EXcellence in Professional Engineering

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Terminologies Part 1 The distance between the rails is what known as

standard gage.
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
The calculation of the distance the line needs to
I. Introduction to Physical Design of Transportation traverse in order to gain a certain amount of elevation,
Facilities given a maximum grade, is known in railway practice
as development.
Planning refers to the more general and abstract parts
of the process and Design refers to more detailed and The purpose of superelevation or banking of curve is to
concrete, but both involve use of rational processes to counteract the centripetal acceleration produced as a
decide how to use available resources to achieve goals. vehicle rounds a curve.
Geometric Design refers to establishment of horizontal Geometric design of transportation facilities must
and vertical alignments and cross section, based on provide for the resolution of traffic conflicts. In
considerations such as operating characteristics of general, these may be classified as
vehicles, design standards, and drainage. I. Merging conflicts – occur when vehicles enter a
traffic stream
Stopping sight distance is the distance required to see
II. Diverging conflicts – occur when vehicles leave
an object 0.15 m high on the roadway.
the traffic stream
Passing sight distance is the distance required to see III. Weaving conflicts – occur when vehicles cross
an oncoming vehicle of a certain minimum size. paths by first merging and then diverging
IV. Crossing conflicts – occur when they cross paths
Design speed is defined as the maximum safe speed
directly
that can be maintained over a specified section of
highway when conditions are so favorable that the [NOV 2019] There are three basic ways of resolving
design features of the highway govern. crossing conflicts.
I. Time sharing solutions – involve assignment of the
Plans refers to drawings, usually accompanied by
right-of-way to particular movements for
notes, of various aspects or components of the design.
particular times
[NOV 2019] Specifications are written instructions II. Space-sharing solutions – convert crossing
detailing how the facility is to be constructed. conflicts into weaving conflicts
III. Grade-separation solutions – eliminate the
Estimates include cost estimates for various parts of crossing conflict by placing the conflicting traffic at
the project and are used to evaluate the acceptability different elevations at their point of intersection
of bids and the financial feasibility of the project.
Freeway interchanges are classified primarily
Plan View – This is a drawing of the facility as it would according to the way in which they handle left-turning
look to an observer directly above it. traffic.
[MAY 2022] Profile – This drawing has elevation as its I. Diamond interchanges – employ diamond ramps,
vertical axis, and horizontal distance, as measured which connect to the cross road by means of an at-
along the centerline of the facility, as its horizontal grade intersection.
axis. II. Cloverleaf intersections – employ loop ramps, in
which vehicles turn left by turning 270° to the right.
Geometric Cross Section – This view has elevation as its III. Direct interchanges – employ direct ramps, in
vertical axis and horizontal distance, measured which vehicles turn left by means of a left-turning
perpendicular to the centerline, as its horizontal axis. ramp that is grade-separated as it crosses both
traffic streams.
Superelevation diagram – This applies to curved
facilities, such as highways or railways, only. It Frontage roads – used to provide access to adjacent
consists of a graph with roadway or railway cross- property
slope versus horizontal distance.
Collector-distributor roads – used to intercept traffic
II. Geometric Design from local streets that do not cross the freeway.
[NOV 2017] The primary consideration in the design
of geometric cross sections for highways, runways,
and taxiways is drainage.

NOV 2022
Engr. J.A. Margallo
 EXcellence in Professional Engineering
Review and Training Solutions
REFRESHER | TERMS

III. Earthwork Longitudinal cracking – Cracks approximately parallel

to the pavement centerline. These are caused by
Wherever the existing ground is above the
poorly constructed construction joints and shrinkage
constructed section, the construction is said to involve
of the asphalt concrete surface; they may also be
cut or excavation.
reflective cracks.
Wherever the existing ground is below the
[NOV 2019] Raveling - Wearing away of the pavement
constructed section, the construction is said to involve
surface caused by the dislodging of aggregate particles
fill or embankment.
and binder. This is usually a result of insufficient
The points at which the cut or fill slopes intersect the asphalt binder in the mix or stripping of asphalt from
existing ground are referred to as catch points. particles of aggregate.

The points at which the cut or fill slopes intersect the Drip track raveling – Progressive disintegration of the
nearly horizontal roadway surface are referred to as surface between the wheel paths caused by dripping
hinge points. of gasoline or oil from vehicles.

Mass diagram – a graph of cumulative volume of Bleeding or flushing – The exuding of bitumen onto the
earthwork versus distance in stations from the pavement surface, causing reduction in skid
beginning of the job, in which cut is considered to be resistance.
positive and fill negative.
Concrete:
The longest distance material should ever be hauled is
Faulting – Elevation differences between adjacent
called the limit of economic haul.
slabs at transverse joints.
IV. Surfaces and Guideways
Settlement – Local sagging in the pavement caused by
Surface courses usually consist of asphalt or Portland differential settlement, consolidation, or movement of
cement concrete. the underlying earth mass.

Base courses normally consist of aggregates such as Blowups – Localized upward buckling and shattering
gravel and crushed rock of the slabs at transverse joints or cracks.

Subbases are usually local aggregate materials. They Joint or crack spalling – The breakdown or
may be consist of either unstabilized compacted disintegration of slab edges at joints or cracks, usually
aggregate or stabilized materials. resulting in the loss of sound concrete and the
progressive widening of the joint or crack.
The characteristics of the subgrade, subbase, and base
layers may be expressed in terms of a resilient modulus Surface attrition or surface abrasion – Abnormal
or a relative bearing capacity. surface wear, usually resulting from poor-quality
surface mortar or coarse aggregate
Asphalt:
Surface Polish – Loss of the original surface texture due
Alligator cracking – a series of interconnected or to traffic action.
interlaced cracks caused by fatigue failure of the
asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic [NOV 2018] The overall track structure typically
loading. consists of subgrade, ballast, ties, rails, and rail
fastening.
Block cracking – Cracks forming large interconnected
polygons, usually with sharp corners or angles. These The ballast rests on the subgrade. The ties are
cracks are generally caused by hardening and embedded in the ballast. The rails usually rest on tie
shrinkage of the asphalt and/or reflection cracking plates and are fastened to the ties by spikes.
from underlying layers such as cement-treated base.
Joint bars – used to fasten rails together longitudinally
[NOV 2019] Transverse cracking – Cracks
Gage bars – steel bars used to maintain gage (that is,
approximately at right angles to the pavement center-
horizontal separation between the rails) at critical
line. These may be caused by shrinkage or differential
locations such as curves and switches
thermal stress of the asphalt concrete, or may be
reflective cracks. Rail anchors – used to resist the longitudinal motion of
rails relative to ties.

NOV 2022
Engr. J.A. Margallo
 EXcellence in Professional Engineering
Review and Training Solutions
REFRESHER | TERMS

V. Mitigation of Environmental Impacts are served. This relationship is referred to as the

queue discipline.
In all but most routine cases, remediation will be
planned and carried out by specialized environmental VII. Traffic Flow
engineering firms. Remediation options include the
[MAY 2016] Flow is defined as the number of vehicles
following:
per unit time passing a point in space, and is usually
I. Landfilling – Contaminated material may be
expressed in vehicles per hour.
removed and places in an approved landfill.
II. Containment – This involves sealing off Volume is the number of vehicles counted in a
hazardous waste or contaminated soil by means of specified time interval.
capping, grout curtains, slurry walls, or sheet piles,
or encapsulation in concrete vaults or bridge Headways are measured between common points on
abutments successive vehicles.
III. Treatment – These include incineration, Time gaps are measure from the rear of one vehicle to
solidification or stabilization, bioremediation, and the front of the next.
vacuum extraction.
Density is defined as the number of vehicles per unit
VI. Traffic-Analysis Technique distance occupying a section of roadway at a given
[NOV 2019] Delay may be defined as the difference instant in time.
between the actual travel time on a given segment of a Occupancy is defined as the fraction of time that
transportation system and some ideal travel time for vehicles are present at a point in space.
that segment.
Models of traffic flow are often classified as
The difference between A(t) and D(t) represents microscopic or macroscopic.
aircraft that have arrived at the runway but have not I. Microscopic models describe the motion of
begun (or completed) their takeoffs. These line of individual vehicles and their interactions with one
aircraft waiting to be served is called a queue. another
From queuing diagram, it is possible to determine a II. Macroscopic models describe the relationships
number of interesting things: among speed, flow, and density.
I. The number of customers in queue at any given VIII. Capacity and Level of Service
time, or queue length
II. The delay to each customer, assuming the order Capacity is defined as the maximum number of
of service is the same as the order of arrival. vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit time, which
III. The summation of delay to all customers. can be accommodated under given conditions with a
IV. Given the density of the queue, the physical reasonable expectation of occurrence.
length of the queue, or the amount of space
[NOV 2017] A service volume is the maximum number
required for its storage.
of vehicles, passengers, or the like, which can be
[MAY 2022] Queueing diagrams have several accommodated by a given facility or system under
important properties: given conditions at a given level of service.
I. The slope of D(t) is the departure rate; the slope
The simplest rail capacity problem is that involving
of A(t) is the arrival rate.
rail rapid transit systems. These usually have the
II. The departure rate cannot exceed the service
following characteristics:
rate or capacity of the server. It may be less.
I. One-way operation
III. Cumulative departures can never exceed
II. A common speed profile for all trains. That is,
cumulative arrivals. D(t) can never be above A(t) in
each train traverses each section of track at the
the queueing diagram.
same speed as all other trains; consequently, trains
IV. When a queue is present, the departure rate will
do not overtake or pass one another.
equal the service rate. When no queue is present,
III. Common station dwell times. That is, each train
the departure rate will equal the arrival rate. The
spends the same amount of time stopped at each
queue first forms when arrival rate first exceeds
station as all other trains; dwell times may vary
the service rate.
from station to station
So far, no explicit consideration has been given to the IV. A fixed minimum front-to-back time gap
relationship between the order in which customers between trains.
arrive demanding service and the order in which they

NOV 2022
Engr. J.A. Margallo
 EXcellence in Professional Engineering
Review and Training Solutions
REFRESHER | TERMS

IX. Traffic Control II. Demand-capacity metering – intended to hold

flow downstream of a ramp to some specified
The red, yellow, or green light that is displayed to
target value.
drivers in a given movement is called an indication.
III. Gap-acceptance metering – attempts to detect
The time required for one complete sequence of signal acceptable gaps in traffic in the right-hand lane,
indications is called a cycle. project them downstream to the merge point, and
release the ramp vehicle so as to arrive at the merge
The discrete portion of a cycle during which the point at the same time as the gap.
indications do not change is called an interval.
Fixed-time systems – employing minimum cycles are
The portion of the cycle during which the movements usually sufficient for platoon-breakup metering
with the right-of-way do not change is called a phase.
Traffic-responsive systems – may respond to volumes
Signal coordination is the timing of signals in measured upstream of the ramp, occupancies
relationship to one another so that vehicles traveling measured upstream of the ramp, occupancies
at a predetermined speed can pass through the greens measured downstream of the ramp, or some
of successive signals. combination of these.
The speed at which vehicles are presumed to travel X. Transit Operations
through the coordinated signal system is known as the
speed of progression. Clearance time – the time spent in decelerating and
accelerating the vehicle and in opening and closing the
The space-time path intersecting the green at all doors
signals is called the through band.
Dwell time – the time spent loading and unloading
The time difference between beginning and end of the passengers
through band at any point is known as the band width.
Route schedules, or timetables, give the times that
The time difference between the beginnings of the successive bused pass points called time points.
greens at any two signals is known as the offset of the
cycle. Route schedules are most commonly constructed by
maintaining approximately uniform headways among
Single alternate system – In this system, each signal successive vehicles during periods of time known as
displays the phase opposite that of the adjacent schedule blocks.
signals; thus the pattern, looking down the street at
any instant of time, is red-green-red-green. Capacity headways – headways such that the vehicles
are just filled at the maximum load point on the route.
Double alternate system – In this system, phases at two
intersections are grouped together, so that the pattern Policy headways – arbitrarily determined maximum
is red-red-green-green-red-red. headways intended to represent the minimum
acceptable standard for frequency of service.
Triple alternate system – It groups three intersections
and produce a pattern of red-red-red-green-green-
green
The best established form of freeway traffic control is
ramp metering.
Objectives of ramp metering
I. Minimization of delay and congestion
II. Improved safety
II. Smoother traffic flow
Classification of ramp metering:
I. Platoon breakup metering – intended to smooth
the merge maneuver by breaking up platoons of
vehicles discharged by signals at the head of
diamond ramps.

NOV 2022
Engr. J.A. Margallo