Microelectronic Circuits

Instructor : Shuenn-Yuh Lee

Department of Electrical Engineering
National Cheng Kung University
Office : 92512 TEL : (06)2757575-62323, BP : 0921565137
Table of Content :
1. Operational amplifiers (2)
2. Building blocks of integrated-circuit amplifiers (7)
3. Differential Amplifier and Multistage Amplifier (8)
4. Frequency Response (9)
5. Feedback (10)
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• Title: red:上課、Blue:補充、black:自修、grey:忽略 補課:星期四晚上
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 1 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Operational Amplifiers (OPAMPs)
• 2.1 Ideal OPAMP
• 2.2 The inverting configuration
• 2.3 The non-inverting configuration
• 2.4 Difference amplifiers
• 2.5 Integrators and differentiators
• 2.6 DC imperfections
• 2.7 Effect of finite open-loop gain and bandwidth on
circuit performance
• 2.8 Large-signal operation of OPAMPs

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 2 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Operational Amplifiers
• Applications were initially in the areas of analog computation
and instrumentation
– One of the reasons for the popularity of the op amp is its versatility
– Op amp circuits work at levels that are quite close to their predicted
theoretical performance
– Treat the op amp as a circuit building block and study its terminal
characteristics and its application
• The op amp terminals
– Circuit symbol (3 terminals) – Shown connected to dc power supplies
(5 terminals)
1 V+
3
2 4 4
1 1 VCC
3 3
2 2
Other terminals for specific purpose, including
VEE
terminals for frequency compensation and 5 5
terminals for offset nulling
V-
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 3 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 2.1 Ideal Op Amp
• Equivalent circuit Inverting
Inverting input
input

– Not supposed to draw any input current 1

- Output
Output
That is Rin1(Rin2 )→∞ v11 i11=0
A(v2-v1) 3
– The output terminal (3) is supposed to act
as the ideal voltage source 2 (Power-supply
(Power-supply
+ common
common terminal)
terminal)
That is Rout3→0 v22 i22=0
在這裡鍵入方程式。

– The output is in phase with (same sign) v2 Noninverting

Noninverting input
input

and out of phase (negative sign) with v1

– Input terminal 1 : called inverting input terminal (- sign)
– Input terminal 2 : called noninverting input terminal (+ sign)
– The op amp responds only to the difference signal v2-v1 and hence
ignore any signal common to both inputs
That is if v1=v2=1V, v3=0 : called common-mode rejection
– Ideal op amp has infinite common-mode rejection
– The op amp is a differential-input, single-ended-output amplifier
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 4 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Ideal Op Amp (Cont.)
– Gain A is called the differential gain (or open-loop gain)
– An important characteristic of op amps is that they are direct-couple
devices or dc amplifiers, where dc stands for direct-coupled (amplifies
signals whose frequency is as low as zero)
• How about bandwidth ?
– The ideal op amp has a gain A that remains constant down to zero
frequency and up to infinite frequency
• 2.1 What is the minimum number of terminals required by a single op amp? What is
the minimum number of terminals required on an integrated-circuit package
containing four op amps ? (5, 3x4+2=14)

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 5 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp
• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output impedance
• Zero common-mode gain or, equivalently, infinite common-
mode rejection
• Infinite open-loop gain A
• Infinite bandwidth
vId = v2 − v1

vIcm = (v2 + v1 )
1
2
v1 = vIcm − vId / 2
v2 = vIcm + vId / 2

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 6 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.2 Consider an op amp that is ideal except that its open-loop gain A=103, The op
amp is used in a feedback circuit and the voltages appearing at two of its three signal
terminals are measured. In each of the following cases, use the measured values to
find the expected value of the voltage at the third terminals. Also give the differential
and common-mode input signals in each case. (a) v2=0V and v3=4V; (b) v2=+2V and
v3=-10V; (c) v1=2.002V and v2=1.998V; (d) v1=-1.2V and v3=-1.2V;
• Solution:
(a) 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣3 = −0.00𝟒𝟒𝑉𝑉,
1
• -
2 1 3 1 2
𝐴𝐴 v1 i1=0
3
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝟒𝟒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 A(v2-v1)
𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 /2 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = −𝟒𝟒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝟒𝟒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/2 = −𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 (Power-supply
+ common terminal)
v2 i2=0

• (b) −10
𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣3 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣1 = +𝟐𝟐𝑉𝑉 − = +𝟐𝟐. 01𝑉𝑉,
103
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 = +𝟐𝟐𝑉𝑉 − 𝟐𝟐. 01𝑉𝑉 = −10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 /2 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = +𝟐𝟐. 01𝑉𝑉 − 10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/2 = +𝟐𝟐. 005𝑉𝑉

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 7 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.2 Consider an op amp that is ideal except that its open-loop gain A=103, The op
amp is used in a feedback circuit and the voltages appearing at two of its three signal
terminals are measured. In each of the following cases, use the measured values to
find the expected value of the voltage at the third terminals. Also give the differential
and common-mode input signals in each case. (a) v2=0V and v3=4V; (b) v2=+2V and
v3=-10V; (c) v1=2.002V and v2=1.998V; (d) v1=-1.2V and v3=-1.2V;
• Solution: 1
-
v1 i1=0
• (c) 3
𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣3 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣3 = 103 𝟏𝟏. 998 − 𝟐𝟐. 002 = −4𝑉𝑉, A(v2-v1)

𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝟏𝟏. 998 − 𝟐𝟐. 002 = −4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 (Power-supply

+
𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 /2 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝟐𝟐. 002 − 4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/2 = 𝟐𝟐𝑉𝑉 v2
common terminal)
i2=0

𝑣𝑣3 −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐
• (d) 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣3 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑣1 + = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 + = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐0𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴 103
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐0𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑉𝑉 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝑉𝑉 − = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐0𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎V
2 2

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 8 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.3 The internal circuit of a particular op amp can be modeled by the circuit shown in
Fig. E2.3. Express v3 as a function of v1 and v2. For the case Gm=20 mA/V, R=5 kΩ,
and µ=50, find the value of the open-loop gain A.

𝑣𝑣3 = 𝜇𝜇𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 = 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 = 𝜇𝜇 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣1 𝑅𝑅

= 𝜇𝜇 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣1
⇒ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜇𝜇𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟐𝟐0 × 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟓𝟓000

IR

(20 log 𝐴𝐴 = 20𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝟓𝟓000 = 20 log(𝟓𝟓×1 0𝟑𝟑 ) = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 9 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 2.2 Inverting Configuration
• The inverting closed-loop configuration i2 = i1 R2

– Speak of R2 as applying negative feedback i1 R1 0

vo 1 3
A A
– If R2 were connected between terminals 3 and 2 VI
2 vo

we would have called this positive feedback

vO
• The closed-loop gain (G) G≡
A(v2 − v1 ) = vO ⇒ v2 − v1 =
vO
vI ≈ 0 ⇒ v2 ≈ v1
i2 = i1
R2 A
The two input terminals “tracking each
other in potential”
⇒Virtual short circuit means that
whatever voltage is at 2 will automatically
i1 R1 1 appear at 1 because of the infinite gain A
0
vI
3 ⇒V2=0 and v1≈0 called virtual ground
v2-v1
A(v2-v1) vI − v1 vI
i1 = ≈
vo
2
R1 R1
I1 will have to flow through R2 to the low-
impedance terminal 3
v v R
vO = v1 − i1 R2 = 0 − I R2 ⇒ O = − 2
(a) R1 vI R1
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 10 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Inverting Configuration (Cont.)
– Illustrates these analysis step
vI
i2 = i1=
R1 R2

vI
i 1=
R1 R1 0

0V
vI vI
vo = 0 -
R1 R2

vI=0 (Virtual ground) vI

vo = -
R1 R2

(b)

– Because of the minus sign associated with the closed-loop gain, this
configuration is called the inverting configuration
– We can make the closed-loop gain as accurate as we want by selecting
passive components of appropriate accuracy

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 11 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain
• Analysis of the inverting configuration taking into account the
finite open-loop gain of the op amp v − v = vA ⇒ v = − vA + v = − vA
2 1
O
1
O
2
O

i2 = i1 R2
vI − (− vO / A) vI + vO / A
i1 = =
R1 R1
i1 R1 0
vO v v +v / A
vo 1 vO = − − i1 R2 = − O −  I O  R2
A A A A  R1 
VI
2 vo v − R2 / R1
G≡ O = ⇒ G = − R2 / R1
vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A
1 + R2 / R1 << A

• Input and output resistances

vI vI
Ri ≡ = = R1 Ri ↑⇒G constant⇒ R2 ↑⇒ impractically large
i1 vI / R1
⇒ The inverting configuration suffers from a low input resistance
Ro = 0

• Equivalent circuit model of R2

vI Ri=R1 v
R1 I
the inverting-amplifier
R o= 0

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 12 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.1
• Consider the inverting configuration with R1=1kΩ and R2=100kΩ
(a) Find the closed-loop gain for the cases A=103, 104, and 105. In each case
determine the percentage error in the magnitude of G relative to the ideal
value of R2/ R1 (obtained with A=∞). Also determine the voltage vI that
appears at the inverting input terminal when vI=0.1V
(b) If the open-loop gain A changes from 100,000 to 50,000, what is the
corresponding percentage change in the magnitude of the closed-loop gain
G? A |G| ε v 1
G − (R2 / R1 ) 103 90.83 -9.17% 9.08mV
ε≡ ×100
(R2 / R1 )
104 99.00 -1.00% 0.99mV
v1 = −vO / A = GvI / A with vI = 0.1V
v − R2 / R1 105 99.90 -0.10% 0.10mV
G≡ O =
vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A

− (b) For A=50,000, |G|=99.80 (ε=-0.20%). Thus a -50% change in the

open-loop gain results in a change of only -0.1% in the closed-loop gain

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 13 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.2
• Assuming the op amp to be ideal, derive an expression for the closed-loop
gain vO/vI of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8. Use this circuit to design an
inverting amplifier with a gain of 100 and an input resistance of 1MΩ.
Assume that for practical reasons it is required no to use resistors greater
than 1MΩ.
vvxx 0 − vx
77 −v −v i3 =
R
= 2 vI
44 ii22
55 i v1 = O = O = 0
RR22 xx RR44 i44 A ∞ R3 R3 R1
v − v v − 0 vI vI R
RR33 66 i1 = I 1 = I = i4 = i2 + i3 = + 2 vI
ii33 R1 R1 R1 R1 R3 R1
33
22 ii11 RR11 00 vI vO = v x − i4 R4
i2 = i1 =
R1 R2 v R 
11 vv11 =− vI −  I + 2 vI  R4
vvII vI R1  R1 R3 R1 
88 vvoo v x = v1 − i2 R2 = 0 − R2
R1 vO  R R  R 
R2 = −  2 + 4 1 + 2 
Fig. 2.8 =− vI vI  R1 R1  R3 
R1
R  R R 
= − 2 1 + 4 + 4 
Select R1=R2=R4=1MΩ, R3=10.2 kΩ R1  R2 R3 
vO/vI=100

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 14 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.2 (Cont.)
• Compare your design with that based on the inverting configuration of Fig.
2.5
i2 = i1
vI − (− vO / A) vI + vO / A
R2
i1 = =
R1 R1
i1 R1 0
vO v v +v / A
vO = − − i1 R2 = − O −  I O  R2
vo 1
A A A A  R1 
VI v − R2 / R1
2 vo G≡ O = ⇒ G = − R2 / R1
vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A

Fig. 2.5

Select R1=1MΩ, R2=100 MΩ : impractical

vO/vI=100

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 15 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• D2.4 Use the circuit of Fig. 2.5 to design an inverting amplifier having a gain of -10
and an input resistance of 100kΩ. Give the values of R1 and R2

vO R
G= = − 2 = −10
vI R1 1
3
R1 = Rin = 100 kΩ 2

R2 = 1000 kΩ = 1MΩ
Fig. 2.5
• 2.5 The circuit shown in Fig. E2.5(a) can be used to implement a transresistance
amplifier (Table 1.1 in Session 1.5). Find the value of the input resistance Ri, the
transresistance Rm, and the output resistance Ro of the transresistance amplifier. If
the signal source shown in Fig. E2.5(b) is connected to the input of the
transresistance amplifier, find its output voltage

Ri = 0
Rm = −10 kΩ
Ro = 0
vo = −0.5mA ×10kΩ = −5 V (a) (b)
Fig. E2.5
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 16 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Supplement

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 17 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.6 For the circuit in Fig. E2.6 determine the values of v1, i1, i2, vo, iL, and io. Also
determine the voltage gain vo/vi, current gain iL/iI, and power gain PO/PI

𝑣𝑣1 = 0
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 𝟐𝟐 𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖1 = = = 𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑖𝑖2
𝑅𝑅1 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑅𝑅2
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 = − 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 = −𝟓𝟓 × 𝟐𝟐𝑉𝑉 = −10𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 −10𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = = = −10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 − 𝑖𝑖2 = −10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −1𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 −10𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 Figure E2.6
= = −𝟓𝟓 𝑉𝑉/𝑉𝑉 ⇒ 20log = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 𝟐𝟐𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 −10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿
= = −𝟓𝟓 𝐴𝐴/𝐴𝐴 ⇒ 20log = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖𝐼𝐼 𝟐𝟐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝐼𝐼
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 × 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿
= = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑊𝑊/𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 × 𝑖𝑖𝐼𝐼
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
⇒ 10log = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 18 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Applications: Weighted Summer
• Rf in the negative-feedback path, but a number of input signals
v1,v2,…, vn each applied to a corresponding resistor R1,R2,…,Rn
V1 i1 R1
i Rf

V2 i2 R2 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝒏𝒏

𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏 = , 𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 = , … , 𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒏 =
i 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝒏𝒏
in Rn 𝒊𝒊= 𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏 + 𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒏
Vn
𝑹𝑹𝒇𝒇 𝑹𝑹𝒇𝒇 𝑹𝑹𝒇𝒇
𝒗𝒗𝒐𝒐 = 𝟎𝟎 − 𝒊𝒊𝑹𝑹𝒇𝒇 = − 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 + 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒗𝒗
Vo(t) 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏
0V

 Rf Rf Rf 
vo =− v1 + v2 +  + vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 

– Each summing coefficient may be independently adjusted by adjusting

the corresponding “feed-in” resistor (R1 to Rn)
– Summary : Op amps can be used to multiply a signal by a constant,
integrate it, differentiate it, and sum a number of signals with prescribed
weights (all mathematical operations) ⇒ hence named operational
amplifier
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 19 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Applications: Weighted Summer (Cont.)
• A weighted summer capable of implementing summing
coefficients of both signs

 Ra   Rc   Ra   Rc   Rc   Rc 
=
vO v1     + v2     − v3   − v4  
 R1   Rb   R2   Rb   R3   R4 

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 20 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• D2.7 Design an inverting op-amp circuit to form the weighted sum vO of two input v1
and v2. It is required that vO=-(v1+4v2). Choose values for R1, R2, and Rf so that for a
maximum output voltage of 4V the current in the feedback resistor will not exceed 1
mA
V1 i1 R1
i Rf

V2 i2 R2
𝟒𝟒𝐕𝐕
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 = = 𝟒𝟒 𝑘𝑘𝑘 i
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝟒𝟒 𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑅𝑅2 = 𝟏𝟏 𝑘𝑘𝑘
Vo(t)
0V

𝑅𝑅𝒇𝒇 𝑅𝑅𝒇𝒇
𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 = −𝑣𝑣𝟏𝟏 − 𝑣𝑣𝟐𝟐 =- 𝑣𝑣𝟏𝟏 + 𝟒𝟒𝑣𝑣𝟐𝟐
𝑅𝑅𝟏𝟏 𝑅𝑅𝟐𝟐

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 21 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• D2.8 Use the ideal presented in Fig. 2.11 to design a weighted summer that provides
vO=2v1+v2-4v3

 R  R   R  R  R 
vO = v1  a   c  + v2  a   c  − v3  c 
 R1   Rb   R2   Rb   R3 
Possible choice :
R1 = 5 k Ω, R2 = 10 k Ω, Ra = 10 k Ω, Rb = 10 k Ω
R3 = 2.5 k Ω, Rc = 10 k Ω

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 22 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 2.3 Noninverting Configuration
• The closed-loop gain
vO
R2 v2 − v1 = ≈0
A
The current through R1 can then be determined as
R1
1 vI/R1, in addition, this current will flow through R2

2
 vI  vO R2
Vo  
vO = vI +   R2 ⇒ = 1+
VI
 R1  vI R1

Another insight into the operation :

Analysis
Due to the infinite op amp gain and the resulting
55 VRVII virtual short circuit between the two input
R1 1 RR22 terminals of the op amp
VVII
33 RR11 22 vI R
RR11 VVII vo =+
vI R2 =
vI (1 + 2 )
0
R1 R1
0
11 00 VV 44
Vo
Vo  R1  vO R1 + R2
VVII v1 = vO   ⇒ =
 R1 + R2  vI R1
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 23 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Noninverting Configuration (Cont.)
• Equivalent circuit model
– The gain of the noninverting configuration is positive-hence called
noninverting
R2
vI (1 + ) vI
Ri = ∞, Ro = 0 R1

Ri = ∞ Ro = 0 R2

• Effect of finite op-amp open-loop gain R1

vI + ( −vO / A ) vI − vO / A
=
vI + (− vO / A)
i1
R1 R1
v v  v −v / A Vo
vO =vI − O + i1 R2 =vI − O +  I O  R2 VI
A A  R1 
 1  R2    R2 
1 +  1 +   O  1 +  vI
v =
 A  R1   R1  G − (1 + R2 / R1 )
ε≡ ×100
 R2  (1 + R2 / R1 )
1 + 
G≡
vO
= 
R1 
⇒ G =+ 1 + (R2 / R1 )
vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A
1 R2 / R1 =− ×100
1 + R2 / R1 << A A + 1 + (R2 / R1 )
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 24 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Voltage Follower
• Using noninverting circuit as a buffer amplifier to connect a
source with a high impedance to a low-impedance load
– Not required to provide any voltage gain; rather, it is used mainly as an
impedance transformer or a power amplifier
make R2 = 0, R1 = ∞
⇒ vO = vI , Rin = ∞, and Rout = 0

– (a) The unity-gain buffer or follower amplifier, and (b) its equivalent circuit
model

vI 1 x vI

vI vo=vI

(a) (b)

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 25 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.9 Use the superposition principle to find the output voltage of the circuit shown in
Fig. E2.9

3 𝟕𝟕 𝟏𝟏 𝟕𝟕
𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 = 𝑣𝑣1 1+ + 𝑣𝑣2 1+
𝟏𝟏 + 3 1 𝟏𝟏 + 3 1
= 6𝑣𝑣1 + 𝟐𝟐𝑣𝑣2

Figure E2.9
• 2.10 If in the circuit of Fig. E2.9 the 1-kΩ resistor is disconnected from ground and
connected to a third signal source v3, use superposition to determine vO in terms of v1,
v2, and v3

3 𝟕𝟕 𝟏𝟏 𝟕𝟕 𝟕𝟕
𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 = 𝑣𝑣1 1+ + 𝑣𝑣2 1+ − 𝑣𝑣3
𝟏𝟏 + 3 1 𝟏𝟏 + 3 1 1
= 6𝑣𝑣1 + 𝟐𝟐𝑣𝑣2 − 𝟕𝟕𝑣𝑣3

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 26 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• D2.11 Design a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 2. At the maximum output
voltage of 10 V the current in the voltage divider is to be 10 µA
R2
vO R
= 1 + 2 = 2 ⇒ R1 = R2
vI R1
R1
1
vo 10V
i= ⇒ R1 + R2 = = 1MΩ
2 R1 + R2 10 µA
Vo R1 = R2 = 0.5MΩ
VI

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 27 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.12 (a) Show that if the op amp in the circuit of Fig. 2.12 has a finite open-loop gain
A, then the closed-loop gain is given by Eq. (2.11). (b) For R1=1kΩ and R2=9kΩ find
the percentage deviation ε of the closed-loop gain from the ideal value of (1+R2/R1)
for the cases A=103, 104, and 105. For vI=1V, find in each case the voltage between
the two input terminals of the op amp
R2
vI + ( −vO / A ) vI − vO / A
i1 =
R1 R1
R1
v v  v −v / A V1
vO =vI − O + i1 R2 =vI − O +  I O  R2
A A  R1  vI + (− vO / A)
 R2  V2
 1  R2   1 +  Vo
 R2  vO  R1  VI
1 + 1 +   vO = 1 +  vI ⇒ G ≡ =
 A R1    R1  vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A

G − (1 + R2 / R1 ) A |G| ε v2-v1
ε≡ ×100
(1 + R2 / R1 ) 103 9.9 -1% 9.9mV
1 + (R2 / R1 )
=− ×100 104
A + 1 + (R2 / R1 )
9.99 -0.1% 0.999mV

v2 − v1 = vO / A = GvI / A with v2 = 1V 105 9.999 -0.01% 0.1mV

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 28 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.13 For the circuit in Fig. E2.13 find the values of iI, v1, i1, i2, vo, iL, and io. Also find
the voltage gain vo/vi, the current gain iL/iI, and the power gain PL/PI
iI = 0
•
v1 = vI = 1V
vI 1V
i1 = = = 1mA = i2
R1 1 kΩ
 R 
vo = 1 + 2 vI = 10 ×1V = 10V
 R1 
v 10V Figure E2.13
iL = o = = 10mA
RL 1 kΩ
io = iL + i2 = 10mA + 1mA = 11mA
vo  R2  v
= 1 +  = 10 V / V ⇒ 20log o = 20dB
vI  R1  vI
iL 10mA
= =∞
iI 0mA
PO vo × iL
= =∞
PI vI × iI
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 29 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.14 It is required to connect a transducer having an open-circuit voltage of 1 V and a
source resistance of 1 MΩ to a load of 1-kΩ resistance. Find the load voltage if the
connection is done (a) directly and (b) through a unity-gain voltage follower.
• (a)
iI = 0
v1 = vI = 1V
RL 1 kΩ
vo = vI × = 1× = 1 mV
RS + RL 1 MΩ + 1 kΩ
Ri ∞
• (b) vo = vI × = 1× = 1V
RS + Ri 1 MΩ + ∞

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 30 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 2.4 Difference Amplifiers
• Representing the input signals to a differential amplifier in terms
of their differential and common-mode components
– CMRR: common-mode rejection ratio
– Can we use open-loop op amp as a differential amplifier?
⇒ No

vo = Ad vId + Acm vIcm

vo1 vo 2
Ad = +
vId vIcm
Ad
CMRR = 20 log
Acm
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 31 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Difference Amplifiers(Cont.)
• We need to find an expression for the output voltage vO in terms
of the input voltages v1 and v2 for the circuit in Fig. 2.16

R2 R2
vO1 = − v1 for R2 / R1 = R4 / R3
R1
v1
R1
=vO 2 v2
R4  R2 
1 + 
vO =
R2
(v2 − v1 )
R3 R3 + R4  R1  R1
v2
vo R 1 + R2 / R1
vO =
− 2 v1 + v2
Fig. 2.16 R1 1 + R3 / R4
R4

R2 R2

R1 R1
v1
vo1 R3 vo2
v2

R3 R4 R4

(a) (b)
Analysis by superposition
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 32 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Difference Amplifier (Cont.)
– Finding the input resistance of the difference amplifier
R2
for practical=
R3 R=
1 , R4 R2
i R1 v2 − v1
Rin ≡
v2 - v1 R1 i
v2 − v1 = R1i + 0 + R1i ⇒ Rin = 2 R1
i
Rin Drawback : Rin↑ ⇒ Gain ↓
R2
Virtual short circuit
R2
=
vO ( v2 − v1 )
R1
– Difference amplifiers find application in many areas, most notably in the
design of instrumentation systems v1 = vIcm − vd / 2
R 2

– Instrumentation amplifier : reject the v2 = vIcm + vd / 2

v1 R1
large interference signal, which is vd/2 1
common to the two wires (a common- vd/2 2
mode signal), and amplify the small vo
vIcm v2 R3
R4
difference signal

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 33 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Difference Amplifier (Cont.)
• Analysis of the difference amplifier to determine its common-
mode gain Acm≡vo/vIcm

1  R4  R3 1
i1 =  Icm
v − v Icm  =
v =
i2
R3 + R4 +
Icm
R1   R3 R4 R1

R4
vO vIcm − i2 R2
R3 + R4
R4 R R3
vIcm − 2 vIcm
R3 + R4 R1 R3 + R4
R4  R2 R3 
1 −  vIcm
R3 + R4  R1 R4 
vO R4  R2 R3 
Acm ≡ = 1 − 
vIcm R3 + R4  R1 R4 
for practical R3 = R1 , R4 = R2
Ad
for R2 / R1 = R4 / R3 ⇒ Acm = 0 ⇒ CMRR = →∞
Acm

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 34 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.15 Consider the difference-amplifier circuit of Fig. 2.16 for the case R1=R3=2 kΩ
and R2=R4=200 kΩ. (a) Find the value of the differential gain Ad. (b) Find the value of
the differential input resistance Rid and the output resistance Ro. (c) If the resistors
have 1% tolerance (i.e. each can be within ±1% of its nominal value), use Eq. (2.19)
to find the worst-case common-mode gain Acm and hence the corresponding value of
CMRR R 1 + R2 / R1
vO =
− 2 v1 + v2
• (a) R1 1 + R3 / R4
R2 / R1 = R4 / R3
vO R2 200
A= = = = 100V / V
d
( v2 − v1 ) R1 2
• (b) Rid= 2 R= 1 4k Ω
Ro = 0Ω
R4  R2 R3  1  R2 R3 
Acm= 1 − = 1 − 
R3 + R4  R1 R4  1 + R3  R1 R4 
• (c) R4
1  200 2 
=  1 − (1 + 2% ) (1 + 2% ) 
(1 + 2% )  2 
2 200
1+
200

( )
≅ 1 − 1 + 4% + ( 2% ) = 4%= 0.04V / V ⇒ CMRR=
2 Ad
=
100
Acm 0.04
= 2500= 68dB
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 35 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• D2.16 Find values for the resistances in the circuit of Fig. 2.16 so that the circuit
behaves as a difference amplifier with an input resistance of 20 kΩ and a gain of 10.
R2
R 1 + R2 / R1
vO =
− 2 v1 + v2
v1
R1 R1 1 + R3 / R4
R3

R2 / R1 = R4 / R3
v2
vo for
R2
(v2 − v1 )
R4
vO =
R1

R1 = R3 = 10 kΩ
R2 = R4 = 100 kΩ

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 36 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Instrumentation Amplifier
• The difference amplifier studied in the previous example is not
entirely satisfactory as an instrumentation amplifier. Its major
drawbacks are its low input resistance and that its gain cannot
be easily varied. A much superior instrumentation amplifier
circuit is shown in Fig. 2.20(a). Analyze the circuit to determine
vO as a function of vI1 and vI2, and determine the differential gain.

R4  R2 
vO = 1 + (vI 2 − vI 1 )
R3  R1 
R4  R2 
Ad = 1 + 
R3  R1 

Fig. 2.20
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 37 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Instrumentation Amplifier (Cont.)
• Advantages
– High input impedance and high differential gain

• Three Disadvantages
– Large gain in first stage => Saturate A3
– Perfect match of two amplifiers in the first stage
– To vary the differential Ad, two resistors (R1) have to be varied
simultaneously
• Another interpretation

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 38 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Instrumentation Amplifier (Cont.)
– Analyze the circuit to determine vO as a function of vI1 and vI2, and
determine the differential gain R + 2 R1 + R2
v −v = 2
O2 O1 v Id
2 R1
 2 R + 2 R2 
vO 2 − vO1 =  1 vId
 2 R1 
R  R 
vO = 4 (vO 2 − vO1 ) = 4 1 + 2 vId
R
R3 R3  R1 
vO R4  R2 
Ad ≡ = 1 + 
vId R3  R1 

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 39 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Instrumentation Amplifier (Cont.)
• Advantages
– Proper differential operation does not depend on the matching of the two
resistors labeled R2
R4  R2 + R2' 
Ad ≡ 1 +  ⇐ R2 = R + ∆R, R2' = R − ∆R ⇒ R2 + R2' = 2 R
R3  2 R1 
– If vI1=vI2=vIcm ⇒ No current across R2 ⇒ Acm=0 in first stage ⇒ CMRR↑
– Excellent differential amplifier and employed as instrumentation amplifier

 2 R1 + R2 + R2'  vo = Ad vId + Acm vIcm

vO 2 − vO1 =   vId
 2 R1 
vo1 vo 2
R4 R  R  Ad = +
vO = ( vO 2 − vO1 ) = 4 1 + 2  vId vId vIcm
R3 R3  R1 
v R4  R2  Ad
Ad ≡ O =
vId R3 
1 + 
R1 
CMRR = 20 log
Acm

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 40 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.3
• Design the circuit to provide a gain that can be varied over the range 2 to
1000 utilizing a 100-kΩ variable resistance (a potentiometer, or “pot” for
short)
‒ To make the gain variable, R1 is implemented as the series combination
of a fixed resistor R1f and a variable resistor R1v. Resistor R1f ensures
that the maximum available gain is limited

Preferable to obtain all the required gain in the first stage

Reject the common-mode signal in the first stage
vo1
2 R2
1+ =
2 to 1000
R1 f + R1v R1f
2R1 100kΩ
2 R2  pot }R1v
1+ =
1000  vo2
R1 f  = R1 f 100.2Ω
⇒
2 R2 =R2 50.05k Ω (c)
1+ 2
=
R1 f + 100k Ω 

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 41 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.17 Consider the instrumentation amplifier of Fig. 2.20(b) with a common-mode
input voltage of +5V (dc) and a differential input signal of 10-mV-peak sine wave. Let
(2R1)=1 kΩ, R2=0.5 MΩ, and R3=R4=10 kΩ. Find the voltage at every node in the
circuit.
vId = 0.01sin ωt
vI 1 = 5 − 0.005 sin ωt
vI 2 = 5 + 0.005 sin ωt
v− (op amp A1 ) = 5 − 0.005 sin ωt
v− (op amp A2 ) = 5 + 0.005 sin ωt
vId
vO1 = vI 1 − × R2 = 5 − 0.005 sin ωt − 5 sin ωt = 5 − 5.005 sin ωt
2 R1
vId
vO 2 = vI 2 + × R2 = 5 + 0.005 sin ωt + 5 sin ωt = 5 + 5.005 sin ωt
2 R1

v− ( A3 ) = v+ ( A3 ) = vO 2 ×
R4
= 2.5 + 2.5025 sin ωt
R3 + R4
R4  R2 
vO = 1 + vId = (1 + 1000 )× 0.01sin ωt = 10.01sin ωt
R3  R1 
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 42 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 2.5 Inverting Integrator
• The inverting configuration with general impedances Z1(s) and
Z2(s) Z 2

Vo (s) Z Closed-loop transfer function

Z1 = − 2
Vi (s) Z1
Vo ( s ) Z (s)
vI =− 2
vo
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s )

• The inverting integrator

– (a) The Miller or invertering integrator
v I (t) dv (t) dvC
vc i1 =
R
= −C O
dt
i1 = C
i1
dt
1 t

CR ∫0
C =v O (t) - v I (t)dt − VC 1 t
i1 R 0
v O (s) 1
vC (t=
) VC +
C ∫ i (t )dt
0 1
0V =-
vi (s) sCR 1 t
CR ∫0
vI(t) Vo(t) vO (t ) =
−vC (t ) ⇒ vO (t ) =
− vI (t )dt − VC

– The output voltage is proportional to the time-integral of the input, with VC

being the initial condition of integration and CR the integrator time-
constant
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 43 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Inverting Integrator(Cont.)
– Frequency analysis ⇒ Z1(s)=R and Z2(s)=1/sC
Vo ( s ) 1 V ( jω ) 1 V 1
H (s) = =− ⇒ o =− ⇒ o = , φ = +90o
Vi ( s ) sRC Vi ( jω ) jωRC Vi ωRC
– Frequency response of the integrator
Vo
Vi (dB)

-20dB/decade
-6dB/octave

ωint=1/CR
0 w (log scale)
(b) 1
CR
– The frequency ωint is known as the integrator frequency and is simply the
inverse of the integrator time constant
– ω=0, H(s)→∞ : indicates that at dc the op amp is operating with an open
loop (no negative feedback by C at ω=0) ⇒ output saturated
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 44 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Inverting Integrator(Cont.)
– The Miller integrator with a large resistance RF connected in parallel with
C in order to provide negative feedback at dc
RF
Vo ( s ) Z ( s) 1
=− 2 =−
C
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s ) Z1 ( s )Y2 ( s )
where Z1 ( s ) = R, and Y2 ( s ) = (1 / RF ) + sC
R Vo ( s )
=−
1 (R / R )
=− F
Vi ( s ) R
+ sCR 1 + sCRF
vI(t) Vo(t)
RF

– Resistor RF closes the feedback loop at dc and provides the integrator

with a finite dc gain of –RF/R
– RF also gives the integrator transfer-function a 3 dB frequency at 1/RFC,
behaves exactly as an STC low-pass network
– To minimize the imperfection in integrator function ⇒ as large an RF as
possible
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 45 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Supplement_3dB bandwidth
Q1: 何謂3 dB 頻寬?
A1:以single time constant (STC) low-pass filter 為例
Vo ( s ) AM AM AM
= = =
Vi ( s ) 1 + sCR 1 + s
ω 1 + jω
−3 dB ω−3dB
AM
Vo ( s ) AM  ω 
= , φ = − tan −1  
Vi ( s )  ω 
2
 ω −3 dB 
1+  
 ω−3dB 

ω-3dB ω
Vo ( s )
ω = 0.1ω−3dB ⇒ ≅ AM , φ = − tan −1 ( 0.1) ≅ −5.7o ≈ −0o
Vi ( s )
Vo ( s ) A V (s)
ω = ω−3dB ⇒ ≅ M ⇒ 20 log o ≅ 20 log AM − 20 log 2 = 20 log AM − 3dB
Vi ( s ) 2 Vi ( s )
⇒φ =− tan −1 (1) =−45o
Vo ( s ) A V (s)
ω=
10ω−3dB ⇒ ≅ M ⇒ 20 log o − tan −1 (10 ) = −84.3o ≈ −90o
≅ 20 log AM − 20dB, φ =
Vi ( s ) 10 Vi ( s )
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 46 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Supplement_3dB bandwidth (Cont.)
A1:補充相位資訊
 ω 
− tan −1  
ω
 −3dB 

0.1ω-3dB ω-3dB 10ω-3dB

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 47 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.4
• For the circuit in Fig. 2.23, derive an expression for the transfer function
Vo(s)/Vi(s). Show that the transfer function is that of a low-pass single-time-
constant (STC) circuit. By expressing the transfer function in the standard
form, find the dc gain and the 3-dB frequency.

Vo ( s ) Z (s) 1
=
− 2 =
−
Vi ( s ) Z1 ( s ) Z1 ( s )Y2 ( s )
C2
where =
Z1 ( s ) R1 and =
Y2 ( s ) (1/ R2 ) + sC2
Vo ( s ) 1 − R2 / R1
R2 =
− =
+ sC2 R1 1 + sC2 R2
Vi ( s ) R1
R1 R2

vI(t)
First order: has a finite dc gain and a
Vo(t)
zero gain at infinite frequency
Fig. 2.23
DC gain( K ) = − R2 / R1
1
−3dB frequency (ω0 ) =
C2 R2
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 48 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Example 2.4 (Cont.)
• Design the circuit to obtain a dc gain of 40dB, a 3-dB frequency of 1kHz, and
an input resistance of 1kΩ. At what frequency does the magnitude of
transmission become unity ? What is the phase angle at this frequency ?
C2 DC gain( K ) = − R2 / R1
1
R2
−3dB frequency (ω0 ) =
C2 R2
R1 Select R2/R1=100 (40dB)

vI(t)
⇒R1=1kΩ, R2=100kΩ
Vo(t)

f0=1kHz 1
2π ×1×103 =
C2 ×100 ×103
Vo ( s ) − R2 / R1
= ⇒ C2 =
1.59nF
Vi ( s ) 1 + sC2 R2
The gain falls off at the rate of -20 dB/decade, it will reach 0 dB in two decades
= =
fu 100 f 0 100 kHz
Phase angle: -90o (at fu) + (-180o) (inverting)=-270o

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 49 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Supplement: Laplace Transform
 Laplace transform for first-order integrator 公式:
1 ⇔ δ (t )
Vo 1 1 1 1
(s) = ⇒ vi (t ) =
u (t ) ⇒ Vi ( s ) =⇒ Vo ( s ) = e − nTs ⇔ δ (t − nT )
Vi 1 + SRC s RC  1 
ss +  1
 RC  ⇔ u (t )
s
Assume vi =
(t ) VDD ⋅ u (t )
1
(
vo (t ) =C0 + C1 1 − e − t / RC ) s+a
⇔ e − at
t=0
vo (t ) t =0 =0 ⇒ C0 =0 1
s (s + a)
1
(
⇔ u (t ) − e − at
a
)
vo (t ) t =∞ = VDD ⇒ C1 = VDD

(
vo (t ) VDD 1 − e − t / RC
= ) ∞
F ( s ) = ∫ e − st f (t )dt
0

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 50 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Supplement: Effect of Feedback on the Amplifier Poles
• Stability and pole location
– Stable ⇒ poles lie in the left half of the s plane
– Consider an amplifier with a pole pair at s=σ0±jωn, the transient
response of output
[ ]
v(t ) = eσ 0t e + jωnt + e − jωnt = 2eσ 0t cos(ωnt )
– Relationship between pole location and transient response

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 51 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.5
• An integrator is commonly used to amplify signals from a photodetector
(measuring light intensity). In Fig. 2.25, the photodetector is represented by
the current source iS producing a 10-kHz sinusoid having 10-µA peak
amplitude and s source resistance of 5 kΩ. Find the value of C and the
integrator frequency ωint so that the output at vO will have 200-mV peak
amplitude vc

i1
C
i1 R 0
0V

vI(t) Vo(t)

𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 = 10µ𝐴𝐴 × 5𝑘𝑘Ω = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) 1 200𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1
= − ⇒ =
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2𝜋𝜋 × 10𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 × 𝐶𝐶 × 5𝑘𝑘Ω
1
⇒ 𝐶𝐶 = = 0.8𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
4 × 2𝜋𝜋 × 10𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 × 5𝑘𝑘Ω
1
⇒ 𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = 2𝜋𝜋 × 40𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑠𝑠 or fint=40 KHz
0.8𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛×5𝑘𝑘Ω
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 52 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Example 2.6
• Find the output produced by a Miller integrator in response to an input pulse
of 1-V height and 1-ms width (Fig. 2.27). Let R=10kΩ and C=10nF. If the
integrator capacitor is shunted by a 1-MΩ resistor, how will the response be
modified ? The op amp is specified to saturate at ±13 V
– (a) Input pulse. (b) Output linear ramp of ideal integrator with time constant of
vc
0.1ms. i Another approach
1
C
i1 𝐼𝐼
𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 (𝑡𝑡) = − 𝑡𝑡, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝐼𝐼 = 1𝑉𝑉/10𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0.1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
R 0
0V
𝐶𝐶
vI(t) Vo(t)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒
𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 𝑡𝑡 = − 𝑡𝑡 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝒕𝒕, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 1𝒔𝒔
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟖𝟖

v I (t) dv (t)
i1 = = −C O
R dt
1 t
CR ∫0
=v O (t) - v I (t)dt − VC

vO 1
=-
vi sCR

1 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 (𝑡𝑡) = − � 1𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −10𝑡𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0

(𝐶𝐶 = 10𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 𝑅𝑅 = 10𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0.1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 53 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.6 (Cont.)
• (c) Output exponential ramp with resistor RF connected across integrator capacitor
vO (t ) = vO (∞) − [vO (∞) − vO (0+)]e − t / CRF = vO (0+) + vO (∞) 1 − e − t / CR
R
F
[ F
]
vO (∞) = − IRF = −0.1×10 −3 ×1×106 = −100V
vO (0+) = 0
C

CRF = 10 ×10 −9 ×1×106 = 10ms R

( )
vO (t ) = −100 1 − e −t /10 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1ms vI(t) Vo(t)

(
vO (1ms ) = −100 1 − e −1/10 = −9.5V)
vo(t) Without saturation Vo ( s )
= −
( RF / R )
1 ms Vi ( s ) 1 + sCRF
t
0

to 0V

Exponentials with time

-9.5 V constant of 10 ms

to -100V
(c)
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 54 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Op Amp Differentiator
• The current through C will be C(dvI/dt), and this current flows
through the feedback resistor R providing at the op-amp output
a voltage vO(t) ⇒ v (t ) = −CR dv O
I
dt
i R dvi (t )
i (t ) = C
dt
dv (t )
i C 0 vo (t ) = −CR i CR is the differentiator time-constant
dt
vo
= − sCR
VI(t) vi
Vo(t)
0V

vo ( s )
– Frequency-domain transfer function : Z1(s)=1/sC and Z2(s)=R ⇒ v ( s) = − sCR
i
Vo
(dB) An STC high-pass filter with a corner frequency at infinity
Vi

Vo ( jω )
H (s) = = − jωRC
Vi ( jω )
+20dB/decade
Vo
+6 dB/octave
⇒ = ωRC , φ = −90o
Vi
1
RC
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 55 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.18 Consider a symmetrical square wave of 5-V peak-to-peak, 0 average, and 2-µs
period applied to a Miller integrator. Find the value of the time constant CR such that
the triangular waveform at the output has a 5-V peak-to-peak amplitude
VI (t)

2.5 V
1 us 2 us

-2.5 V

VO (t)
𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 𝑇𝑇
1 us 2 us 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅
⇒ 𝐼𝐼 × = 𝐶𝐶 × 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂
2
0V 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓
× 10−𝟔𝟔 = 𝐶𝐶 × 𝟓𝟓 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 × 10−𝟔𝟔 = 0.5𝒖𝒖𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1 𝑡𝑡
-5V 𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂 (𝑡𝑡) = −𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) = − � 𝑣𝑣 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0 𝐼𝐼
1 1𝒖𝒖𝑠𝑠 1
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0 ⇒ −𝟓𝟓 = − � 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − × 1𝒖𝒖𝑠𝑠 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
∂vC
⇒ vC (t ) = vI (t )dt + VC
vI 1 t
RC ∫0
i= =C ⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0.5𝒖𝒖𝑠𝑠
R ∂t
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 56 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• D2.19 Use an ideal op amp to design an inverting integrator with an input resistance
of 10 kΩ and an integration time constant of 10-3 s. What is the gain magnitude and
phase angle of this circuit at 10 rad/s and 1 rad/s? What is the frequency at which the
gain magnitude is unity?
10 −3
−3
RC = 10 ⇒ C = = 0.1µF
10 ×10 3

Vo 1 1 103
=− =− =−
Vi SRC jωRC jω
Vo 103
= , φ = 180o − 90o = 90o
Vi ω
Vo
At ω = 10 rad / s : = 100, φ = +90o
Vi
Vo
At ω = 1 rad / s : = 1000, φ = +90o
Vi
The gain will be unity at ω = 1000 rad/s

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 57 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• D2.20 Design a differentiator to have a time constant of 10-2 s and an input
capacitance of 0.01 µF. What is the gain magnitude and phase of this circuit at 10
rad/s, and at 103 rad/s? In order to limit the high-frequency gain of the differentiator
circuit to 100, a resistor is added in series with the capacitor. Find the required
resistor value.
−2 10 −2
RC = 10 ⇒ R = = 1MΩ
0.01× 10 −6
Vo
= − SRC = − jωRC = −10 − 2 jω
Vi
Vo
= 10 − 2 ω , φ = 180o + 90o = 270o or − 90o
Vi
Vo
At ω = 10 rad / s : = 0.1, φ = −90o R R sRC
Vi As ω → ∞ ⇒ A = − ⇐ A=− =−
R1 R1 +
1 1 + sR1C
Vo sC
At ω = 1 03 rad / s : = 10, φ = −90o R = 1M Ω and A = 100 ⇒ R1 = 10k Ω
Vi

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 58 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 2.6 DC Imperfections
• Offset voltage (Chapter 8)
– Arise as a result of the unavoidable mismatches present in the input
differential stage inside the op amp
– Investigate the effect of VOS on the operation of closed-loop op amp
circuits
– The op-amp data sheets usually specify typical and maximum values for
VOS at room temperature as well as the temperature coefficient of VOS
(usually in µV/oC)
– They do not specify the polarity of VOS Actual op amp
– Circuit model for an op amp with input offset
1
voltage VOS 3
2
Consists of a dc source of value VOS places
VOS
in series with the positive input load of an Offset-free op amp
offset-free op amp

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 59 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.21 Use the model of Fig. 2.29 to sketch the transfer characteristic vO versus vId
(vO≡v3 and vId ≡v2-v1) of an op amp having A0=104, output saturation levels of ±10V,
and VOS of +5mV Actual op amp

1
3
2
VOS
Vid=-VOS +vac
Offset-free op amp
vac

20V
vac = 4
= 2mV
10

Fig. E2.21

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 60 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
– Analysis of op amp circuits to determine the effect of the op amp VOS on
their performance is straightforward
– Evaluating the output dc offset due to VOS in a closed-loop amplifier
R2 Ex. For closed-loop gain=1000,
VO=+5V or –5V ⇒ Allowable signal
R2
R1 =
Vo Vos(1 + ) swing at the output ↓
R1
Vo ⇒ If the signal to be amplifier is dc,
we would not know whether the
VOS Offset-free output is due to VOS or to the signal
op amp
V+
– Offset-nulling using the trimming
technique To rest
– Detailed internal circuit will be of circuit
Offset-nulling
introduced in chapter 12
terminals

V-
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 61 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
– One way to overcome the dc offset problem is by capacitively coupling
the amplifier ⇒ only application for the closed-loop amplifier is not
required to amplify dc or very-low-frequency signals
– A capacitively coupled inverting amplifier
STC high-pass response with a 3-dB
frequency ω0=1/CR1, and the gain will
be –R2/R1 for ω >> ω0
R2
SR2 C
C VO = −Vin
R1 1 + SR1C

Vin VO =
VOS (1 +
SR2 C
) =
VOS
1 + SR1C ω = 0
VO
VOS V= VOS − Vin
SR2 C
1 + SR1C
O

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 62 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.22 Consider an inverting amplifier with a nominal gain of 1000 constructed from an
op amp with an input offset voltage of 3mV and with output saturation levels of ±10V.
(a) What is (approximately) the peak sine-wave input signal that can be applied
without output clipping? (b) If the effect of VOS is nulled at room temperature (25oC)
how large an input can one apply if : (i) the circuit is to operate at a constant
temperature ? (ii) the circuit is to operate at a temperature in the range 0oC to 75oC
and the temperature coefficient of VOS is 10µV/oC ?

(i)

Vin (max) = 10V 1000 = 10mV

(ii)
(75 − 25) oC ×10 µV / oC ×1000 = 0.5V
R2
VO = VOS (1 + ) = 3mV × (1 + 1000) ≅ 3V Vo (max) = 10 − 0.5 = 9.5V
R1
The output before saturation is 10-3 = 7V Vin (max) = 9.5V 1000 = 9.5mV
Vin (max) = 7 1000 = 7 mV
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 63 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.23 Consider the same amplifier as in Exercise 2.22 – that is, an inverting amplifier
with a nominal gain of 1000 constructed from an op amp with an input offset voltage
of 3 mV and with output saturation levels of ±10 V – except here let the amplifier be
capacitively coupled as in Fig. 2.32(a). (a) What is the dc offset voltage at the output,
and what (approximately) is the peak sine-wave signal that can be applied at the
input without output clipping? Is there a need for offset trimming? (No) (b) If R1 = 1
kΩ and R2 = 1 MΩ, find the value of the coupling capacitor C that will ensure that the
gain will be greater than 57 dB down to 1 kHz. (-3dB bandwidth)

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2
𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 = −𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ⇒ � = = 1
1 + 𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠= 1 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 2
(a) VO = VOS = 3mV (b) 𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶
1 1 1
VO = 10V − 3mV ≅ 10V 𝜔𝜔−3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝐶𝐶
⇒ 𝐶𝐶 = =
2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓−3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑅𝑅1 2𝜋𝜋 × 10𝟎𝟎0 × 1000
−6
Vin (max) = 10V / 1000 = 10mV = 𝟎𝟎. 16 × 10 = 𝟎𝟎. 16𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 64 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
• Input bias currents
– The op-amp input bias currents represented by two current sources IB1
and IB2 Input bias current, typically = 100nA (bipolar)
I B1 + I B 2
1 IB =
IB1 2
Input offset current, typically = 10nA (bipolar)
3

2
I OS = I B1 − I B 2
IB2
IB1 R2

– Find the dc output voltage of the closed- R1

loop amplifier due to the input bias 0 0V IB1
current
VO = I B1 R2 ≈ I B R2 Vo=IB1R2
– Places an upper limit on the value of R2 IB2

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 65 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
– Reducing the effect of the input bias currents by introducing a resistor R3
R2
IB2R3 VO = − I B 2 R3 + R2 (I B1 − I B 2 R3 / R1 )
IB1-
= I B [R2 − R3 (1 + R2 / R1 )]
IB2R3 R1
R1

R1
Reduce VO to zero by selecting R3
IB1
R2 RR
IB2 R3 = = 1 2 = R1 || R2
R3
Vo 1 + R2 / R1 R1 + R2
IB2
R3 should be made equal to the
(-IB2R3) parallel equivalent of R1 and R2
– Evaluate the effect of a finite offset current IOS
I B=
1 I B + I OS / 2 

I B=
2 I B − I OS / 2 
VO = − I B 2 R3 + R2 ( I B1 − I B 2 R3 / R1 ) ⇒ VO = I OS R2 << VO = I B R2
With R3 Without R3

– To minimize the effect of the input bias currents one should place in the
positive lead a resistance equal to the dc resistance seen by the
inverting terminal ⇒ R3=R1||R2
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 66 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Supplement: Derivation
R2
IB2R3
IB1-
IB2R3
R1
R1 VO = − I B 2 R3 + R2 (I B1 − I B 2 R3 / R1 )
= I B [R2 − R3 (1 + R2 / R1 )]
R1 IB1
Reduce VO to zero by selecting R3
IB2
Vo R2 RR
R3 IB2 R3 = = 1 2
1 + R2 / R1 R1 + R2
(-IB2R3)
I B=
1 I B + I OS / 2 

I B=
2 I B − I OS / 2 
VO = − I B 2 R3 + R2 ( I B1 − I B 2 R3 / R1 ) ⇒ VO = I OS R2 << VO = I B R2

 I   I   I R 
−  I B − OS  R3 + R2  I B + OS  −  I B − OS  3 
 2   2   2  R1 
 R  I  RR 
=
− I B R3 + R2  I B − I B 3  + OS  R3 + R2 + 2 3 
 R1  2  R1 
  R1 + R2   I OS  R1 + R2   I OS
=
I B  −  R3 ×  + R2  +  R3 ×  + R2  =( 2 R2 ) =
I OS R2
  R1   2  R1   2
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU R2 67 R2 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
– Minimize the effect of the input bias currents: In an ac-coupled amplifier
the dc resistance seen by the inverting terminal is R2; hence R3 is
chosen equal to R2 R2

Vin C
R1

Vout
R3=R2

– Illustrating the need for a continuous dc path for each of the op-amp
input terminals. Specifically, note that the amplifier will not work without
resistor R3 R2

C1 R1

Vout
Vin
C2 R3

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 68 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.24 Consider an inverting amplifier circuit designed using an op amp and two
resistors, R1=10 kΩ and R2=1 MΩ. If the op amp is specified to have an input bias
current of 100 nA and an input offset current of 10 nA, find the output dc offset
voltage resulting and the value of a resistor R3 to be placed in series with the positive
input lead in order to minimize the output offset voltage. What is the new value of VO?
R2
IB2R3
IB1-
IB2R3 R1
R1

R1 IB1

IB2
Vo
R3 IB2

(-IB2R3)

R1 R2 1000 ×10
VO = I B1 R2 ≈ I B R2 = 100nA ×1MΩ = 0.1V R3 = = = 9.9kΩ
R1 + R2 1000 + 10
VO = I OS R2 = 10nA ×1MΩ = 0.01V

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 69 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
• Effect of VOS and IOS on the operation of the inverting integrator
– Determining the effect of the op amp input offset voltage VOS on the
Miller integrator circuit
Effect of the op-amp input
bias and offset current

Effect of the oop-amp input

offset voltage
VOS/R C
 1 
Vo ( s ) = VOS 1 + 
VOS/R R  SRC 
1 tV
VOS Vo (t ) = VOS + ∫ OS dt
C 0 R
VOS vo V
= VOS + OS t
CR
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 70 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 DC Imperfections (Cont.)
Vo ( s ) (R / R )
=− F
Vi ( s ) 1 + sCRF

RF

VI(t)
Vo(t)

– vO increases linearly with time until the op amp saturates

– Can be alleviated by connecting a resistor RF across the integrator
capacitor C ⇒ for dc path VO = VOS 1 + RF 
 R 
– Reduce dc offset effect RF↓ ⇒ less ideal integrator (design trade-off)

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 71 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Exercise
• 2.25 Consider a Miller integrator with a time constant of 1ms and an input resistance
of 10 kΩ. Let the op amp have VOS=2mV and output saturation voltages of ±12V. (a)
Assuming that when the power supply is turned on the capacitor voltage is zero, how
long does it take for the amplifier to saturate ? (b) Select the largest possible value
for a feedback resistor RF so that at least ±10V of output signal swing remains
available. What is the corner frequency of the resulting STC network ?
VOS
(a) Vo = VOS + t
CR
0.002
12 = 0.002 + t ⇒ t = 6s
0.001
(b) VO = VOS 1 + RF 
 R 
RF
12 − 10 = 0.002(1 + )
10kΩ
RF = 9990kΩ ≅ 10 MΩ
Vo ( s ) (R / R )
=− F
Vi ( s ) 1 + sCRF
1 R 10
fo = = = = 0.16 Hz
2πCRF 2πCRRF 2π × 0.001×10000
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 72 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 2.7 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and
Bandwidth
• The differential open-loop gain of the op amp is not infinite;
rather, it is finite and decreases with frequency
– Open-loop gain of a typical general-purpose internally compensated op
amp |A|(dB)

A0 100 3dB
80
60 -20dB/decade
Or
40 -6dB/octave
A0=105: dc gain
20
ωb=2πx10 rad/s : 3-dB frequency
0

fb ft
– Frequency compensation : cause the op-amp gain to have the single-
time-constant (STC) low-pass response (resulting stable)
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 73 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and Bandwidth
• By analogy to the response of low-pass STC circuits, the gain
A(s) of an internally compensated op amp may be expressed
A0 A0 Where A0 : dc gain
A( s ) = ⇒ A( jω ) =
1 + s / ωb 1 + jω / ωb ωb : 3-dB frequency
– For ω>>ωb A( jω ) ≈ A0ωb ≈ ωt where ωt = A0ωb
jω jω
– ωt called the unity-gain bandwidth, ft= ωt/2π is usually specified on the
data sheets of op amps
– For ω>>ωb ωt
A( s ) ≈
s
– Thus the op amp behaves as an integrator with time constant τ=1/ωt.
This correlates with the -6-dB/octave frequency response (or equivalently
-20 dB/decade)
ωt f t
– The gain magnitude A( jω ) ≈ ω = f
– If ft is known, one can easily estimate the magnitude of the op amp gain
at a given frequency f
⇒ single-pole model, ωb called dominant pole
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 74 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.26 An internationally compensated op amp is specified to have an open-loop dc
gain of 106 dB and a unity-gain bandwidth of 3 MHz. Find fb and the open-loop gain
(in dB) at fb, 300 Hz, 3 kHz, 12 kHz, and 60 kHz.
A0 A0 ωt f t
A( s ) = ⇒ A( jω ) = ⇒ A( jω ) ≈ =
1 + s / ωb 1 + jω / ω b ω f
106
A0 = 10 20
= 199.5 ≅ 200,000
ft
A0 = ⇒ f b = 3000 KHz / 200000 = 15 Hz
fb
3000000
A0 300 Hz = = 10000 ⇒ 20 log A0 = 80dB
300
3000000
A0 3kHz = = 1000 ⇒ 20 log A0 = 60dB
3000
3000000
A0 12 kHz = = 250 ⇒ 20 log A0 = 48dB
12000
3000000
A0 60 kHz = = 50 ⇒ 20 log A0 = 34dB
60000
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 75 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers
• Consider the effect of the limited op amp gain and bandwidth
on the closed-loop transfer functions of the two basic
configurations : invertering circuit and noninverting circuit
– Inverting circuit (pp.11)
Vo ( s ) − R2 / R1 A0
= where A( s ) =
Vi ( s ) 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A( s ) 1 + s / ωb
Vo ( s ) − R2 / R1
⇒ =
Vi ( s ) 1  R  s
1 + 1 + 2  +
A0  R1  ωt / (1 + R2 / R1 )
– For A0>>1+R2/R1
Vo ( s ) − R2 / R1 The same form as that for a low-pass single-time-
≈ constant network A
Vi ( s ) 1 + s H (s) =
ω
ωt / (1 + R2 / R1 ) 1+
ωP
– The closed-loop gain = R2/R1 rolls off at a
uniform -20 dB/decade slop with a corner ωt
frequency (3-dB frequency) ω3dB ω =
3 dB
(1 + R2 / R1 )
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 76 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers
– Noninverting circuit (pp.23)
 R2 
1 + 
VO ( s)
=  R1  where A( s) =
A0
VI ( s) 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A( s) 1 + s / ωb
 R2 
1 + 
⇒ o
V ( s)
=  R1 
Vi ( s ) 1  R  s
1 + 1 + 2  +
A0  R1  ωt / (1 + R2 / R1 )
for A0 >> 1 + R2 / R1
VO ( s ) 1 + R2 / R1
=
VI ( s ) 1 + s
ωt / (1 + R2 / R1 )

– The closed-loop gain = 1+R2/R1 rolls off at a uniform -20 dB/decade slop
with a corner frequency (3-dB frequency) ω3dB
ωt
ω3dB =
(1 + R2 / R1 )
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 77 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Example 2.7
• Consider an op amp with ft=1MHz. Find the 3-dB frequency of closed-loop
amplifiers with nominal gains of +1000, +100, +10, +1, -1, -10, -100, and -
1000. Sketch the magnitude frequency response for the amplifiers with
closed-loop gains of +10 and -10
Vo
(dB)
Vi

20 3 dB

-20 db/decade
10

10-2 10-1 1 10 100 1000 104

f (kHz)

Vo
(dB)
Vi

vO R vO R2
= 1+ 2 = − 20 3 dB
vI R1 vI R1
-20 db/decade
10

90.9 909
f (kHz)
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 78 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.27 An internally compensated op amp has dc open-loop gain of 106 V/V and an ac
open-loop gain of 40dB at 10kHz. Estimate its 3-dB frequency, its unity-gain
frequency, its gain-bandwidth product, and its expected gain at 1kHz

A0 = 106
f t = A0 f b = Af ⇒ 106 × f b = 100 ×10 4 ⇒ f b = 1Hz
f t = A0 f b = 106 ×1 = 1MHz = gain bandwidth product
f t = Af ⇒ 106 = A ×1000 ⇒ A = 1000 = 60dB

• 2.28 Consider an op amp having a 106-dB gain at dc and a single-pole frequency

response with ft=2MHz is used to design a noninverting amplifier with nominal dc
gain of 100. Find the 3-dB frequency of the closed-loop gain.
ωt
1 + R2 / R1 ω3dB =
VO ( s )
=
s
(1 + R2 / R1 )
VI ( s ) 1 +
ωt / (1 + R2 / R1 ) f 3dB =
2 MHz
= 20kHz
100
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 79 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 2.8 Large-Signal Operation
Output peaks
vO
• Output saturation Clipped due to
saturation

– The op-amp output saturates in the

L+
manner with L+ and L- within 1 to 3 volts 2

of the positive and negative power Output

waveforms

supplies, respectively L-
Av 1

– An op amp that is operating from ±15-V

0 L+ vI
Av

supplies will saturate when the output

voltage reaches about ±13-V
L-
– For this op amp the rated output voltage
is said to be ±13-V
2
1

Input
waveforms

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 80 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.8
• Consider the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 2.43. As shown, the
circuit is designed for a nominal gain (1+R2/R1)=10 V/V. It is fed with a low-
frequency sine wave signal of peak voltage VP and is connected to a load RL.
The op amp is specified to have output saturation voltages of ±13 V and
output current limits of ±20 mA.

Figure 2.43 (a) A noninverting amplifier with a nominal gain of 10 V/V designed using an op amp
that saturates at ±13-V output voltage and has ±20-mA output current limits.
(b) When the input sine wave has a peak of 1.5 V, the output is clipped off at ±13 V.

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 81 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.8 (Cont.)
• (a) For VP=1 V and RL=1 kΩ, specify the signal resulting at the output of the
amplifier
• (b) For VP=1.5 V and RL=1 kΩ, specify the signal resulting at the output of
the amplifier
• Solution
• (a) VO=10V, iL=10V/1kΩ=10mA, iF=10V/(9+1)kΩ=1mA, iO=(10+1)mA<20mA
⇒ Normal operation without clipping
• (b) ideal VO=15V, but clipped at VOP=13V, iL=13V/1kΩ=13mA,
iF=13V/(9+1)kΩ=1.3mA, iO=(13+1.3)mA=14.3mA<20mA
⇒ Normal operation with clipping

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 82 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Example 2.8 (Cont.)
• (c) For RL=1 kΩ, what is the maximum value of VP for which an undistorted
sine-wave output is obtained?
• (d) For VP=1 V, what is the lowest value of RL for which an undistorted sine-
wave is obtained?
• Solution
• (c) For undistored sine-wave output (VOP=13V), VP=1.3V and iO=14.3mA
• (d) Because of VOP=10V,

10V 10V
i= =
20 mA +
RL min 9k Ω + 1k Ω
O max

⇒ RL min =526Ω

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 83 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Large-Signal Operation (Cont.)
• Slew rate (SR)
– Another phenomenon that can cause nonlinear distortion when large
output signals are presented is that of slew-rate limiting
dvO
SR = Specified on the op-amp data sheet in units of V/µs
dt max

– (a) Unity-gain follower. (b) Input step waveform. (c) Linearly rising output
waveform obtained when the amplifier is slew-rate limited.

v1 vO

Slope=SR
+ V V
+ vo
v1 -
-
0 0 t

(a) (b) (c)

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 84 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2

 Large-Signal Operation (Cont.)
– The phenomenon is distinct from the finite op-amp bandwidth that limits
the frequency response of closed-loop amplifiers (p.48)
– The limited bandwidth is a linear phenomenon and does not result in a
change in the shape of an input sinusoid; that is, it does not lead to
nonlinear distortion
– The slew-rate limitation cause nonlinear distortion to an input sinusoidal
signal (V0sinω0t) when SR<V0 ω0
– Exponentially rising output waveform obtained when V is sufficiently
small so that the initial slope (ωtV) is smaller than or equal to SR
VI
R1 R2

VI
VO ( s) 1 + R2 / R1
=
R1
R1 VI

vO 0V
0

VI ( s) 1 + s
ωt / (1 + R2 / R1 )
Vo
VI

slop= ωtV ≤ SR
⇒
VO ( s )
VI ( s ) R =∞ and R
=
1
1 + s / ωt
(
⇒ vO (t ) = V 1 − e −ωt t )
1 2 =0

⇒ dvO (t ) / dt max = (Vωt )e −ωt t = Vωt

V max

0 t
⇒ for normal operation: SR ≥ Vωt
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU (d) 85 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.29 An op amp that has a slew rate of 1V/µs and a unity-gain bandwidth ft of 1 MHz
is connected in the unity-gain follower configuration. Find the largest possible input
voltage step for which the output waveform will still be given by the exponential ramp
of vO(t)=V(1-e-ωt). For this input voltage what is the 10% to 90% rise time of the
output waveform ? If an input step 10 times as large is applied, find the 10% to 90%
rise time of the output waveform.
1V / µs
SR = Vωt ⇒ V = = 0.16V
2π × 1MHz
(
 vO (t ) = V 1 − e −ωt t )
e −ωt t = 0.9 ⇒ t = 0.1 / ωt
e −ωt t = 0.1 ⇒ t = 2.3 / ωt
2.2 2.2
10% to 90% rise time ⇒ t = = = 0.35µs
ωt 2π ×1MHz
(
Input step = 1.6V ⇒ Vωt > SR ⇒ vO (t ) ≠ V 1 − e −ωt t )
0.9 ×1.6 − 0.1×1.6 1.6
SR = ⇒ t r = 0.8 × = 1.28µs
tr 1V / µs
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 86 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Full-Power Bandwidth
• Op-amp slew-rate limiting can cause nonlinear distortion in
sinusoidal waveforms
– Consider once more the unity-gain follower with a sine wave input
dv dv
vI = Vˆi sin ωt ⇒ I = ωVˆi cos ωt ⇒ I = ωVˆi
dt dt max
– If ωVˆi > SR , the output waveform will be distorted
– Specify a frequency fM called the full-power bandwidth
Theoretical
The frequency at which an output output

sinusoid with amplitude equal to the Output when op amp

is slew-rate limited
rated output voltage (VOmax) of the op
amp begins to show distortion due to
slew-rate limiting t

SR  SR 
ωM VO max = SR ⇒ f M = ω
 M = 
2π VO max  VO max 
ω  Effect of slew-rate limiting on
ω > ωM ⇒ VO =
VO max  M  output sinusoidal waveform
 ω 
Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 87 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2
 Exercise
• 2.30 An op amp has a rated output voltage of ±5V and a slew rate of 10V/µs. What is
its full-power bandwidth ? If an input sinusoid with frequency f=5fM is applied to a
unity-gain follower constructed using this op amp, what is the maximum possible
amplitude that can be accommodated at the output without incurring slew-induced
distortion ?

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 1𝟎𝟎𝑉𝑉/𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
𝜔𝜔𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 max = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀 = = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2𝜋𝜋𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 max 2𝜋𝜋 × 𝟓𝟓
𝜔𝜔𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀
𝜔𝜔 > 𝜔𝜔𝑀𝑀 ⇒ 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 = 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 max = 𝟓𝟓 × = 𝟏𝟏𝑉𝑉 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)
𝜔𝜔 5𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀

Shuenn-Yuh Lee EE/NCKU 88 Communication and Biologic IC Lab. Chapter 2