Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

1. Steady State heat transfer

2. Unsteady state / transient heat
transfer
The term steady implies no
change with time at any point
within the medium, while
transient implies variation with
time or time dependence.

1
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
one-dimensional, two dimensional, or three-
dimensional heat transfer –

In one-dimensional heat transfer - if the temperature

in the medium varies in one direction only and thus
heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation
of temperature and thus heat transfer in other
directions are negligible or zero (the direction normal
to the surface of the glass).

Heat transfer through a hot water pipe can be

considered to be one dimensional.
2
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
The temperature in a medium, in some cases,
varies mainly in two primary directions, and the
variation of temperature in the third direction
(and thus heat transfer in that direction) is
negligible.
A heat transfer problem in that case is said to be
two-dimensional.
In the most general case, heat transfer through a
medium is three-dimensional.
Temperature in a medium varies in all three
directions.
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 HEAT GENERATION

A medium through which heat is conducted may involve the

conversion of electrical, nuclear, or chemical energy into heat (or
thermal) energy. In heat conduction analysis, such conversion
processes are characterized as heat generation.
Lap tops, PC, Nuclear Reactors, Chemical reactions [Exothermic
(heat source)and endothermic (heat sink].

The heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.

It occurs throughout the body of a medium. Therefore, the rate of heat
generation in a medium is usually specified per unit volume and is
denoted by 𝑞ሶ , whose unit is W/m3.
4
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION:
Cartesian coordinate system.

5
Consider a small rectangular element of length dx, width dy, and height dz, as shown in Figure in a
medium in which temperature is varying with time and position. Assume the density of the body is ρ
and the specific heat is C.
An energy balance on this element during a small time interval t can be expressed as

As per first law of thermodynamics- Energy Balance equation

𝑑 𝐸𝑠𝑡
Ein – Eout + E g =
𝑑𝑡

Rate of
Rate of heat change
Rate of heat Rate of heat of
conduction
conduction at − generation
x, y, and z
at x + dx, + inside the = energy
y + dy, and content
element of the
z + dz
element

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 𝑑 𝐸𝑠𝑡 ∆𝐸
Q x – Q x+dx + Q g = =
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡
Rate of heat conduction in x direction through face ABCD

𝜕𝑇
𝑄 𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑥 𝐴 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇
𝑄 𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 , 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Rate of heat conduction in x direction through face EFGH
𝜕𝑄 𝑥
Q x+ dx = Q x + dx
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
= −𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 + (−𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ) dx
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
= −𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 - 𝜕𝑥(𝑘 𝑥 ) dx dy dz
𝜕𝑥

Net rate of heat flow by conduction in x – direction

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑄 𝑥 - Q x+ dx = −𝑘 𝑥 𝐴 - (−𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 - 𝜕𝑥(𝑘 𝑥 ) dx dy dz )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕𝑇
= 𝜕𝑥(𝑘 𝑥 𝜕𝑥) dx dy dz (1)
Similarly in y and z- direction

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑄 𝑦 - Q y+ dy = 𝜕𝑦(𝑘 𝑦 ) dx dy dz (2) 𝑄 𝑧 - Q z+ dz = 𝜕𝑧(𝑘 𝑧 ) dx dy dz (3)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
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 Net heat conducted in the element in per unit time :

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
= 𝜕𝑥(𝑘 𝑥 ) dx dy dz + 𝜕𝑦(𝑘 𝑦 ) dx dy dz + 𝜕𝑧(𝑘 𝑧 ) dx dy dz (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

The volume of the element is V = dxdydz,

the rate of heat generation within the element can be expressed as
Q g = qg dx dy dz (5)
the change in the internal energy content of the element over a period of time dt =
mC(∇𝑇)
𝜕𝑇
E st = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝐶 ( )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇
Rate of change of internal energy = 𝜌𝐶( )𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (6)
𝜕𝑡
From equation (4), (5) and (6)
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
(𝑘 𝑥 ) dx dy dz + (𝑘 𝑦 ) dx dy dz + (𝑘 𝑧 ) dx dy dz + qg dx dy dz =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝐶( )𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥
(𝑘 𝑥 𝜕𝑥
) + 𝜕𝑦(𝑘 𝑦 𝜕𝑦
) + 𝜕𝑧(𝑘 𝑧 𝜕𝑧
) + qg = 𝜌𝐶( 𝜕𝑡 )

General form of heat conduction differential equation in Cartesian coordinates.

8
1. For uniform thermal conductivity or isotropic material
𝑘𝑥=𝑘𝑦=𝑘𝑧=𝑘

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
k [ 2 + 2 + 2 ] + q = 𝜌𝐶( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑇
2 + 2 + 2 + = 𝑘 ( 𝜕𝑡 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
2 + 2+ 2+ = ( ) Fourier – Biot equation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Using the vector operator

𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
∇2 T+ = ( )
𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

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2. For steady State –
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞
+ + + =0 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘

𝑞
∇2 T + = 0
𝑘
3. Transient, no heat generation ,
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
+ 2+ 2 = ( ) Diffusion Equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
2 1 𝜕𝑇
∇ T= ( )
𝛼 𝜕𝑡

4. Steady state , no heat generation

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
+ + =0 Laplace equation
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

∇2 T = 0
5. Steady state, no heat generation , one dimensional heat flow

𝜕2 𝑇
= 0 The governing equation of the temperature distribution under unsteady heat
𝜕𝑥 2 10
Heat conduction in a long cylinder

1-D heat conduction

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Heat Conduction equation in a sphere

1-D heat conduction

12
Combined One-Dimensional Heat
Conduction Equation

where n =0 for a plane wall, n =1 for a cylinder, and n= 2 for a sphere. In the case of a plane wall,
it is customary to replace the variable r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat generation cases as described before.

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 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
1. Boundary conditions are the conditions at the surfaces of a body.
2. The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries are
called the boundary conditions.
3. Initial conditions are the conditions at time t= 0.
4. Boundary and initial conditions are needed to solve the governing equation
for a specific physical situation.
5. for 1-D problem – 2 Boundary conditions
2-D problem – 4 Boundary conditions
3-D problem – 6 Boundary conditions
These conditions may be time dependent or independent.

A condition, which is usually specified at time t= 0, is called the initial condition,

which is a mathematical expression for the temperature distribution of the
medium initially.
we need only one initial condition for a heat conduction problem regardless of
the dimension since the conduction equation is first order in time (it involves
the first derivative of temperature with respect to time). 14
Initial Condition –
• A condition, which is usually specified at time t= 0, is called the initial
condition, which is a mathematical expression for the temperature distribution
of the medium initially.
• we need only one initial condition for a heat conduction problem regardless of
the dimension since the conduction equation is first order in time (it involves
the first derivative of temperature with respect to time).
In rectangular coordinates, the initial condition can be specified in the general
form as
T(x, y, z, 0)= f(x, y, z)
where the function f(x, y, z) represents the temperature distribution throughout
the medium at time t= 0.
When the medium is initially at a uniform temperature of Ti , the initial condition
of , T(x, y, z, 0) = Ti
Note that under steady conditions, the heat conduction equation does not involve
any time derivatives, and thus we do not need to specify an initial condition.

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 Types of Boundary conditions:
One of the following three types of heat transfer boundary
conditions typically exists on a surface:
(a)Prescribed surface temperature/ specified temperature
boundary condition ( Dirichlet )
(b)Prescribed Heat flux boundary condition (Newmann)
(c) Convective boundary condition

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1. Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

Plane wall
For one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane
wall of thickness L.
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2

where T1 and T2 are the specified temperatures at surfaces at x = 0

and x = L, respectively.

17
2 Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition / Prescribed heat flux boundary
condition

A certain heat flux is incident

normally on a surface. We can
assume that this energy is
absorbed and then conducted
inside the body.
Exp – Electrically heated surface.

W/m2

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 Special Case: Insulated Boundary

• In order to minimize the loss through surfaces

some surfaces are commonly insulated.
• Insulation reduces heat transfer but does not
totally eliminate it unless its thickness is infinity.
• However, heat transfer through a properly
insulated surface can be taken to be zero since
adequate insulation reduces heat transfer through
a surface to negligible levels.
• Therefore, a well-insulated surface can be OR
modeled as a surface with a specified heat flux of
zero. Then the boundary condition on a perfectly
insulated surface(at x =0, for example) can be
expressed as in Fig. 19
 Another Special Case: Thermal Symmetry

• Some heat transfer problems possess thermal

symmetry as a result of the symmetry in imposed
thermal conditions.
• For example, the two surfaces of a large hot plate of
thickness L suspended vertically in air is subjected
to the same thermal conditions, and thus the
temperature distribution in one half of the plate is
the same as that in the other half.
• The heat transfer problem in this plate possesses
thermal symmetry about the center plane at x = L/2.
• Therefore, the center plane can be seen as an
insulated surface, and the thermal condition at this
plane of symmetry can be expressed as

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 3. Convection Boundary Condition

Heat conduction at the surface in a

selected direction =Heat convection
at the surface in the same direction
For one-dimensional heat transfer in
the x-direction in a plate of thickness
L, the convection boundary conditions
on both surfaces can be expressed as

AND

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 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL

Consider a plane wall of homogeneous

material through which heat is flowing in
x- direction only.
Let
L = Thickness of the plane wall
A = Cross-sectional area of the wall
K= Thermal conductivity
t1 , t2 = Temperatures maintained at the
two faces 1 and 2 of the wall.

22
 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL

The general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates is

given by;

If the heat conduction takes place under the conditions, steady state
𝜕𝑡
( = 0 ), One dimensional
𝜕τ

No internal heat generation ================

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 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL

The above equation reduces to:

Where C1 and C2 are the arbitrary constants. The values of these

constants may be calculated from the known boundary conditions as
follows:

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HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL

𝑇2−𝑇1
T=( ) 𝑥 + 𝑇1
𝐿
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2−𝑇1
= ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑇2−𝑇1
Q = -kA ( 𝐿 )
Q = kA ( T1 – T2 ) / L
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 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

Consider the transmission of heat

through a composite wall consisting of
a number of slabs.
Let, LA, LB, LC = Thickness of slabs
A, B and C respectively ( Also called
Path lengths)
KA, KB, KC = Thermal
conductivity of the slabs A, B, C
respectively.
t1 , t4 (t1 > t4 ) = Temperature at
the wall surfaces 1 and 4 respectively,
t2 , t3 = Temperature at the interfaces 2
and 3 respectively.
26
 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through

each slab/layer is same, we have

Assuming that there is perfect contact between the layers and no

temperatures drop occurs across the interface between the materials.

27
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

Rearranging the above equation we get:

Adding (1), (2) and (3) we get
(1)

(2)

(3)

28
 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

OR

If the composite
wall has n slabs

29
 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

In order to solve complex problems involving both series and

parallel resistances, The electrical analogy may be used.

30
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

31
1.Consider a large plane wall of thickness L 0.2 m, thermal
conductivity k 1.2 W/m · °C, and surface area A 15 m2. The two sides
of the wall are maintained at constant temperatures of T1 120°C and
T2 50°C, respectively, as shown in Figure . Determine (a) the
variation of temperature within the wall and the value of temperature
at x =0.1 m and (b) the rate of heat conduction through the wall under
steady conditions.

32
2. Find the heat flow rate through the composite wall as
shown in fig. Assume one dimensional flow.
KA= 150 w/m˚C KB= 30 w/m˚C KC= 65 w/m˚C and KD=
50 w/m˚C (MU 2000)

33
The thermal circuit for heat flow in the given composite system
has been illustrated in the fig.

34
35
36
 Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder

Consider a hollow
cylinder made of
material with
constant thermal
conductivity.

37
Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder

38
Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder

39
40
 Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder
(i)The temperature distribution is logarithmic (Not linear as in the
case of plane wall).
(ii)Temperature at any point in the cylinder can be expressed as a
function of radius only.
(iii) Isotherms (or lines of constant temperatures) are then concentric
circles lying between the inner and outer boundaries of the hollow
cylinder.
(iv)The temperature profile is nearly linear for values of (r2/r1) of the
order of unity, but decidedly non – linear for large values of (r2/r1).

41
Heat Transfer through cylinder -

42
3. An insulated steam pipe having outside diameter of 30mm
is to be covered with two layers of insulation, each having
thickness of 20 mm. The thermal conductivity of one material
is 5 times that of the other.
Assuming that the inner and outer surface temperatures of
composite insulation are fixed, how much will heat transfer be
increased when better insulation material is next to the pipe
than it is outer layer?

43
Case 1

44
 Case 1: When better insulation is inside

Heat lost through the pipe is given by:

45
Case 2: When better insulation is outside

46
47
Heat conduction through a hollow sphere

48
Heat conduction through a hollow sphere

49