suddenly becomes zero. The ability of certain metals, their compounds and alloys
to conduct electricity with zero resistance at very low temperatures is called
superconductivity. The materials which exhibit this property are called superconductors.

The phenomenon of superconductivity was first observed by Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911. He

found that mercury suddenly showed zero resistance at 4.2 K. The first theoretical explanation
of superconductivity was given by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer in 1957 and it is called the
BCS theory.

The temperature at which electrical resistivity of the material suddenly drops to zero and the
material changes from normal conductor to a superconductor is called the transition
temperature or critical temperature TC. At

Mercury become superconducting at 4.2 K, lead at 7.19 K and niobium at 9.26 K

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2.14.1 Applications of superconductors
i. Superconductors form the basis of energy saving power systems, namely the
superconducting generators, which are smaller in size and weight, in comparison with
conventional generators.
ii. Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails. They can
be driven at high speed with minimal expenditure of energy.
iii. Superconducting magnetic propulsion systems may be used to launch satellites into
orbits directly from the earth without the use of rockets.
iv. High efficiency ore–separating machines may be built using superconducting magnets
which can be used to separate tumor cells from healthy cells by high gradient magnetic
separation method.
v. Since the current in a superconducting wire can flow without any change in magnitude,
it can be used for transmission lines.
vi. Superconductors can be used as memory or storage elements in computers.

2.15 Combination of Resistors

We might require a desired resistance in a circuit sometimes. We would therefore have to

combine resistors to obtain the desired resistance. Resistors are combined in series and
parallel.

1) In Series

Figure 2.5: Resistors in series

i. Equivalent resistance, RE = R1 + R2 + R3
ii. Current through each resistor is same.
iii. Sum of potential differences across individual resistors is equal to the potential
difference, applied by the source.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3

𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) (2.31)

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 (2.32)

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For n resistors connected in series with equal resistance, the equivalent resistance is

RE = nR (2.33)

2) In Parallel

Figure 2.6: Resistors connected in parallel

2.16 Equivalent resistance

1 1 1 1
= + + (2.34)
𝑅𝐸 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 (2.35)

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= + + (2.36)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Potential difference across each resistor is same.

Sum of electric currents flowing through individual resistors is equal to the electric current
drawn from the source.

2.17 Electric Cell

An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

Electric cells are of two types

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 i. Primary Cells Primary cells cannot be charged again. Voltaic, Daniel and Leclanche cells
are primary cells.
ii. Secondary Cells Secondary cells can be charged again and again. Acid and alkali
accumulators are secondary cells.

Recall that, just as water requires a pressure difference to start flowing, electrons require an
electric potential difference to make them move. The potential difference provides the
energy to create movement. Electric potential difference is also called voltage and it is
measured in volts (abbreviated V). In the case of water, pressure can be created by a water
pump or difference in height, like a water tower. In electronics, batteries and electric
generators are the common sources of voltage. The presence of two different charges also
creates a voltage; it gives the electric charges the energy to flow. A battery is a device
consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering
electrical devices.

2.18 Electro – motive – Force (emf) of a Cell

In order to maintain a potential difference between two points in the presence of a current,
there must be a non-electrical source of energy replenishing the energy lost by the charges
moving through that potential difference. The energy supplied/unit charge by this source is
called the emf, whether the means for providing the emf is chemical, magnetic, mechanical or
any other process. The symbol used for an emf is 𝜀

The energy given by a cell in flowing unit positive charge throughout the circuit completely
one time, is equal to the emf of a cell.

emf of a cell is given by,

(𝜀 ) = W / q (2.37)

Its SI unit is volt.

2.19 Comparison of emf and potential difference

1. The difference of potentials between the two terminals of a cell in an open circuit is
called the electromotive force (emf) of a cell. The difference in potentials between any
two points in a closed circuit is called potential difference.
2. The emf is independent of external resistance of the circuit, whereas potential
difference is proportional to the resistance between any two points.

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2.20 Electric energy and electric power.

If I is the current flowing through a conductor of resistance R in time t, then the quantity of
charge flowing is, q = It. If the charge q, flows between two points having a potential
difference V, then the workdone in moving the charge is

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑉𝑞 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑡 (2.38)

Then, electric power is defined as the rate of doing electric work.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = =𝑉𝐼 (2.39)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Electric power is the product of potential difference and current.

Since 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼2 𝑅 (2.40)

The SI unit of electrical power is watts symbolized by W. 1 watts = 1 Joules/second

Electric energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Its unit is joule. In practice, the electrical
energy is measured by watt hour (Wh) or kilowatt hour (kWh). 1 kWh is known as one unit of
electric energy.

(1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 1000 𝑊ℎ = 1000 × 3600 𝐽 = 36 × 105 𝐽)

2.21 Wattmeter

A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure electrical power consumed i.e. energy

absorbed in unit time by a circuit. The wattmeter consists of a movable coil arranged between
a pair of fixed coils in the form of a solenoid. A pointer is attached to the movable coil. The
free end of the pointer moves over a circular scale. When current flows through the coils, the
deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the power.

2.22 Chemical effect of current

The passage of an electric current through a liquid causes chemical changes and this process
is called electrolysis. The conduction is possible, only in liquids wherein charged ions can be
dissociated in opposite directions. Such liquids are called electrolytes. The plates through
which current enters and leaves an electrolyte are known as electrodes. The electrode
towards which positive ions travel is called the cathode and the other, towards which
negative ions travel is called anode. The positive ions are called cations and are mostly formed
from metals or hydrogen. The negative ions are called anions.

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 Figure 2.7: Conduction in liquid

2.23 Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

The factors affecting the quantities of matter liberated during the process of electrolysis were
investigated by Faraday.

First Law:

The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to the

charge passing through the electrolyte.

If an electric current I is passed through an electrolyte for a time t, the amount of charge (q)
passed is I t. According to the law, mass of substance liberated (m) is

𝑚𝛼𝑞 or 𝑚 = 𝑧𝐼𝑡 (2.41)

where Z is a constant for the substance being liberated called electrochemical equivalent. Its
unit is kg C–1.

The electrochemical equivalent of a substance is defined as the mass of substance liberated

in electrolysis when one coulomb charge is passed through the electrolyte.

Second Law:

The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode by a given amount of charge is

proportional to the *chemical equivalent of the substance.

If E is the chemical equivalent of a substance, from the second law

𝑚𝛼𝐸

𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

Chemical equivalent = =
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 1 12
2 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

40