DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION AND COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY,

FACULTY O EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

COURSE OUTLINE

GCE 221: PERSONALITY THEORIES AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT

UNIT 1: THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY

• Meaning and Definition of Personality.

• The Nature of Personality

• Fundamental characteristics of Personality.

• Dimensions of Personality

• Components of Personality.

• Personality types (Extraversion- Introversion)

UNIT 2: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

• The meaning and characteristics of a theory

• Types of Personality Theories

• Psychodynamic perspective : Freud, Jung

• Behavioural Perspective: Skinner, Bandura

UNIT 3: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

• Humanistic Perspective: Maslow, Rogers

• Biological Perspective: Eysenck, Buss

• Implications on counselling services.

UNIT 4: SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT

• Concept of Social Adjustment

 • Reasons for Human/Social Adjustment

• Adjustment as a process and characteristics of a well-adjusted individual.

• Adjustment Techniques/strategies for coping with internal and external demands of life.

UNIT 5: SELF ESTEEM

• Meaning of Self-esteem

• Importance of Self-Esteem

• Factors to consider before taking responsibility

• Professional responsibilities (Counselling Ethics)

• Social thinking and its influence

UNIT 6: STRESS

• Causes and effects of Stress

• Stress and individual differences(Personality Types A and B)

• Strategies /Management for coping with Stress.

COURSE REQUIREMENTS

• Attendance- Every student should obtain minimum of 75% attendance at lectures to be eligible
to write the Examinations.

• Continuous Assessment = 30%

• Examination = 70%

Total = 100%
 UNIT 1:
THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY

Meaning of Personality
“Personality” word came from the Latin word “persona” which means a mask worn by an
actor. Personality embraces moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions
with other people. It includes behavioural characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish
one person from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the
social group. Personality can be defined as the distinctive and unique ways in which each individual
thinks feels and acts, which characterise a person’s response throughout life. In other words, it can be
said that personality refers to all those relatively permanent traits, dispositions or characteristics within
the person that give some measure of consistency to the person’s behaviour. These traits may be
unique, common to some groups or shared by the entire species but their pattern will be different from
individual to individual. The thoughts, feelings and actions that are perceived as reflecting an
individual’s personality typically have three characteristics;
• Thoughts, feelings and actions are considered as behavioural components of identity that make
distinction between individuals

• Behaviours are viewed as being primarily caused by internal rather than environmental factors.

• The behaviours of the person seem to have organisation and structure.

Personality implies psychological and social character that an individual acquires by hereditary
biological endowment which provides him the basis for development and social growth of environment
within which he springs forth; i.e. emotional qualities, ways of behaving, etc., which makes a person
different from other people or the complex of characteristics which distinguishes an individual. Allport
(1937, 1961), defined personality as the dynamic organisation within the person of the psychophysical
systems that determine the unique adjustments to one’s environment, this suggests that there is an inner
personality that guides and directs individual’s behaviour. Meaning personality refers to the habits,
attitudes and other social traits that are characteristic of a given individual’s behaviour. Thus,
personality is the sum of the ideas, attitudes and values of a person which determine his role in society
and form an integral part of his character. Here are some other definitions of Personality;
• According to American Psychological Association, “Personality refers to individual differences in
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.”
• Morton Prince (1924) define “Personality is the sum total of all biological, innate dispositions,
impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual and the acquired dispositions and
tendencies acquired by experiences.”
• Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s character,
temperament, intellect and physique that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.
(Eysenck, 1952).
• Personality usually refers to the distinctive patterns of behaviour (including thoughts and emotions)
that characterize each individual’s adaptations to the situations of his life or her life. (Walter
Mischel, 1981).
• Personality is generally defined as individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour,
thoughts and emotions. (Baron, 1993).

CHARACTERISTICS AND NATURE OF PERSONALITY

These characteristics and traits are as follows:
• Personality is something which is unique in each individual: Personality refers to internal as
well as external qualities, some of which are quite general. But it is unique to each individual. It is
not possible for any other individual to reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality of the
individual.

• Personality refers particularly to persistent qualities of an individual: Every individual has

certain feeling as well as other permanent traits and qualities. Personality is mainly composed of the
persistent or permanent qualities that exhibit themselves in form of social behaviour and attempt to
make adjustment with the environment.

• Personality represents a dynamic orientation of organism to environment: Personality

represents the process of learning. It takes place in reference to the environment. We do not acquire
all the traits of personality all at once.

• Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions: Personality is not an individual quality. It

is a result of social- interaction. In other words, it means that when we come in contact with other
members of the society, we acquire certain qualities while we exhibit certain others. All these come
to form personality.

• Personality represents a unique organisation of persistent dynamic and social predisposition:

In personality various qualities are not put together. They are, in fact, integrated into one. This
 integration is nothing but a result of organisation which may be different from one person to
another. The behaviour of a person directed to one particular individual may differ from the
behaviour of another person. That is why; we put the condition of suitable environment. This
suitability is concerned with individual specificity.

COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY
Freud proposed that the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and superego, which are the
results of our thinking, feeling, and behaviours and that the interactions and conflicts among the
components create personality (Freud, 1923/1949). According to Freudian theory, the id is the
component of personality that forms the basis of our most primitive impulses. The id is entirely
unconscious, and it drives our most important motivations, including the sexual drive (libido) and the
aggressive or destructive drive (Thanatos). According to Freud, the id is driven by the pleasure
principle i.e. the desire for immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive urges. The id is why
we smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, view pornography, tell mean jokes about people, and engage in
other fun or harmful behaviours, often at the cost of doing more productive activities.
The ego is the next component of our personality which is the heart of our consciousness. It is
characterized by either of the dominant functions which are introversion or extraversion along with the
other functions. It is based on the reality principle which states that our mind acknowledges what is real
and currently existing. It also understands that there are corresponding consequences to our behaviours.
The ego is the largely conscious controller or decision-maker of personality. The ego serves as the
intermediary between the desires of the id and the constraints of society contained in the superego. The
super ego is the last component of our personality in which our values and morals are contained. It
represents our sense of morality. The superego tell us all the things that we shouldn’t do, or the duties
and obligations of society. The superego strives for perfection, and when we fail to live up to its
demands we feel guilty.

PERSONALITY TYPES
The first known type of personality is that of the Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.),
who characterized human behaviour in terms of four temperaments, each associated with a different
bodily fluid, or "humor."
• The sanguine, or optimistic, type was associated with blood
• The phlegmatic type (slow and lethargic) with phlegm
• The melancholic type (sad, depressed) with black bile and
 • The choleric (angry) type with yellow bile.
Individual personality was determined by the amount of each of the four humors. Hippocrates'
system remained influential in Western Europe throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods.
Abundant references to the four humors can be found in the plays of Shakespeare, and the terms with
which Hippocrates labeled the four personality types are still in common use today. The theory of
temperaments is among a variety of systems that deal with human personality by dividing it into types.
Another widely popularized (but scientifically dubious) modern typology of personality was
developed in the 1940s by William Sheldon, an American psychologist. Sheldon classified personality
into three categories based on body types:
• The endomorph (heavy and easy-going),
• The Mesomorph (muscular and aggressive),
• The ectomorph (thin and intellectual or artistic).
However, there was a major weakness in Sheldon's morphological classification system and other type
theories in general i.e. the element of oversimplification inherent in placing individuals into a single
category, which ignores the fact that every personality represents a unique combination of qualities.

Personality type refers to a system of categorizing people according to their tendencies to think and act
in particular ways. Personality type attempts to find the broadest, most important ways in which people
are different, and make sense of these differences by sorting people into meaningful groups. The four
categories may also be simplified.

• Extraversion or introversion; the Introversion/Extraversion dimension describes how a person

manages their energy, describing a child's focus (inner or outer).

• Extraverted children are outgoing and talkative, meaning they are energized by spending
time with people and in busy, active surroundings. They tend to be more expressive and
outspoken.
• Introverts are more reserved and self-reflective and are energized by spending quiet time
alone or with a small group. They tend to be more reserved and thoughtful.
• Sensing or intuition
• This category has to do with how children perceive the world around them and how an
individual processes information.
• Sensing individuals are more likely to focus on reality and information at face value
(what they can see and hear). Meaning individuals in this school of thought focus on
 their five senses and are interested in information they can directly see, hear, and feel,
and so on. They tend to be hands-on learners and are often described as "practical."
• Intuitive individuals are more likely to envision alternatives or hidden possibilities and
tend to focus more on the bigger picture rather than concrete details. Thus, they focus on
a more abstract level of thinking; they are more interested in theories, patterns, and
explanations. They are often more concerned with the future than the present and are
often described as "creative."
• Thinking or feeling; this dimension describes how people make decisions.
• Children in the thinking category are more factual and prefer to make decisions with
logical reasoning. Meaning Thinkers tend to make decisions with their heads; they are
interested in finding the most logical, reasonable choice.
• Feelers tend to make decisions with their hearts; they are interested in how a decision
will affect people, and whether it fits in with their values and as such feeling individuals
are more likely to be empathetic, recognizing the impact of emotions on decisions.
• Judging or perceiving: The Judging/Perceiving dimension describes how people approach
structure in their lives.
• Judgers appreciate structure and order; they like things planned, and dislike last-minute
changes. Individuals in the judging category believe in firm rules, organization and
planning.
• Perceivers appreciate flexibility and spontaneity; they like to leave things open so they
can change their minds. Meaning these individuals prefer a blank canvas, leaving their
options open for whatever direction life takes them.

UNIT 2

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Meaning of theory
A theory is based on a hypothesis (attribute subject to change) that is backed by evidence. A
theory is a fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon, It is also referred to as a set of
organized and accepted beliefs that can act as a guiding force for analysis.. A scientific theory presents
an explanation about some aspect of human behaviour or the natural world which is supported through
repeated testing and experiments. This means that scientists have collected evidence that supports the
theory. Many different researchers have gathered the evidence that supports the theory. A theory is a
formal statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or ideas that are suggested to explain
a fact or event or, more generally, an opinion or explanation (Igbineweka, 2020); a scientist's
interpretation of the observations about a phenomenon. It is a system of ideas intended to explain
something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained. In
psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and
behaviours. A psychological theory has two key components:
• It must describe behaviour.
• It must make predictions about future behaviours.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
• To explain the answer to the question of why, and to offer a better understanding of the concept or
idea

• The result should be a consequence of experiments, observations, and descriptions

• It should be consistent with other accepted theories of the same nature

• It should be a confirmed and verified hypothesis

• It must also have authenticity

• It should be simple to avoid any confusion

• It should evaluate and explains current events in a correct manner

• It should be able to analyse even past events

• It must be able to forecast future events

• It should help us in predicting human behaviour at home, school, workplace and other social
settings

• It should be testable empirically

• It should grow over time by incorporating research findings and constructive criticism

• It should be widely applicable

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
PSYCHODYNAMIC OR PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY
One of the most important psychological approaches to understanding personality is based on
the theorizing of the Austrian physician and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who founded
what today is known as the psychodynamic approach, an approach to understanding human
behaviour that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. In contrast to type
or trait theories of personality, the dynamic model proposed by Freud involved an on-going element of
conflict, and it was these conflicts that Freud saw as the primary determinant of personality. His
psychoanalytic method was designed to help patients resolve their conflicts by
exploring unconscious thoughts, motivations, and conflicts through the use of free association and
other techniques. Another distinctive feature of Freudian psychoanalysis is its emphasis on the
importance of childhood experiences in personality formation. Other psychodynamic models were later
developed by colleagues and followers of Freud, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler.

Freud proposed that the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and superego, and that
the interactions and conflicts among the components create personality (Freud, 1923/1949). According
to Freudian theory, the id is the component of personality that forms the basis of our most primitive
impulses. The id is entirely unconscious, and it drives our most important motivations, including the
sexual drive (libido) and the aggressive or destructive drive (Thanatos). According to Freud, the id is
driven by the pleasure principle the desire for immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive
urges. The id is why we smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, view pornography, tell mean jokes about
people, and engage in other fun or harmful behaviours, often at the cost of doing more productive
activities. In contrast to the id, the superego represents our sense of morality and thoughts. The
superego tell us all the things that we shouldn’t do, or the duties and obligations of society. The
superego strives for perfection, and when we fail to live up to its demands we feel guilty. In contrast to
the id, which is about the pleasure principle, the function of the ego is based on the reality
principle the idea that we must delay gratification of our basic motivations until the appropriate time
with the appropriate outlet. The ego is the largely conscious controller or decision-maker of
personality. The ego serves as the intermediary between the desires of the id and the constraints of
society contained in the superego. We may wish to scream, yell, or hit, and yet our ego normally tells
us to wait, reflect, and choose a more appropriate response.

Freud believed that psychological disorders, and particularly the experience of anxiety, occur
when there is conflict or imbalance among the motivations of the id, ego, and superego. When the ego
finds that the id is pressing too hard for immediate pleasure, it attempts to correct for this problem,
often through the use of Defence Mechanisms which are unconscious psychological strategies used to
cope with anxiety and maintain a positive self-image. Freud believed that the defence mechanisms
were essential for effective coping with everyday life.

EGO DEFENCE MECHANISMS

We stated earlier that the ego's job was to satisfy the id's impulses, and not to offend the
moralistic character of the superego, while still taking into consideration the reality of the situation. 
We also stated that this was not an easy job.  Think of the id as the 'devil on your shoulder' and the
superego as the 'angel of your shoulder.'  We don't want either one to get too strong so we talk to both
of them, hear their perspective and then make a decision.  This decision is the ego talking, i.e. the one
looking for that healthy balance.  According to Freud, we only have two drives; sex and aggression.  In
other words, everything we do is motivated by one of these two drives.
  Now the ego has a difficult time satisfying both the id and the superego, but it doesn't have
to do so without help.  The ego has some tools it can use in its job as the mediator, tools that help
defend the ego and these are called Ego Defence Mechanisms or Defences.  When the ego has a
difficult time making both the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of these defences
which includes, Denial (barring an anxiety provoking external stimulus from awareness). Repression
means (barring an anxiety provoking internal stimulus from awareness). Projection means (placing
unacceptable thoughts or impulses in yourself onto someone else). Displacement means (taking out
impulses on a safer substitute). Sublimation means (channelling unacceptable impulses in a socially
acceptable way). Reaction formation (converting the unacceptable impulse into its opposite)
Rationalization, (supplying a logical or rational excuse for a shortcoming). Regression (returning to a
previous more childish stage of development) and of all these aforementioned, only sublimation is
viewed as a healthy outlet.
DEFENCE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Denial Arguing against an anxiety Denying that your physician's diagnosis of HIV
provoking stimuli by and AIDS is correct and seeking a second
stating it doesn't exist opinion
Displacement Taking out impulses on a Slamming a door instead of hitting as person,
less threatening target yelling at your spouse after an argument with
 your boss. I often perceive this as transfer of
aggression.
Intellectualization Avoiding unacceptable Focusing on the details of a funeral as opposed
emotions by focusing on to the sadness and grief. For example trying to
the intellectual aspects focus on the musician playing in the interment
instead of the corps.
Projection Placing unacceptable When losing an argument, you state "you're
impulses in yourself onto just stupid"
someone else
Rationalization Supplying a logical or Stating that you failed because you refused to
rational reason as opposed sleep with the lecturer, when the real reason
to the real reason was your poor performance
Reaction Formation Taking the opposite belief Having a bias against a particular race or
because the true belief culture and then embracing that race or culture
causes anxiety to the extreme; for example many easterners in
the north of Nigeria embrace the northern
culture and religion, even acts and dress as
northerners because of the fear of been attacked
Regression Returning to a previous Sitting in a corner and crying after hearing bad
stage of development news; throwing a temper tantrum when you
don't get your way through an argument.
Crying after been abandoned by your boyfriend
Repression Pulling into the Forgetting sexual abuse {rape} from your
unconscious childhood due to the trauma and anxiety
Sublimation Acting out unacceptable Sublimating your aggressive impulses toward a
impulses in a socially career as a boxer; becoming a surgeon because
acceptable way of your desire to cut; lifting weights to release
aggressive energy
Suppression Pushing into the Trying to forget something that causes you
unconscious anxiety

Ego defences are not necessarily unhealthy as you can see by the examples above.  In fact, the
lack of these defences or the inability to use them effectively can often lead to problems in life. 
However, we sometimes employ the defences at the wrong time or overuse them, which can be equally
destructive.

FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Freud argued that personality is developed through a series of psychosexual stages, each
focusing on pleasure from a different part of the body. Freud believed that sexuality begins in infancy,
and that the appropriate resolution of each stage has implications for later personality development.
This theory is probably the most well-known as well as the most controversial, as Freud believed that
we develop through stages based upon a particular erogenous zone (of areas of the body in which we
are able to feel sexual pleasure). During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means that a child
becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over– or under-indulges once he or she
becomes an adult.
• Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months): During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a
stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these
individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the
other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.
• ANAL Stage (18 months to three years): The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining faeces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to
learn to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this
stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the
opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).
• PHALLIC Stage (age’s three to six): The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed
that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he
becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection. During this
time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by
castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus complex (after the Greek Mythology
figure that accidentally killed his father and married his mother). Later it was added that girls go
through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud
Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra complex by more recent
psychoanalysts.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father,
boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the
boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual
feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both
overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
• Latency Stage (age six to puberty): It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and
children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.
• Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of
 puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the
previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers; with the primary
focus of pleasure in the genitals.

BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE
BEHAVIOURAL MODEL TO PERSONALITY
Behaviourism is more concerned with behaviour than with thinking, feeling, or knowing. It
focuses on the objective and observable components of behaviour. The behaviourist theories all
share some version of stimulus-response mechanisms for learning. John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
is the major proponent or founder of the Behaviourism school of thought. Watson is often considered
the "father" of behaviourism. Watson held the view that psychology should only concern itself with the
study of behaviour, and he was not concerned with the mind or with human consciousness. He
considered it paramount that men could be studied objectively, like rats and apes. Behaviourism
emphasises the role of the environmental factors in influencing behaviour, almost excluding the innate
and hereditary factors from behaviour. Under behaviourism the key forms of learning are either
classical or operant learning.
The theory of behaviourism as propagated by Watson was in fact based on the findings of the
Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). According to Pavlov classical conditioning, a dog was
conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell by substituting that sound for the sight and smell of meat
and concluded that all behaviour are response to some stimulus in the environment. This school of
thought believes that all behaviour can be explained as the product of learning and that all
learning consists of conditioning. Behavioural theories however, suggest that personality is a result of
interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioural theorists study observable and
measurable behaviours, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.
Behavioural theorists include B. F. Skinner, John B. Watson and Albert Bandura.
Behaviouristic oriented theories explain the consistent behaviour across situations in terms of learned
reactions to external stimuli. That cross-situational behaviour is seen as guided by learned expectations
about the world especially those about other people. Watson tried to apply this aforementioned
approach in the field of human behaviour. In his famous experiment with an eleven (11 months) old
baby named Albert, He Watson conditioned the baby’s behaviour to fear a rat by substituting the rat
with a sudden loud noise. He concluded that behaviour is merely the response to some environmental
stimulus. How we behave in a particular way can be successfully demonstrated and explained through
habit formation and conditioning. Thus conditioning through environmental influences and not
hereditary endowments or innate differences is responsible for shaping the behaviour of a child.
From the above explanation we can see that behaviourism thus tries to project human beings as
a little more than rather than complex machine which responds in a particular way to a particular kind
of stimulus, thus the behaviour of an individual may then be supposed to be controlled by
environmental forces and not by hereditary endowments or innate difference. The strong conviction of
Watson about the stimulus response process of behaviour and the environmental influence made him to
assert boldly in 1926 that; "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even
beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and
race of his ancestors" John Watson, (1926).
What is then Behaviourism? It is a method of studying behaviour which focused its
attention on the overt (outward) or observable behaviour. This school of thought tried to reduce all
of man’s activity, including his thinking, feeling to the level of that behaviour which could be observed
and objectively recorded. Thus a behaviourist is not interested in the feeling of fear because it is not
measurable but he pays attention to the changes in the heart rate and blood pressure which are the effect
of fear and can be observably measured.
BELIEVES OF BEHAVIOURISM:
• Behaviourism is naturalistic. This means that Man has no soul and no mind, only a brain that
responds to external stimuli, that the material world is the ultimate reality and everything can be
explained in terms of natural laws.
• Conditioning. Behaviourism views behaviour as the product of conditioning. Humans are
biological machines and do not consciously acts but rather they react to stimuli. A central tenet of
behaviourism is that thoughts, feelings, intentions, and mental processes, do not determine what we
do.
• Consistently. Behaviourism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions. If we are mere
machines, without minds or souls, reacting to stimuli and operating on our environment to attain
certain ends, then anything we do is inevitable.
• Behaviourism is manipulative. It seeks not merely to understand human behaviour but to predict
and control it. Skinner developed the idea of "shaping." By controlling rewards and punishments,
you can shape the behaviour of another person.
 One prominent cognitively-based behaviouristic view was that of Albert Bandura and reciprocal
determinism. In Bandura's view there is a three-way interaction between a person, their behaviour and
their environment. A given person's behaviour is both influenced by and is influencing a person's
internal factors (their skills, feelings, ideas, genetics) and the environmental situation (other people's
skills, feelings, ideas, and behaviours) around them. Each of the three can impact and be impacted by
the other. For example, you might hate your job (that's an internal factor of you as a person). You go to
work but nobody knows you hate it there. A co-worker you find annoying says something criticizing
your performance (that's an environmental situation, an external factor). You argue with the co-worker
and loudly say that you don't like them and you hate working there (your behaviour). Due to what you
said, the consequences of your behaviour are that more people criticize your performance
(environment) which makes you angrier and dissatisfied (your personal internal factor). Thus the three
way interaction of reciprocal determinism goes on and on.
According to Albert Bandura, an individual personality is a least a partial product of past
learning experiences, meaning all human behaviour develops from past social models. Reaction and
responses to social stimulus are not triggered automatically by external stimulus, rather the reaction to
these external stimulus are self-activated in accordance with learned anticipation. Thus individuals are
able to observe and interpret the effect of his or her behaviour and in such away determine which
behaviour is appropriate in a given situation. In this model, it is believed that people are able to encode
and symbolize environmental events and to anticipate or expect that certain behaviour will generate a
certain response. Thus as human we choose and shape many of our behaviours in order to gain
anticipated rewards or avoid anticipated pain.

UNIT THREE
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

HUMANISTIC MODEL TO PERSONALITY

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the
development of personality. Humanist theorists emphasized the concept of self-actualization, which is
an innate need for personal growth that motivates behaviour. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow. Both Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow conceived the human nature as an
integrated whole organism whose activities are largely goal oriented. They also believe that man has
the capacity to use his free will creatively and effectively to develop potentials especially when
given favourable conditions. This school of thought of personality believes in the reality of
individual differences among people and that human personality is influenced and shaped by
nature and nurture. It also believes in assisting the individual to grow and attain independence and
places high interest upon emotional feelings rather than intellectual, the immediate experience rather
than the past and producing a non-threatening relationship which will promote a healthy personality.
ABRAHAM MASLOW THEORY OF NEED
Introduction
Maslow personality theory is centred on the serious consideration of motives and goals that
basically causes human observable behaviour. Maslow dynamic theory identifies basic “need” as the
driving force of behaviour and categorised them into a hierarchy according to their relative urgency and
potentials to the organism in question. Maslow’s theory was based on the following assumptions;
• That man and most organisms are in permanently wanting or needy.
• That total satisfaction is almost unattainable or impossible.
• That needs are graded by organism in their order of importance or hierarchy.
• That as soon as a certain need is attained or satisfied, another urgent and pressing need
emerges and assumes utmost importance and automatically becomes the active determinant of
behaviour.
• Finally, that a currently satisfied need becomes unimportant and no longer controls or
dominate behaviour.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEED
Maslow Identified seven vital need in human being and rated them in their order of urgency or
importance as follows;
• Physiological Needs
• Safety and Security Needs
 • Love and Belongingness Needs
• Achievement Needs
• Self-Esteem Needs
• Aesthetic Needs
• Self-Actualization Needs
• Physiological Needs: These are the biological or survival needs of man. They are the most basic
needs that control the other needs. Until these needs are fulfilled or satisfied, man will not be able
to go to the next level. Examples of these needs are the desire to eat food when hungry, drink water
when thirsty or the need for rest, sex, air or to excrete unwanted materials from the body systems.
After these survivals needs have been adequately taken care they become less important and one
moves to the next which is the desire for security and safety.
• Safety and Security Needs: Human beings require safety and protection from danger or external
aggressors. After one has successfully dealt with physiological needs, it is desirable to cater for
psychological needs. At this point man will be thinking of where to live and efforts will be made to
keep him/her from impending dangers, threats or hazards. The hallmark and characteristics of these
needs is the quest by an individual to seek for conducive or peaceful home. For example, the desire
of war victims to migrate from their original country to become refugees in another country is the
need for safety and security. Also, a chicken that quickly hibernates or hide under its mother on
sighting an eagle did so because of its desire for safety.
• Love and Belongingness Needs: This involves the aspiration of man to establish a cordial
relationship with others. It is the need of man to love and be loved. At this level of need people will
like to extend their hands of fellowship or comradeship to their friends, mates, co-workers,
neighbours or classmates. They equally will expect that such gestures be reciprocated by others.
Onyehalu (1988) believes that this need is manifested in our affiliations and friendships.
• Achievement Needs: Achievement needs are divided into two. These are the need to achieve
success and the need to avoid failure or setback. The need to attain success or freedom drives man
to go extra miles. This need motivates an individual to emit a behaviour that will make him/her
command respect from others.
• Self-Esteem Needs: These are the things we desire that help boost once ego. After the individual
has been accorded respect or recognition by others, the next thing for him/her is to start seeking for
the things that will make him/her enjoy considerable influence from others. The ability of someone
to fulfil this condition makes him/her feel superior and self-confident. Inability to fulfil this need,
 makes a person feel dejected or inferior.
• Aesthetic Needs: These needs include the desire of people to pursue or admire beautiful things, i.e.
the desire for beautiful and expensive cars, houses, materials, gorgeous and expensive dresses and
beautiful surroundings with well-trimmed and maintained flowers.
• Self-Actualization Needs: When a person has successfully achieved or gained the most basic
needs, then such an individual will want to get a rare opportunity. It is the time when a person will
like to distinguish him/herself by seeking for power or extra-ordinary achievement. At this point
person is said to have reached the peak of his potentials.