Learning Theories- Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning
The concept of classical conditioning was developed by a
Russian physiologist, Ivan
Pavlov (1849-1936). According to Papalia, Feldman, &
Olds, they define the classical
conditioning as: Classical conditioning is a type of
learning which based on the association of stimulus that
does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with
another stimulus that does elicit the response -(Papalia,
Feldman & Olds, 2007)
Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
There are 3 common phenomena in classical conditioning,
From the definition above, we understand that the key
they are generalization, discrimination, and extinction.
element in classical conditioning is
The descriptions for these phenomena are explained
association. It means that if two stimuli repeatedly
below.
experienced together, they will become
associated. For example, if a student frequently encounters
 Generalization- Generalization occurs when similar
unpleasant stimuli in
stimuli to a CS produce the CR. A student may
Mathematics class such as unfriendly teachers, difficult
generalize his fear to physics and chemistry tests
questions, and a lot of homework,
although he had performed poorly only on
he may learn to dislike Mathematics.
mathematics test. In this case, the physics and
chemistry tests were similar stimuli to the
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by
mathematics test and they produced the CR by
accident. Originally, he wanted to study the role of
themselves.
salivation in digestion. He measured how much saliva
 Discrimination- Discrimination is the opposite of
dogs produce when given meat. After a few days in the
generalization. It refers to the ability to differentiate
experiment,Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his laboratory
between similar stimuli. For example, a student may
started salivating when the lab attendant entered the room
feel fear during mathematics test but not during
with the meat dish, before meat was placed in their mouth.
physics or chemistry tests. This shows that the
This aroused Pavlov’s curiosity and he pursued the issue
student is able to discriminate between appropriate
with more experiments. For example, he sounded a bell
and in appropriate situations for a response.
just before presenting his dogs with food. After hearing
 Extinction- is the process of unlearning a learned
the bell many times right before getting fed, the dogs
response because of the removal of the original
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. In other word,
source of learning. In classical conditioning,
the dogs
extinction is done by repeatedly presenting the CS
had been conditioned to salivate in response to a new
without the US. This action will decrease the
stimulus (the bell) that normally would not produce
frequency of previously CR. Eventually, the CR
salivation. The dogs had learned to associate the bell with
disappears. In the example mentioned above, if the
food.
student repeatedly passes the mathematics tests, his
fear of mathematics tests will disappear.
Types of stimulus and response
Remember from Chapter 1 that a stimulus is an observable
Operant Conditioning
environmental event that has a potential to exert control
Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning
over a behavioural response. A response is an over
in which the consequences of behaviour lead to changes in
behaviour by a learner. Put it in a simpler way, a stimulus
the probability that the behaviour will occur. Thorndike
is anything that can directly influence behaviour and the
(1874-1949) was the pioneer in studying this kind of
stimulus produces a response.
learning. His famous formulation of Law of Effect lies at
In classical conditioning, there are 2 types of stimulus and
the heart of the operant conditioning. The Law of Effect
2 types of response. They are
states that: “Behavior that brings about a satisfying effect
unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus,
(reinforcement) is apt to be performed again, whereas
unconditioned response, and conditioned
behaviorthat brings about negative effect (punishment) is
response as explained in figure 4.1.
apt to be suppressed.” -(Morris & Maisto, 2001)

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the  A behavior is reinforced after a set number of
probability that a behaviour will occur. On responses have occurred.
the other hand, punishment is a consequence that  For example: A student may be given a bar of Kit
decreases the probability a behaviour will Kat chocolate for every ten mathematical problems
occur. Put it another way, reinforcement will strengthen a solved.
behaviour while punishment will Variable-ratio schedule fixed
weaken a behaviour. There are 2 forms of reinforcement  On a variable-ratio schedule, the number of responses
and punishment as shown in figure needed to gain the reinforcement is not constant.
4.3.  For example: Rewards could be given after 3, 5, 9,
and 15 mathematical problems solved.
Fixed-interval schedule
 A behavior will be reinforced after a certain period of
time. No matter how often it occurs, the behavior will
not be reinforced until the time is up.
 For example: Students are given a quiz every
Wednesday.
Variable-interval schedule
 Also based on time passing but the time period keep
changing.
 For example: Students are given pop quizzes.
Take note that when something is added or presented, the
process of learning is called positive and when something Danger in Punishment
is removed or taken away, the process of learning is called Punishment presents the fastest way to changing
negative. Table 4.1 helps us to understand these forms of behaviour. However, punishment might be dangerous to
reinforcement and punishment. an individual.

Among of the effect of punishments are:

• Punishment can be abusive.
- For example, a teacher might become so aroused when
he is punishing a student that he becomes abusive.
• Punishment may create a new problem, that is
aggression.
- Students commonly react to physical punishment by
learning to dislike the punisher
and perhaps by reacting aggressively toward that person.
Thus, punishment does not convey any information about
what an alternative and more appropriate behaviour might
be. It may suppress one inappropriate behaviour only to be
replaced by another one. Punishment can turn out to be
reinforcing. A student might learn that misbehaving will
get the teacher’s attention.
Schedule of Reinforcement
Reinforces are more effective when they are given as soon As a conclusion, punishment should be used only as the
as possible after a student performs the target behaviour. last option. Do not use positive physical punishment. Use
In continuous reinforcement like this, a student learns very negative punishment, instead. A teacher should first
rapidly but when the reinforcement stops, the behaviour positively reinforced appropriate behaviours to take place
decreases rapidly too. Therefore, the schedule of of the inappropriate behaviours he is trying to eliminate.
reinforcement was developed. The schedule will
determine when a behaviour will be reinforced. There are Social Learning Theory
4 types of schedule of reinforcement, they are fixed-ratio Social learning theory extends behaviourism. Both
schedule, variable-ratio schedule fixed, fixed-interval behaviourism and social learning theory agree that
schedule, and variable-internal schedule. Look at Figure experience is an important cause of learning. They also
4.4 to understand the meaning of these schedules. include the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in
their explanation of behaviour. Furthermore, they agree
Fixed-ratio schedule that feedback is important in promoting learning (Eggen
and Kaucak, 2007).
Observational Learning
Most of the principles of the social learning theory were
developed by Bandura (Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2007).
Social learning theory believes that students learn by
observing or watching and imitating other people. This
process is called modelling or observational learning.
According to Hinrichs,”Observational learning is so
common and so powerful”

The newer version of social learning theory is called the

social cognitive theory. The change is due to a greater
emphasis on cognitive processes in learning. Behaviour, environment and person factors interact to
According to Bandura; “both social and cognitive factors influence learning. They influence and are influenced by
play important roles in learning.” each other. For example, a teacher’s
feedback(environment) can lead students to set higher
There are 4 processes involved in observational learning. goals(person/cognitive) and these goals will motivate
These include attention, retention, students to put more efforts (behaviour) in their studies.
production, and motivation as explained in figure 4.6.
Behaviourism in the Classroom
Process 1- Attention This section describes how teachers can apply the
Before students can imitate a model’s behavior, they must principles of behaviourism in the classroom. It is divided
pay attention to what the model into three subsections according to the perspectives
is doing or saying. For example, seeing a teacher writing discussed earlier that are classical conditioning, operant
from the same perspective as the student see their own conditioning and social learning theory.
makes observational learning easier.
Process 2- Retention Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classroom
To produce a model’s action, students must be able to The key element in classical conditioning is association.
store the model’s action in their memory for future Therefore, teachers are encouraged to associate variety of
retrieval. Students’ retention will be improved when a positive and pleasant events with learning and classroom
teacher gives vivid, logical, and clear demonstrations. activities. For example, a teacher may:
Process 3- Production  Use attractive learning aids.
To attending and remembering, students must be  Decorate the classrooms.
physically capable of reproducing the model’s action.  Encourage students to work in small groups for
Here, the students need a lot of practice, feedback, and difficult learning tasks.
coaching before they can reproduce the model’s action.  Greet the students and smile at them when he comes
to the classroom.
Process 4 - Motivation  Inform the students clearly and specifically the
The students must be motivated to demonstrate the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations.
model’s action. Reinforcement can be use to encourage  Make the students understand the rules of the
observational learning. For example, a teacher can use classrooms.
direct reinforcement such as saying “Good work!”  Give ample time for students to prepare for and
Alternatively, a teacher may want to use vicarious complete the learning tasks.
reinforcement. In this case, a student may simply see other
students being reinforced for a particular behavior and Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom
then he increases his own production of that behavior. In operant conditioning, the consequences of behaviour
produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will
Reciprocal Determination Model occur. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main
Bandura developed a reciprocal determination model that concepts in operant conditioning. The following are some
comprises 3 factors. The factors are behaviour, person, examples on how operant conditioning can be applied in
and environment as shown on Figure 4.7. the classrooms.
 Recognize and reinforce positive behaviors and
genuine task accomplishments.
 Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher
approval (praise, smiles, attention, and pats on the
shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies, candies,
 and stationeries) and privileges (longer recess time ordinarily elicit a particular response with another
and more time with friends). stimulus that
 Reinforce good behaviors and punish bad ones  does elicit the response.
consistently.  Conditioned stimulus (CS)- Stimulus that acquired
 Use schedule of reinforcement, such as surprise the ability to produce the response because it was
rewards, to encourage persistence. paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
 Use positive punishment as the last option. Use  Conditioned response (CR)- Response that is similar
negative punishment, such as detention class, instead. to UCR but is produced by the conditioned stimulus.
 Punish students’ behavior, not their personal  Continuous reinforcement- On continuous
qualities. reinforcement, reinforcers are given as soon as
 Tell the students which behavior is being punished. possible after the person performs the target behavior.
 Discrimination- The ability to differentiate between
Applying the Social Learning Theory in the Classroom similar stimuli.
The social learning theory focuses on how people learn by  Extinction- Process of unlearning a learned response
observing and imitating others. because of the removal of the original source of
learning.
To motivate learning using this approach, a teacher may:  Fixed-interval- In a case of a fixed-interval schedule,
a behavior will be reinforced after a certain period of
 Use high-achieving and successful peers as models. time.
 Model positive behaviors himself.  Fixed-ratio- On a fixed-ratio schedule, a behavior is
 Use vicarious reinforcement, that is, make sure reinforced after a set number of responses have
students see that positive behaviors will lead to occurred.
positive consequences.  Generalization- Process that occurs when similar
 Demonstrate and teach good behaviors. stimuli to a CS produce the CR.
 Law of Effect- Thorndike’s Law states that behavior
SUMMARY that brings about a satisfying effect (reinforcement) is
• The key element in classical conditioning is association. apt to be performed again, whereas behavior that
• In classical conditioning, there are two types of stimulus brings about negative effect (punishment) is apt to be
(unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus) and suppressed.
two types of response (unconditioned response and  Negative punishment- Removing something pleasant
conditioned response). will decrease behavior occurrences.
• Three common phenomena in classical conditioning are  Negative reinforcement- Removing something
generalization, discrimination, and extinction. unpleasant will increase behavior occurrences.
• Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of  Positive punishment- Receiving something
learning in which the consequences of behaviour lead to unpleasant will decrease behavior occurrences.
changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur.  Positive reinforcement- Receiving something pleasant
• Reinforcement will strengthen a behaviour while will increase behavior occurrences.
punishment will weaken a behaviour.  Reciprocal determination model- Bandura’s model
• In continuous reinforcement, reinforces are given as that states that behavior, environment and person
soon as possible after the target behaviour is performed. In factors interact to influence learning.
contrast, the schedule of reinforcement determines when a  Social learning- Social learning theory believes that
behaviour will be reinforced. students learn by observing or watching and imitating
• Punishment presents the fastest way to changing other people.
behaviour but it might be dangerous to an individual.  Unconditioned response (UCR)- Unlearned or inborn
• Social learning theory believes that students learn by reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
observing or watching and imitating other people.  Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- Stimulus that can
• The four processes in observational learning are produce the response without any learning.
attention, retention, production, and motivation.  Variable-internal-A variable-internal schedule is also
• Bandura’s reciprocal determination model states that based on time passing but the time period keep
behaviour, environment and person factors interact to changing.
influence learning.  Variable-ratio- On a variable-ratio schedule, the
number of responses needed to gain reinforcement is
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS not constant.
 Classical conditioning- Type of learning which based
on the association of a stimulus that does not Review and Discussion Questions
1. Of the following, a behaviorist is most likely to study D. instrumental conditioning
__________. 10. Who discovered operant conditioning?
A. hormone A. extinction
B. animal learning B. generalization
C. memory strategy C. discrimination
D. unconscious mind D. conditioned stimulus
2. A dog’s salivation to the meat in Pavlov’s experiment 11. The terms “positive” and “negative” in both
was the __________. reinforcement and punishment refer to
A. conditioned stimulus (CS) whether __________.
B. conditioned response (CR) A. the behavior is good or bad
C. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) B. the behavior increases or decreases
D. unconditioned response (UCR) C. something is presented or removed
3. Which response did Pavlov measure in most of his D. reinforcement or punishment is larger or smaller than
experiments? expected
A. fear 12. Adham receives a reward from his English teacher
B. salivation after a certain number of
C. eye blinking compositions submitted. Sometimes five compositions are
D. pressing a lever necessary, sometimes two, and sometimes eight. This is an
4. In Pavlov’s experiment the __________ was similar to example of __________ schedule of reinforcements.
the _________. A. fixed-ratio
A. CS; CR B. variable-ratio
B. CR; UCR C. fixed-interval
C. UCS; UCR D. variable-internal
D. US; UCS 13. An unpleasant stimulus is presented to decrease the
5. In classical conditioning, the opposite of acquisition is frequency of a behavior. This
__________. statement refers to the definition of __________.
A. extinction A. positive punishment
B. generalization B. negative punishment
C. discrimination C. positive reinforcement
D. conditioned stimulus D. negative reinforcement
6. How does a teacher produce extinction in classical 14. An unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the
conditioning? frequency of a behavior. This
A. Punish all responses. statement refers to the definition of __________.
B. Present the CS without the UCS. A. positive punishment
C. Present the UCS without the CS. B. negative punishment
D. Present the UCS without the UCR. C. positive reinforcement
7. Children often learn by watching television. This type D. negative reinforcement
of learning is called __________. 15. A pleasant stimulus is presented to increase the
A. the Law of Effect frequency of a behavior. This
B. observational learning statement refers to the definition of __________.
C. positive reinforcement A. positive punishment
D. reciprocal determination B. negative punishment
8. A teacher has decided to give several unannounced C. positive reinforcement
quizzes throughout the month of July. D. negative reinforcement
He is attempting to use the _________ schedule of 16. A pleasant stimulus is removed to decrease the
reinforcements. frequency of a behavior. This
A. fixed-ratio statement refers to the definition of __________.
B. variable-ratio A. positive punishment
C. fixed-interval B. negative punishment
D. variable-internal C. positive reinforcement
9. The form of learning in which the consequences of D. negative reinforcement
behavior lead to changes in 17. Cookies, candies, and stationeries are examples of
probability of its occurrence is known as __________. __________.
A. the Law of Effect A. privileges
B. social learning B. primary reinforces
C. classical conditioning C. concrete reinforcement
D. vicarious reinforcement
18. Water and food are examples of __________.
A. learned reinforces
B. primary reinforces
C. concrete reinforcement
D. vicarious reinforcement
19. Which of the following is not a part of social learning
theory?
A. Imitation
B. Observation
C. Trial and error
D. Vicarious reinforcement
20. According to the social learning theory, what people
do is largely based on __________.
A. imitation
B. reinforcement
C. punishment
D. the Law of Effect