English Glossary Terms

Glossary
Glossary term Definition
Aboriginal and/or The term describes people who are either Aboriginal or Torres Strait
Torres Strait Islander or are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander.
Islander Peoples
An Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander person is someone who:
 is of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent
 identifies as an Aboriginal person and/or Torres Strait Islander person,
and
 is accepted as such by the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
community in which they live.
Aboriginal cultural Aboriginal cultural protocols describe appropriate ways of behaving,

protocols communicating and showing respect for diversity of histories and cultures.
This involves appreciation of the knowledge, standing and status of people
within the local Aboriginal community. Protocols inevitably vary between
communities, and between people within a community. In establishing
partnerships between Aboriginal communities and industries or professions,
it is especially important that protocols are acknowledged and respected.
Aboriginal English Aboriginal English is a dialect of Standard Australian English. It is a

distinctly Aboriginal kind of English and is a powerful vehicle for the
expression of Aboriginal identity (see Diane Eade 1995, Aboriginal English,
Board of Studies NSW, Sydney).
active listening A formal listening technique that develops communication skills through the
processes of understanding information, remembering and retaining it and
responding appropriately.
active voice (see voice)
adjective A word class that describes a noun to add extra meaning. Different types of
adjectives include:
● possessive adjectives, for example my, his, her
● numbering adjectives, for example two, many, lots of
● describing adjectives, for example big, old, yellow, beautiful
● comparing adjectives, for example more delicate, best, bigger
● classifying adjectives, for example Persian cat, air transport.
adverb A word class that modifies:

● a verb, for example 'She sings beautifully.'
● an adjective, for example 'He is really interesting.'
● another adverb, for example 'She walks very slowly.'
In English many adverbs have an -ly ending.
English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 75

adverbial An adverbial phrase or clause contributes additional information to the main

clause. Generally, these will answer the questions:
● how, for example 'They walked to town very quickly.'
● when, for example 'She had dinner after everyone had left.'
● where, for example 'I spoke with him outside the house.'
● why, for example 'Tom felt tired because he had run a marathon.'
An adverbial can also contribute evaluative interpersonal meaning to a

clause, for example 'Frankly, I don't care'. Adverbs, adverb groups,
prepositional phrases, nouns and noun groups can function as adverbials.
aesthetic Relating to a sense of beauty or an appreciation of artistic expression. The

selection of texts that are recognised as having aesthetic or artistic value is
an important focus of the study of literature.
allegory A story in prose fiction, poetry, drama or visual language that has more than
one level of meaning. The characters, events and situations can represent
other characters, events and situations. For example, the witch trials in The
Crucible are an allegory of the US HUAC hearings in the 1950s. Allegories
often represent moral or political situations.
alliteration The recurrence, in close succession, of the same consonant sounds usually
at the beginning of words. In 'ripe, red raspberry', the repetition of the 'r'
sound creates a rich aural effect, suggesting the lusciousness of the fruit.
allusion A deliberate and implicit reference to a person or event, or a work of art

which draws on knowledge and experiences shared by the composer and
responder.
alphabetic principle The awareness of the systematic relationship between letters and sounds.
This involves understanding that letters represent sounds, that speech can
be turned into print and that print can be turned into speech.
analogy A comparison demonstrating the similarities between two things, people or

situations. It is a device to clarify an idea through a connection. Analogies
are often used in persuading, explaining or arguing a point.
animation A simulation of movement created by displaying a series of pictures or

frames, for example a cartoon.
antonym A word or word group with a meaning opposite to that of another word or
word group, for example hot (cold), go away (come back).
apostrophe (') A punctuation marker used to:

● indicate possession, for example 'Rosie's cup'. Note: an apostrophe
attaches to nouns, not possessive pronouns such as hers, his, its,
theirs, ours
● indicate missing letters or numbers in a contracted expression, for
example 'He's gone home', 'It's news to me'.
apposition When one noun group immediately follows another with the same
reference, they are said to be in apposition, for example 'our neighbour, Mr
Grasso ...', 'Canberra, the capital of Australia ...'.

appreciation The act of discerning quality, value and enjoyment in imaginative,

informative and persuasive texts.
appropriation Taking an object or text from one context and using it in another context.
The process can allow new insights into the original text or object and
emphasise contextual differences. Appropriation also gives extra insight
into the newly created or used text or object. Texts can be appropriated for
a range of purposes, including satirical criticism, consideration of existing
ideas in a new context and exploration of cultural assumptions. The mass
media frequently appropriate words, images and icons from other cultural
contexts. Films and novels are often appropriations of earlier texts.
argument The reasons and evidence given to support an idea or a proposition.
article There are three articles in the English language: a, an, the. Articles are
placed before nouns and form part of the noun group when referring to
either a specific person or thing (the) or a non-specific person or thing (a,
an). The is called a definite article; a and an are called indefinite articles.
audience The intended group of readers, listeners or viewers that the writer, designer,
filmmaker or speaker is addressing.
author The composer or originator of a work (for example a novel, play, poem, film,
website, speech, essay, autobiography). Author is most commonly used in
relation to novels.
auxiliary verb A verb that gives further semantic or syntactic information about a main or
full verb. The most common auxiliary verbs are be, do and have. Note that
they are only auxiliary verbs when connected to another verb. They can be
used as verbs on their own. Will and shall are auxiliary verbs used to
express future time. Modal auxiliaries, for example shall, could and might
also operate to adjust verb meanings.
bias In argument or discussion, to favour one side or viewpoint by ignoring or

excluding conflicting information; a prejudice against something.
body language A form of non-verbal communication which consists of body movements

and postures, gestures, facial expressions, and eye and mouth movements,
for example crossed arms or leaning away from or towards another person.
brackets (see parentheses)
breadcrumb trail A method for providing ways to navigate through a website. The
breadcrumb trail shows where users are, how they got there, and how to
move back to the places they have been. An example of a breadcrumb trail
is: Home > Products > Purchase > Checkout.
camera angle The angle at which the camera is pointed at the subject. It is the
perspective from which the camera shoots and from which the viewer
ultimately sees the image. Vertical angle can be low, level or high.
Horizontal angle can be oblique (side on) or frontal.

clause A clause is a complete message or thought expressed in words. The

essential component of a clause is a finite verb or verb group, for example
'She played in the sandpit', 'Duc was running home'.
● A main clause (also known as a principal or independent clause) is a
clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence, though it may be
joined with other clauses, for example 'The child came first'.
● A subordinate clause (also known as a dependent clause) is a group of
words that cannot stand alone or make complete sense on its own. It
needs to be combined with a main clause to form a complete sentence.
Subordinate clauses will usually be adjectival or adverbial clauses.
● An adjectival clause is a clause that provides information which defines
the qualities or characteristics of the person or thing named. It usually
begins with a relative pronoun and is sometimes called a relative
clause, for example 'The child who had the red top came first'.
● An adverbial clause is a clause that modifies the verb in the main
clause, for example 'The child came first because he was the fastest
runner'.
● An embedded clause occurs within the structure of another clause,
often as a qualifier to a noun group, for example 'The man who came to
dinner is my brother'.
cohesion That quality in a text determined by its parts being related and contributing
to its overall unity. Cohesion is achieved through shaping the form, creating
a structure that the responder can recognise and use to navigate the text,
and using features of language that link the various parts of the text into a
complete whole. These features can include connectives such as
'furthermore' and 'therefore', cross-references to different parts of the text,
and reiteration of the title or terms of the topic or question being addressed
in the text.
cohesive links Those language features that help to develop unity within a text. Cohesion
can involve referring words such as pronouns, eg 'Tony wanted to escape
but he couldn't run', or content words that are related in various ways, for
example 'Tony wanted to escape but was too tired to run'.
collaborative An approach to teamwork that enables students to combine their individual

learning skills and resources to generate creative solutions to problems.
collocation Words that commonly occur in close association with one another (for
example, ‘blonde’ goes with ‘hair’, ‘butter’ is ‘rancid’ not ‘rotten’, ‘salt and
pepper’ not ‘pepper and salt’).
colloquial Informal expression of language, characteristic of speech and often used in

informal writing. The register of everyday speech.
colon (:) A punctuation convention used to separate a general statement from one or
more statements that provide additional information, explanation or
illustration. The statements that follow the colon do not have to be complete
sentences. They will generally form a list and may be set out in dot points.

comma (,) A punctuation marker used to indicate the grammatical organisation of

sentences. Commas are used in sentences:
● to indicate separation between parts of a sentence such as clauses or
phrases, where such separation is important to the meaning, for
example 'Children, who cannot lift such heavy weights, will not be
allowed to participate', 'Children who cannot lift such heavy weights will
not be allowed to participate'.
● to separate words, phrases or numbers in a series, for example
'Children like to eat apples, bananas, oranges and watermelons'.
command (or A sentence that gives direction or seeks an active response, for example
imperative) 'Leave now!', 'Go!' Commands always end with an exclamation mark.
communication An overarching term encompassing the technologies (applications and

technologies devices) that facilitate wide scale communication. These may include film,
websites, email and social networking platforms.
complex sentence (see sentence)
composer A collective noun to include an author, poet, playwright, director, designer

and so on.
composing The activity that occurs when students produce written, spoken or visual
texts. Composing typically involves:
● the shaping and arrangement of textual elements to explore and
express ideas, emotions and values
● the processes of imagining, organising, analysing, drafting, appraising,
synthesising, reflecting and refining
● knowledge, understanding and use of the language forms, features and
structures of texts
● awareness of audience and purpose.
composition The combination and integration of the various elements of an image into a
whole text.
compound sentence (see sentence)
compound word A word consisting of two or more words that has a meaning different from
that of the individual words, for example farmyard.
comprehension Strategies and processes by which readers bring meaning to and extract
strategies meaning from texts. Key comprehension strategies include:
● activating and using prior knowledge
● identifying literal information explicitly stated in the text
● making inferences based on information in the text and their own prior
knowledge
● predicting likely future events in a text
● visualising by creating mental images of elements in a text
● summarising and organising information from a text
● integrating ideas and information in texts
● critically reflecting on content, structure, language and images used to
construct meaning in a text.

concepts about Concepts about how English print works. They include information about
print where to start reading and how the print travels from left to right across the
page. Concepts about print are essential for beginning reading.
conjunction A word that joins other words, phrases or clauses together in logical
relationships such as addition, time, cause or comparison. There are two
major types of conjunctions for linking messages:
● coordinating conjunctions link words, phrases and clauses in such a
way that the elements have equal status in meaning. They include
conjunctions such as and, or, but
● subordinating conjunctions introduce certain kinds of subordinate
clauses. They include words such as that, whether (or if), while, after,
when, because, if (in the conditional sense) and serve to mark the kind
of subordinate clause introduced.
connective Words which link paragraphs and sentences in logical relationships of time,
cause and effect, comparison or addition. Connectives relate ideas to one
another and help to show the logic of the information. Connectives are
important resources for creating cohesion in texts. The logical relationships
can be grouped as follows:
● temporal – to indicate time or sequence ideas, for example first,
second, next
● causal – to show cause and effect, for example because, for, so
● additive – to add information, for example also, besides, furthermore
● comparative – for example rather, alternatively
● conditional/concessive – to make conditions or concession, for example
yet, although
● clarifying – for example in fact, for example.
connotation The nuances or shades of meaning attached to words, beyond that of their
literal or dictionary meanings. Connotations may be positive, negative or
neutral.
context The range of personal, social, historical, cultural and workplace conditions
in which a text is responded to and composed.
contraction A contraction is a shortened form of one or two words (one of which is

usually a verb). In a contraction, an apostrophe takes the place of the
missing letter or letters. Some contractions are: I'm (I am), can't (cannot),
how's (how is), and Ma'am (Madam).
convention An accepted language practice that has developed over time and is
generally used and understood, for example use of punctuation.
coordinating Words that link phrases and clauses in such a way that the elements have
conjunctions equal status in meaning. Examples of these conjunctions include and, or,
either/neither, but, so and then (see conjunction).
create/compose Develop and/or produce spoken, written or multimodal texts in print, visual,
oral or digital forms.
creating/composing ‘Creating’ refers to the development and/or production of spoken, written,

visual or multimodal texts in print, graphic or digital forms.

creativity The dynamic process of using language to conceptualise, interpret and

synthesise ideas in order to develop a 'product'.
critical Exploration of the quality of argument, content, analysis, information or

persuasion in oral, visual or written text, to assess the way in which themes,
issues or ideas are presented for the audience and purposes intended.
cultural assumption Beliefs or attitudes about such things as gender, religion, youth, age,
disability, sexuality, social class and work that are taken for granted as
being part of the fabric of the social practices of a particular culture. Cultural
assumptions underlie cultural expressions in texts and may also be
embedded in texts in various ways.
cultural expression The articulation or representation of beliefs, practices or attitudes pertaining

to a particular culture.
culture The social practices and ways of thinking of a particular people or group,
including shared beliefs, values, knowledge, customs, lifestyle and
artefacts.
dash (–) A punctuation marker used to indicate a break or pause in a sentence or to

begin and end a parenthetical clause. It is increasingly used in formal and
informal writing where traditionally a colon, semicolon or comma may have
been used, for example in a parenthetical clause.
decode The process in which knowledge of letter–sound relationships, including

knowledge of letter patterns, is used to identify written words.
dependent clause (see clause)
design The way particular elements are selected, organised and used in the
process of text construction for particular purposes. These elements might
be linguistic (words), visual (images), audio (sounds), gestural (body
language), spatial (arrangement on the page, screen or 3D) and multimodal
(a combination of more than one).
dialect The forms of a given language which differ from one another in details of
sound system, vocabulary and grammar, each of which is usually to be
found in a particular region or social class.
digital texts Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic
technology which may be interactive and include animations and/or
hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include DVDs, websites, e-literature (e-
books) and apps.
digraph Two letters that represent a single sound (phoneme). Vowel digraphs are
two vowels (oo, ea). Consonant digraphs have two consonants (sh, th).
Vowel/consonant digraphs have one vowel and one consonant (er, ow).
directionality The direction in which English print is read. Early readers need to learn
where to start reading and in which direction the print travels, noting that
other languages may not follow this convention.

discourse markers Words and phrases used in speaking and writing to ‘signpost’ discourse by
showing turns, joining ideas together, showing attitude, and generally
controlling communication. Some people regard discourse markers as a
feature of spoken language only (for example, ‘actually’, ‘so’, ‘OK’, ‘right?’,
‘anyway’).
discursive texts Texts whose primary focus is to explore an idea or variety of topics. These
texts involve the discussion of an idea(s) or opinion(s) without the direct
intention of persuading the reader, listener or viewer to adopt any single
point of view. Discursive texts can be humorous or serious in tone and can
have a formal or informal register. They include texts such as feature
articles, creative nonfiction, blogs, personal essays, documentaries and
speeches.
e-literature The electronic publication of literature using the multimedia capabilities of

digital technologies to create interactive and possibly non-linear texts,
through combining written text, movement, visual, audio and spatial
elements. It may include hypertext fiction, computer art installations, kinetic
poetry and collaborative writing projects allowing readers to contribute to a
work. E-literature also includes texts where print meanings are enhanced
through digital images and/or sound and literature that is reconstituted from
print texts, for example online versions of The Little Prince or Alice in
Wonderland. In the form of e-books they are constructed to be read through
e-readers and electronic tablets.
electronic media Media technology, for example television, the internet, radio and email, that
communicates with large numbers of people. Much electronic media will be
interactive.
ellipsis Ellipsis is the omission of words where:

● words repeat what has gone before and these terms are simply
understood, for example 'The project will be innovative. To be involved
(in the project) will be exciting.'
● a word like one is substituted for a noun or noun group, as in 'There are
lots of apples in the bowl. Can I have one?' (of them)
● a cohesive resource binds text together and is commonly used in
dialogue for speed of response, for example (Do you) 'Want a
drink?'/'Thanks' (I would like a drink)
● three dots (also known as points of ellipsis) are used to indicate such
things as surprise or suspense in a narrative text or that there is more
to come in an on-screen menu
● the points of ellipsis take the place of sections of text when quoting from
a source.
email Electronic mail. Correspondence sent and received using electronic

addresses, including messages, documents and graphics.
emotive language Language that creates an emotional response.
etymology The origins of, and changes to, words in relation to meaning, for example
words derived from earlier or other languages, place names, words derived
from people's names, coinages (for example googling). (See word origin.)

evaluative language Positive or negative language that judges the worth of something. It
includes language to express feelings and opinions, to make judgements
about aspects of people such as their behaviour, and to assess the quality
of objects such as literary works. It includes evaluative words. The
language used by a speaker or writer to give a text a particular perspective
(for example judgemental, emotional, critical) in order to influence how the
audience will respond to the content of the text.
everyday and Texts that communicate in everyday situations and workplaces. Everyday
workplace texts and workplace texts are composed with a sensitivity to the broad range of
language competencies among the intended audience, and the contexts
within which they are placed. Examples of everyday texts include road
signs, information texts provided by government departments and
instructions on appropriate behaviour in places like schools, restaurants
and parks. Examples of workplace texts include safety signs, information
texts relating to workplace procedures, and texts that use the jargon of the
workplace.
exclamation mark (!) A punctuation marker used at the end of a sentence to emphasise the
emotion or feeling that is contained in the sentence. In some forms, such as
personal letters, it may be used to strengthen the humorous element in a
sentence, for example 'We found the cat asleep in the rubbish bin!'
Exclamation marks are always used at the end of sentences containing a
command – Go!
figurative language Words or phrases used in a way that differs from the expected or everyday
usage. Figurative language creates comparisons by linking the senses and
the concrete to abstract ideas. Words or phrases are used in a non-literal
way for particular effect, for example simile, metaphor, personification.
Figurative language may also use elements of other senses, as in hearing
with onomatopoeia, or in combination as in synaesthesia.
finite verbs Verbs that have a specific tense and a subject with which they
grammatically agree (see verb). A complete sentence must contain a finite
verb.
fluency Ease of flow, for example in talking, reading, handwriting and spelling.
framing The way in which elements in a still or moving image are arranged to create
a specific interpretation of the whole. Strong framing creates a sense of
enclosure around elements while weak framing creates a sense of
openness.
full stop (.) A punctuation marker used to indicate the end of a sentence that is a
statement or command, for example 'Maria came into the room.', 'Come into
the room, Maria.'
gaze The directed look of either a viewer or figure in an image, including demand
and offer.

gender ● In text study, exploration of the way notions of gender identity are
constructed by the language and values of the text.
● In grammar, a requirement for agreement between nouns, adjectives,
verbs and pronouns that must agree when they are referring to males
or females.
genre The categories into which texts are grouped. The term has a complex
history within literary and linguistic theory and is often used to distinguish
texts on the basis of, for example, their subject matter (detective fiction,
romance, science fiction, fantasy fiction) and form and structure (poetry,
novels, short stories).
grammar The structure of the language we use and the description of language as a
system. In describing language, attention is paid to both structure (form)
and meaning (function) at the level of the construction of words
(graphemes), the word, the sentence and the text.
grammatical/syntact Information about language structure in comprehending a text, for example

ical information sentence structure, text organisation and word order.
grapheme A letter or combination of letters that corresponds to or represents

phonemes, for example the f in frog, the ph in phone, the gh in cough.
graphological Visual information about words and texts in print, for example letter
sequences, punctuation. The 26 letters that make up the English alphabet
are the basic data of the system of writing and reading. Each individual
word in a printed text is visually identifiable because it is made up of a
unique subset and sequence of these letters. In the reading process
graphological knowledge involves identification of printed words through
visual processing. The visual processing system gradually builds up
detailed images of a growing number of words that it can process
automatically (with the aid of other processing systems). Accuracy, fluency
and, eventually, automatic recognition of words by sight depend greatly on
the completeness and rapidity of one's visual memory of the words. In early
processing, the whole word is recognised as an image, but later processing
involves combining letter sequences, use of which is facilitated by
phonological knowledge. Graphological knowledge is also required for
spelling and handwriting.
graphophonic The knowledge of how letters in printed English relate to the sounds of the
knowledge language.
handwriting The production of legible, correctly formed letters by hand with the
assistance of writing tools.
high-frequency The most common words used in written English text. They are sometimes
sight words called 'irregular words' or 'sight words'. Many common or high-frequency
words in English are not able to be decoded using sound–letter
correspondence because they do not use regular or common letter
patterns. These words need to be learned by sight, for example come, was,
were, one, they, watch, many, through.

home language A language acquired and used in the home or community by members of a
family, for example speaking Mandarin at home in an English-speaking
country.
homograph A word with the same spelling as another, but of different origin and
meaning, for example wind (the wind blows), wind (wind the clock).
homonym A word having the same sound and the same spelling, but a different
meaning, for example strike (verb), strike (noun).
homophone A word having the same sound as another but different spelling and
meaning, for example bear, bare.
hybrid texts Composite texts resulting from mixing elements from different sources or
genres (for example infotainment). Email is an example of a hybrid text,
combining the immediacy of talk and the expectation of a reply with the
permanence of print.
hyperlink An area of a web page or email (either text or an image) that the user can
click on in order to go to another item or source of information.
hyphen (-) A punctuation marker used to indicate that a word is divided. The hyphen is
placed between syllables or, in the case of compounds, between the parts
of the word, for example role-play, self-correcting, pre-eminent. In print it
may be used to break a word across a line to ensure a consistent right
margin.
icon An image or likeness that carries meaning beyond its literal interpretation.
The cross is an icon that represents Christianity, the Sydney Opera House
is an icon that represents Sydney or Australia. The meaning of 'icon' has
also broadened to refer to an image or likeness that is admired and valued
because of the qualities inherent in what it represents. For example, leading
figures in popular culture enjoy iconic status when they are seen as
representing admired qualities such as intelligence, creativity, leadership,
courage, talent, physical strength, grace or endurance.
iconography The visual images and symbols associated with a particular person, place,
event, situation or concept.
idiom An expression peculiar to a language, that cannot be taken literally, for

example 'I've got a frog in my throat'.
idiomatic Words or ways of speaking which are peculiar to a language or area. The
expressions users of the text understand it to mean something other than its literal
translation. Idiomatic expressions give a distinctive flavour to speech or
writing, for example 'on thin ice', 'fed up to the back teeth'. They can be
over-used, to the point of cliché.
imagery The use of figurative language or illustrations to represent objects, actions

or ideas.

imaginative The ability to use the mind for a wide array of purposes. These purposes
include, but are not limited to, creating and forming images, ideas and
thoughts, developing new insights, reflecting on one's own self and others,
and solving problems.
imaginative text (see types of texts)
Indigenous cultural Includes objects, sites, cultural knowledge, cultural expression and the arts,
and intellectual that have been transmitted or continue to be transmitted through
property generations as belonging to a particular Indigenous group or Indigenous
people as a whole or their territory.
indirect speech (see reported speech)
inference The process of drawing conclusions based on evidence from a text.
informative text (see types of texts)
interpretive Responding to a text in order to draw meaning from it.
intertextuality The associations or connections between one text and other texts.
Intertextual references can be more or less explicit and self-conscious.
They can take the form of direct quotation, parody, allusion or structural
borrowing (see appropriation).
intonation The pattern of pitch changes revealed in speech.
irony A clash between what the words say and what they mean. Irony has three
forms:
● rhetorical irony – saying something contrary to what is meant, for
example 'I had a great time' (I was bored)
● dramatic irony – stating or doing something unaware of its contrast with
the real situation, for example where the reader or watcher knows
disaster is about to befall a character who says 'I've never been
happier'
● situational irony where events are opposite to expectations.
juxtaposition The placement of two or more ideas, characters, actions, settings, phrases
or words side-by-side for a particular purpose, for example to highlight
contrast or for rhetorical effect.
language A system of meaning, in spoken, written, visual and physical modes, for
communicating ideas, thoughts and feelings.
language concepts An overarching term including language forms and features, modes, and
pattern.
language features The features of language that support meaning, for example sentence
structure, vocabulary, illustrations, diagrams, graphics, punctuation,
figurative language. Choices in language features and text structures
together define a type of text and shape its meaning (see structures of
texts). These choices vary according to the purpose of a text, its subject
matter, audience and mode or media of production.

language forms and The symbolic patterns and conventions that shape meaning in texts. These
features vary according to the particular mode or media of production and can
include written, spoken, non-verbal or visual communication of meaning
(see textual form).
language modes Listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing and representing. These
modes are often integrated and interdependent activities used in
responding to and composing texts in order to shape meaning. It is
important to realise that:
● any combination of the modes may be involved in responding to or
composing print, sound, visual or multimedia texts
● the refinement of the skills in any one of the modes develops skills in
the others. Students need to build on their skills in all language modes.
language patterns The arrangement of identifiable repeated or corresponding elements in a

text. These include patterns of repetition or similarity (for example the
repeated use of verbs at the beginning of each step in a recipe or the
repetition of a chorus after each verse in a song). The patterns may
alternate (for example the call and response pattern of some games or the
to and fro of a dialogue). Other patterns may contrast (for example
opposing viewpoints in a discussion or contrasting patterns of imagery in a
poem). The language patterns of a text contribute to the distinctive nature of
its overall organisation and shape its meaning.
layout The spatial arrangement of print and graphics on a page or screen,

including size of font, positioning of illustrations, inclusion of captions,
labels, headings, bullet points, borders and text boxes.
letter–sound Association between a sound in English and a letter or letter pattern in

relationship words. This assists in word recognition when reading (see graphophonic
knowledge).
lexical chain A sequence of related words in writing.
lexical cohesion The use of word associations to create links in texts. Examples of links are
the use of repetition of words, pronouns, synonyms, antonyms and words
that are related, for example, by class and subclass (see cohesion).
linking devices Devices that link words, phrases and sentences, often used
interchangeably with conjunctions or text connectives.
listening The use of the sense of hearing, as well as a range of active behaviours to
comprehend information received through gesture, body language and
other sensory systems (see active listening).
literacy Literacy involves students listening to, reading, viewing, speaking, writing
and creating oral, print, visual and digital texts, and using and modifying
language for different purposes in a range of contexts. It encompasses the
knowledge and skills students need to access, understand, analyse and
evaluate information, make meaning, express thoughts and emotions,
present ideas and opinions, interact with others and participate in activities
at school and beyond.

literary devices Literary devices include textual elements such as structure, generic
conventions, language forms and features that are used to shape meaning
in texts; for example figurative language or soliloquy.
literary texts Past and present texts across a range of cultural contexts that are valued
for their form and style and are recognised as having enduring or artistic
value.
literature Literally means anything written, but the term is generally associated with
works of imagination, fictional and non-fictional. It is often used to mean
texts that are highly regarded examples of their forms and media.
mass media Technologies used to communicate information to large numbers of people

over distances.
media Means of communication, for example print, digital. Plural of medium.
memory Recognition, retention, recall and learning. The term is used to describe
spelling strategies that draw on 'known' or 'remembered' words. Memory
may be:
● visual – recognising and recalling visual features, for example little and
kettle have similar patterns
● auditory – recognising and recalling sound features by saying individual
sounds and matching to letters in a word, including syllabification
● kinaesthetic – recognising and recalling by writing, for example Look,
Cover, Write, Check
● tactile – recognising and recalling the feel of words
● articulatory – recognising and recalling the way the word is made in the
mouth.
metalanguage Language (which can include technical terms, concepts, ideas or codes)
used to describe and discuss a language. The language of grammar and
the language of literary criticism are two examples of metalanguage.
metaphor A resemblance between one thing and another is declared by suggesting

that one thing is another, for example 'My fingers are ice'. Metaphors are
common in spoken and written language and visual metaphors are common
in still images and moving images.
metonymy The use of the name of one thing or attribute of something to represent
something larger or related, for example using the word 'crown' to represent
a monarch of a country; referring to a place for an event as in 'Chernobyl'
when referring to changed attitudes to nuclear power, or a time for an event
as in '9/11' when referring to changed global relations.
modal verb A verb that expresses a degree of probability attached by a speaker to a

statement (for example 'I might come home') or a degree of obligation (for
example 'You must give it to me').

modality Aspects of language that suggest a particular perspective on events, a

speaker or writer's assessment of possibility, probability, obligation,
frequency and conditionality. Modality forms a continuum from high
modality (for example obliged to, always, must) to low modality (for example
might, could, perhaps, rarely). Modality is expressed linguistically in choices
for modal verbs (for example can, may, must, should), modal adverbs (for
example possibly, probably, certainly, perhaps), modal nouns (for example
possibility, probability, certainty) and modal adjectives (for example likely,
possible, certain).
mode The various processes of communication: listening, speaking, reading,

writing, viewing and representing. Modes are also used to refer to the
semiotic (meaning-making) resources associated with these communicative
processes, for example sound, print, image and gesture (see language
modes).
mood ● In literature, the emotive attitude or feeling carried by a particular text,

for example happiness, excitement, doom. It has much in common with
tone (see tone).
● Grammatically, a verb form conveying the speaker's attitude towards
the subject. Traditionally classified as indicative (statements and
questions), imperative (commands) or subjunctive (hypothetical or
conditional). The subjunctive involves use of auxiliaries, for example
could, may, should, might.
morpheme The smallest meaningful or grammatical unit in language. Morphemes are

not necessarily the same as words. The word cat has one morpheme, while
the word cats has two morphemes: cat for the animal and s to indicate that
there is more than one. Similarly like has one morpheme, while dislike has
two: like to describe appreciation and dis to indicate the opposite.
Morphemes are very useful in helping students work out how to read and
spell words.
multimedia Those texts that use more than one medium, for example combining visual
media, for example words and images, with sound. Television, the internet
and developments in computer and digital technology have resulted in
multimedia texts becoming increasingly rich and complex. Multimedia texts
now generally feature moving images, sophisticated and complex graphics,
and interactivity. Examples of multimedia texts include texts delivered on
personal digital devices, music videos, cartoons, video games and internet
texts.
multimedial Relating to the use of a combination of media, including text, graphics,

images, audio, video and hypertext.
multimodal Comprising more than one mode. A multimodal text uses a combination of
two or more communication modes, for example print, image and spoken
text as in film or computer presentations.
myths Important stories that began in the early times of a culture and remained
within that culture. They may be the basis of other pieces of literature.

narrative A story of events or experiences, real or imagined. Narrative includes the

story (what is narrated) and the discourse (how and why it is narrated).
This includes the relationship between language, context and values
represented through narrative. Narratology is a field of study that
investigates the internal mechanisms of narrative.
neologism The creation of a new word or expression. Words which were neologisms
quickly become mainstream, for example robot, email.
nominalisation A process for forming nouns from verbs (for example reaction from react or
departure from depart) or adjectives (for example length from long,
eagerness from eager). Also a process for forming noun phrases from
clauses (for example 'their destruction of the city' from 'they destroyed the
city'). Nominalisation is often a feature of texts that contain abstract ideas
and concepts.
noun A word used to represent people, places, ideas and things.

● Nouns used to name any one of a class of things are known as
common nouns, for example girl, classroom, egg.
● Nouns used to name a place, a person or the title of something are
known as proper nouns. They are signalled by a capital letter, for
example Sam, Wagga Wagga, Olympic Games.
● Nouns used to name a group of things are known as collective nouns,
for example crowd, swarm, team.
● Nouns used to name things that we cannot see but which exist in
thoughts and feelings are known as abstract nouns, for example
sadness, love, wonder.
● Pronouns are words like I, you, them, hers that are used in place of a
noun (see pronoun).
noun groups A group of words representing who or what is involved in the action or
condition of the verb. Noun groups may occur in the place of the subject or
the object of the verb. They can include different types of articles, adjectives
and nouns linked together, for example 'The run-down old inner-city terrace
house is for sale'. Noun groups can also include adjectival phrases and
adjectival clauses, for example 'The house with the broken windows is for
sale', 'The house that we saw yesterday is for sale'. A noun group can
consist of two or more nouns, 'Boys and girls come out to play', 'Jenny, the
oldest child, came into the room'.
noun–pronoun Occurs when a writer or speaker selects the correct pronoun for the noun or
agreement noun group to which it is referring, for example 'The boy was looking for his
father in the supermarket'. There should be agreement in number and
gender. In an effort to avoid sexist statements the plural their is sometimes
used in place of his or her, without regard for the rules of agreement.
number A grammatical requirement for consistency between nouns, verbs and

pronouns that must agree when they are referring to one (singular) or more
(plural). If there is only one noun or pronoun in the subject, the verb must
be singular and if there are more than one, the verb must be plural.

object The noun, noun group or pronoun in a sentence that is affected by an

action. To find the object ask who or what after the verb, for example 'The
girl threw the ball'. (She threw what? Answer: the ball.)
onomatopoeia The formation of a name or word by imitating the sound associated with the
object designated.
onset/rime The phonological units of a spoken syllable. A syllable can normally be

divided into two parts: the onset which consists of the initial consonant or
consonant blend and the rime which consists of the vowel and any final
consonants. For example:
bark b (onset), ark (rime)
inside (no onset), in (rime), s (onset), ide (rime).
parentheses ( ) Punctuation markers used to enclose an explanatory word, phrase or

sentence, an aside or a commentary, for example 'She was referring to her
friend (Shirley) again'.
parody A work intended to ridicule or mock through imitating the ideas, tone,
vocabulary and stylistic features of another work.
passive voice (see voice)
person The relationship between a subject and its verb showing whether the
subject is speaking about itself (first person – I or we), being spoken to
(second person – you), or being spoken about (third person – he, she, it or
they).
personification Attributing human characteristics to abstractions such as love, things (for

example The trees sighed and moaned in the wind) or animals (for example
The hen said to the fox...).
perspective A way of regarding situations, facts and texts.
persuasive text (see types of texts)
phoneme The smallest sound unit in a language that is capable of conveying a

distinct meaning.
phonemic The awareness of sounds (phonemes) that make up spoken words. While
awareness phonemic awareness involves an understanding of the ways sounds
function in words, it deals with only one aspect of sound: the phoneme.
Phonemic awareness is one aspect of phonological knowledge and is very
important for learning to read and spell.
phonics The understanding that there is a predictable relationship between the

sounds of a spoken language and the letters and spellings that represent
these sounds in written language.

phonological Information about the sounds of language and letter-sound relationships

knowledge (when comprehending text). It refers to the ability to recognise that words
are made up of a variety of sound units, for example single sounds
(phonemes) and blends. It includes the ability to:
● attend to and segment the sound stream into ‘chunks’ of sound known
as syllables. Each syllable begins with a sound (onset) and ends with
another sound (rime), eg:
– d-og onset and rime
– el-e-phant syllables
● know letter-sound relationships and how to use these to read words
(including understanding of the blending process)
● understand that there is a systematic relationship between letters and
sounds (the alphabetic principle).
phrase A group of words that forms part of a sentence and does not include a finite
verb (see finite verbs).
● Adjectival phrase – a group of words (usually beginning with a
preposition) that gives more information about a noun, for example 'The
girl with brown curly hair sat at the front', 'The flowers in the vase were
wilting'.
● Adverbial phrase – a group of words that provides information about
where, when, with what, how far, how long, with whom, about what, as
what, for example 'She swept the floor with an old broom', 'Throughout
time people have attempted to halt old age'.
picture book A book, traditionally produced for children and now also being composed
for older readers, in which words and illustrations complement each other to
tell a story that might have some allegorical, instructive or moral level of
significance.
poetic devices Particular patterns and techniques of language used in poems to create
particular effects based in the use of sound, the creation of images and
other sensory inputs. Examples of these devices include metaphor, simile,
metonymy, rhyme, rhythm, onomatopoeia, alliteration and assonance. Note
that poetic devices may also be used in prose writing and drama scripts to
obtain such effects.
poetic forms Fixed forms within poetry that must comply with certain requirements, for
example ballad, sonnet, elegy, ode, dramatic monologue. The form will
often be determined by the tone and subject matter. Note that some poets
may deliberately subvert the fixed form (see subvert).
point of view ● The particular perspective brought by a composer, responder or

character within a text to the text or to matters within the text.
● Narrative point of view refers to the ways a narrator may be related to
the story. The narrator, for example, might take the role of first or third
person, omniscient or restricted in knowledge of events, reliable or
unreliable in interpretation of what happens.
popular culture Cultural experiences, widely enjoyed by members of various groups within
the community, that are popular within their own time, for example
Shakespearean drama in Elizabethan England.

positioning The composing technique of causing the responder to adopt a particular

point of view and interpret a text in a particular way. Composers position
responders by selectively using detail or argument, by carefully shaping
focus and emphasis and by choosing language that promotes a particular
interpretation and reaction.
predictable text Texts that are easily navigated and read by beginning readers because
they contain highly regular features for example familiar subject matter, a
high degree of repetition, consistent placement of text and illustrations,
simple sentences, familiar vocabulary and a small number of sight words.
prediction An informed presumption about something that might happen. Predicting at

the text level can include working out what a text might contain by looking at
the cover, or working out what might happen next in a narrative. Predicting
at the sentence level is identifying what word is likely to come next in a
sentence. It is a useful technique when teaching reading or when engaging
with a text dealing with matters not previously known.
prefix A word part that is attached to the beginning of a base word to change the
meaning or form, for example unhappy, dislike (see suffix).
preposition A word that begins an adverbial phrase or an adjectival phrase indicating

time, place, manner, causality, for example in, on, after, before, by, under,
over, of, through. Pronouns following prepositions always take objective
case, for example 'between you and me' (not between you and I).
prepositional Units of meaning within a clause that begin with a preposition. They indicate
phrases how, when, where or why, for example 'She ran into the garden', 'He is
available from nine o'clock'.

pronoun A word that is used in place of a noun. There are different types of
pronouns:
● personal pronouns represent specific people or things, for example she,
it, they, you, we
● demonstrative pronouns indicate a thing or things, for example this,
these, that, those
● possessive pronouns refer to the belonging of one thing, person, etc, to
another, for example his, theirs, yours, mine
● interrogative pronouns represent the things that we are asking
questions about, for example who, whom, what, which
● reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Reflexive pronouns end in -self (singular) or -selves (plural). The
reflexive pronoun myself is not a substitute for the personal pronouns I
or me
● reciprocal pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects is
acting in the same way towards the other, for example 'Jack and Jill
love each other', 'The footballers were blaming one another'
● indefinite pronouns do not refer to any specific person, thing or amount,
for example all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each,
everybody/everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one,
several, some, somebody/someone
● relative pronouns introduce a relative clause. They are called relative
because they relate to the words they modify. There are five relative
pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that.
pronunciation The way in which a person speaks in terms of such aspects as articulation,
rhythm (stress, pause), intonation (pitch, tone) and volume.
pun A figure of speech where there is a play on words. Puns are usually
humorous and rely on more than one meaning of a word to emphasise the
point, which may be serious.
purpose The purpose of a text, in very broad terms, is to entertain, to inform or to

persuade different audiences in different contexts. Composers use a
number of ways to achieve these purposes: persuading through emotive
language, analysis or factual recount; entertaining through description,
imaginative writing or humour, and so on.
question A sentence that seeks information. The word group normally tagged onto a
clause in order to signal that a reply or response is required is known as a
question tag, for example 'You are going tomorrow, aren't you?', 'Move
over, can't you?'
question mark (?) A punctuation marker used at the end of a sentence to indicate that a
question is being asked.

quotation marks ('...' Punctuation markers used to indicate:

or "...") ● quoted or direct speech, for example 'I am Arno's brother,' he said. A
new paragraph and separate quotation marks are used for each
speaker being quoted
● in formal writing, the actual words quoted from another source. For
example, Shakespeare is using dramatic irony when Lady Macbeth
says, 'A little water clears us of this deed'
● the titles of poems, songs, short stories or articles, for example the well-
known song, 'Waltzing Matilda'
● that attention is being drawn to an unusual or particular sense or usage
of a word, for example Wombats are 'sociable' creatures.
Quotation marks are not used for the speech of characters in a drama
script.
quoted Speech in a text that quotes what someone has said, giving the exact
speech/direct words. It is represented in text by being contained within quotation marks
speech (see reported speech).
reading path The manner in which the eye of the viewer is led round an image, usually
by drawing the viewer to the most salient or important elements in the
composition.
recount A type of text that records events in the sequence in which they occurred.
The speaker/writer has often been personally involved in these events.
re-creating texts Transforming texts to explore how changes in particular elements of a text
affect meaning.
reference A means of keeping track of objects, words and illustrations in written and
spoken texts. In spoken language the references may be to items in the
surrounding environment. In written language the references are usually to
words in the text or to illustrations or other graphical items.
reference links Links that keep track of the people, animals or objects throughout a text –
usually nouns or pronouns, for example 'Sam sailed the boat down the
coast. He overturned it and he was towed to shore'.
reference list A reference list is a list of texts cited within the work as appropriate to the
medium and context of the work and in accordance to the principles of All
My Own Work.
reflection The thought process by which students develop an understanding and

appreciation of their own learning. This process draws on both cognitive
and affective experience.
register The degree of formality or informality of language used for a particular

purpose or in a particular social setting.
reimagine Reinterpret an event, work of art or a text imaginatively.

related texts Texts that students have chosen in addition to their prescribed texts. The
study of these related texts provides students with the opportunity to
explore a wider variety of texts related to the particular module. Students
draw their chosen texts from a variety of sources, in a range of genres and
media.
reported Speech in a text used to communicate what someone else said, but without
speech/indirect using the exact words. In reported speech the tense of the verbs is often
speech changed, for example She said that she was going to leave (indirect
speech), 'I am going to leave,' she said (direct speech).
representation The way ideas are portrayed and represented in texts, using language
devices, forms, features and structures of texts to create specific views
about characters, events and ideas. Representation applies to all language
modes: spoken, written, visual and multimodal.
representing The language mode that involves composing images in visual or multimodal
texts. These images and their meaning are composed using codes and
conventions. The term can include such activities as graphically presenting
the structure of a novel, making a film, composing a web page or enacting a
dramatic text.
responder A collective noun to include a reader, listener, viewer, an audience and so

on.
responding The activity that occurs when students read, listen to or view texts. It
encompasses the personal and intellectual connections a student makes
with texts. It also recognises that students and the texts to which they
respond reflect social contexts. Responding typically involves:
● reading, listening and viewing that depend on, but go beyond, the
decoding of texts
● identifying, comprehending, selecting, articulating, imagining, critically
analysing and evaluating.
rhetorical devices Strategies used by writers and speakers to achieve particular effects, for
example to stimulate the audience's imagination or thought processes, to
draw attention to a particular idea, or simply to display wit and ingenuity in
composition. Examples of rhetorical devices are irony, paradox, rhetorical
question, contrast and appropriation.
salience A strategy of emphasis, highlighting what is important in a text. In images,

salience is created through strategies like placement of an item in the
foreground, size, and contrast in tone or colour. In writing, salience can
occur through placing what is important at the beginning or at the end of a
sentence or paragraph or through devices for example underlining or italics.
satire The use of one or more of exaggeration, humour, parody, irony, sarcasm or
ridicule to expose, denounce and deride folly or vice in human nature and
institutions. The emphatic feature of these language devices draws
attention to what is being criticised.
saturation The depth of field or purity in colour or light.

scanning When reading, moving the eyes quickly down the page seeking specific
words and phrases.
segment To separate or divide a word into sounds (phonemes). This can include
segmenting words without pauses (stretching a word), for example
mmmaaattt, and segmenting words with a pause between each unit of
sound, for example / m / a / t /.
semantic Semantic information, and knowledge of it, is the broad, generalised

knowledge/informati knowledge of the world, of words and their meanings and word associations
on that allows responders to make sense of text beyond literal decoding and
application of syntactic knowledge to text.
semicolon (;) A punctuation marker used to indicate a separation between clauses that is
stronger than a comma but less complete than a full stop. Semicolons may
separate phrases or clauses that already include commas, for example 'The
competition was not decided today; it will finish next week', 'Undo the outer
wrapping, taking care not to damage the catch; remove the protective cover
and open the box'. The clause after the semicolon must contain a finite verb
and function as a stand-alone sentence.
sentence A unit of written language consisting of one or more clauses that are
grammatically linked. A written sentence begins with a capital letter and
ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark. A sentence
contains a finite verb. There are different types of sentences:
● simple sentence – is a single main clause and expresses a complete
thought. It has a subject and a finite verb and may also have an object,
for example 'Mary is beautiful.', 'The ground shook.', 'Take a seat.'
● compound sentence – contains two or more clauses that are
coordinated or linked in such a way as to give each clause equal status.
In the following example and is the coordinating conjunction: 'We went
to the movies and bought an ice cream.'
● complex sentence – contains a main (or independent) clause and one
or more subordinate (or dependent) clauses. The subordinate clause is
joined to the main clause through subordinating conjunctions like when,
while and before, as in the following examples: 'We all went outside
when the sun came out.', 'Because I am reading a long book, my time is
limited.'
shot In film or television, an uninterrupted image which can last for several
seconds up to several minutes between two edits. The term also refers to
the camera angle and/or position for example a close up, high angle or long
shot.
simile A figure of speech that compares two usually dissimilar things. The
comparison starts with like, as or as if.
skimming This strategy is used when reading to quickly identify the main ideas in a
text.

social distance Culturally determined boundaries which suggest different relations between
the represented participant and the viewer, for example intimate distance
(close up), public distance (long shot).
sound effect Any sound, other than speech or music, used to create a mood, feeling or
response to a text such as film or drama.
speaking Use voice to convey meaning and communicate with purpose. Some
students participate in speaking activities using communication systems
and assistive technologies to communicate wants and needs and to
comment about the world.
spoonerism A slip of the tongue where the initial sounds of a pair of words are
transposed. Generally used for humour, for example 'a blushing crow'.
Standard Australian English which, in its spoken and written forms, is the English of more formal
English communication throughout the Australian community. Standard Australian
English adheres to broadly accepted rules of syntax and pronunciation and
uses vocabulary that is more formal than colloquial. Standard Australian
English operates to facilitate communication across ethnic, social,
occupational and cultural groups and can be used as a benchmark against
which to recognise Australian dialects and cultural varieties of English.
Standard Australian English is a valuable and empowering communicative
tool for use in contexts where it is the preferred mode of communication.
statement A sentence that provides information, for example 'I am leaving now', as
contrasted with a question.
stereotype A circumstance where a person or thing is judged to be the same as all

others of its type. Stereotypes are usually formulaic and oversimplified. In
literature, a stereotype is a character representing generalised racial or
social traits, with no individualisation.
storyboard A series of drawings which approximate to a sequence of images used for

planning a film text.
structures of texts The relationships of different parts of a text to each other and to the text as
a complex whole. The structure of a text can refer to the internal
organisation of ideas, as in an argument or story, the development of
parallel plots in a novel or play, or the overarching framework of the text
(see language forms and features and textual form).
stylistic features The ways aspects of texts, for example words, sentences and images, are
arranged, and how they affect meaning. Style can distinguish the work of
individual authors (for example Jennings' stories, Lawson's poems) as well
as the work of a particular period (for example Elizabethan drama,
nineteenth century novels). Examples of stylistic features are narrative
viewpoint, structure of stanzas, juxtaposition, use of figurative language and
tone.

subject An element in the structure of a clause usually filled by a noun group, for
example 'The dog (subject) was barking'. The subject indicates who or what
gives agency or attributes to the finite verb or verb group and is usually
found by asking 'who' or 'what' before the verb. In the sentence, 'The dog
was barking', asking 'What was barking?' gives the answer, ‘the dog’. The
normal position of the subject is before the verb group, for example 'The
dog was barking', but in most kinds of interrogatives (questions) it follows
the first auxiliary verb, for example 'Was the dog barking?', 'Why was the
dog barking?' All main clauses and simple sentences must have a subject.
subject matter The topic or content of a text, for example an information report on boats
includes building materials, engines, etc. In literary texts, the subject matter
is often different from the ideas of the text. For example, the subject matter
of George Orwell's Animal Farm is animals running a farm, while the idea
Orwell is exploring is totalitarianism.
subject–verb The form of the verb must agree with the number of its subject, which will
agreement be a noun or noun group, for example 'They were not home' (as opposed to
'They was not home'). Confusion can arise when deciding whether the
subject is singular or plural, for example 'This group of students is very
clever', or when there are two subjects, for example 'Ice cream and
strawberries are delicious' (not 'is delicious').
subvert To compose or respond to a text in ways that are different from the widely
accepted reading or different from the conventional genre. For example,
Roald Dahl's Revolting Rhymes provides a subverted reading of Cinderella.
The purpose of producing a subverted reading of a text might be to
entertain or to raise questions about the meaning or inherent values in the
original text.
suffix A word part that is attached to the end of a base word to change the
meaning or form, for example jeweller, eating (see prefix).
sustained When referring to texts, maintaining consistency of style, form, language

features, argument and other unifying characteristics across the entire text.
syllabification The process of dividing words into syllables for reading and spelling
purposes.
syllable A unit of sound within a word containing a single vowel sound, for example
won-der-ful, sing-ly.
symbol An object, animate or inanimate, which represents something else through

the use of association, intentional analogy and convention.
symbolism Use of a symbol that represents something else, particularly in relation to a

quality or concept developed and strengthened through repetition. For
example, freedom can be symbolised by a bird in flight in both verbal and
visual texts.
synonym A word or word group with the same or similar meaning as another word or
word group, for example want (desire), go away (leave).

syntactic Related to the study of syntax.
syntax The way in which sentences and clauses are structured. Syntax is often
described in terms of such elements as subject, verb and object, for
example 'Christine (subject) munched (verb) the apple (object)'.
synthesise Combine elements of language or ideas or parts of characters, and so on,

to create more complex wholes.
taxonomies A particular classification arranged in a hierarchical structure. Taxonomies

influence text structures, ordering ideas within a text.
tense The element that determines when the action or condition of the verb form
is located in time. In broad terms the tense will be past, present or future,
for example 'Sarah laughed', 'Sarah laughs', 'Sarah will laugh'. Participles
(verbs ending in -ing) do not locate a verb in time and need a finite
component to indicate when the event happens. For example, the participle
running needs the finite auxiliaries was running (past), is running (present),
will be running (future) to indicate when the running occurred.
term of address A name or title used when addressing different people, for example Mum,
Dr Singh, Johnno, Sir, darling.
text connectives Often called conjunctions, these are words for signposting the development
of a text and helping it hold together. They can:
● sequence ideas, for example firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally
● add information, for example in addition, furthermore, in the same way
● show causes and results, for example so, therefore, for that reason,
accordingly, as a consequence
● introduce conditions or concessions, for example on the other hand,
however, nevertheless, despite this.
text navigation The way readers move through text. Readers generally read novels in a
linear fashion from the beginning to the end. Readers of nonfiction books
often use the contents page and index and move between chapters
according to the information sought. Readers often read digital texts more
flexibly, according to interest and purpose, using hyperlinks to move
between pages and digital objects such as videos or animations, making
quick judgements about the relevance of material.
text processing Strategies for reading a text. These involve drawing on contextual,
strategies semantic, grammatical and phonic knowledge in systematic ways to work
out what a text says. They include predicting, recognising words and
working out unknown words, monitoring the reading, identifying and
correcting errors, reading on and re-reading.
text structure The ways information is organised in different types of texts, for example
chapter headings, subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries,
overviews, introductory and concluding paragraphs, sequencing, topic
sentences, taxonomies, cause and effect. Choices in text structures and
language features together define a text type and shape its meaning (see
language features).

texts Communications of meaning produced in any media that incorporates

language, including sound, print, film, electronic and multimedia
representations. Texts include written, spoken, non-verbal, visual or
multimodal communications of meaning. They may be extended unified
works, a series of related pieces or a single, simple piece of
communication.
textual form The conventions specific to a particular type of text, often signalling content,
purpose and audience, for example letter form, drama script, blog.
textual integrity The unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an
integrated whole in terms of meaning and value.
theme ● Refers to the central or one of the main underlying ideas or messages
of a text.
● Grammatical theme – in a sentence the theme is the clause that comes
in first position and indicates what the sentence is about. Theme is
important at different levels of text organisation. The topic sentence
serves as the theme for the points raised in a paragraph. A pattern of
themes contributes to the method of development for the text as a
whole.

theoretical Theoretical perspectives and models present significant views on the

perspectives and teaching of English. They incorporate different ways of considering texts to
models assist students to engage with the full scope of, and relationship between,
meaning and texts. They include various teaching methods. Perspectives
and models include 'personal growth', 'critical literacy', 'cultural heritage',
'cultural literacy' and the 'social view of language'.
Personal growth: an approach to teaching English that focuses on

developing students' personal responses to texts, their enjoyment of
reading, and fostering individual creativity. It is particularly concerned with
students' social needs and personal interests and explicitly values students'
own experiences. Through its exploration of personal experience and its
acceptance of the language of everyday communication, a personal growth
model allows for the incorporation of a wide range of texts and media. This
approach allows for learning about self and the world through relation to
text and context.
Critical literacy: the ability to question, challenge and evaluate the

meanings and purposes of texts. It involves an understanding of the ways in
which values and attitudes are communicated through language, including
how subject matter, point of view and language embody assumptions about
issues such as gender, ethnicity and class. A critical literacy approach to
teaching English has students composing, responding to, analysing and
evaluating written, spoken, visual and multimedia texts from various
perspectives in order to learn how they operate as cultural products.
Cultural heritage: that approach to teaching that focuses on transmitting to

students the established knowledge and values of high culture, expressed
through literary texts. In the case of English teaching, a cultural heritage
model places high value on the literature of the Western canon and involves
detailed analytical treatment of texts in order to uncover the meanings
intended and communicated by the author.
Cultural literacy: knowledge and understanding of texts as cultural

artefacts and how language, history, values and traditions shape and are
reflected in literature, the media, popular culture and everyday and
workplace contexts. Cultural literacy requires an ability to respond to and
compose texts with an awareness of such cultural contexts.
Social view of language: an approach to literacy education that

recognises that acts of communication (texts) are socially constructed.
Texts vary according to different situations and cultural factors. The
effectiveness of a text is judged according to how well it fulfils its social,
personal or academic purpose.
tone ● The voice adopted by a particular speaker to indicate emotion, feeling

or attitude to subject matter.
● The author's attitude towards the subject and audience, for example
playful, serious, ironic, formal.

types of texts Classifications according to the particular purposes texts are designed to
achieve. These purposes influence the characteristic features the texts
employ. In general, texts can be classified as belonging to one of three
types (imaginative, informative or persuasive), although it is acknowledged
that these distinctions are neither static nor watertight and particular texts
can belong to more than one category.
● Imaginative texts – texts that represent ideas, feelings and mental
images in words or visual images. An imaginative text might use
metaphor to translate ideas and feelings into a form that can be
communicated effectively to an audience. Imaginative texts also make
new connections between established ideas or widely recognised
experiences in order to create new ideas and images. Imaginative texts
are characterised by originality, freshness and insight. These texts
include novels, traditional tales, poetry, stories, plays, fiction for young
adults and children, including picture books and multimodal texts, for
example film.
● Informative texts – texts whose primary purpose is to provide
information through explanation, description, argument, analysis,
ordering and presentation of evidence and procedures. These texts
include reports, explanations and descriptions of natural phenomena,
recounts of events, instructions and directions, rules and laws, news
bulletins and articles, websites and text analyses. They include texts
which are valued for their informative content, as a store of knowledge
and for their value as part of everyday life.
● Persuasive texts – texts whose primary purpose is to put forward a
point of view and persuade a reader, viewer or listener. They form a
significant part of modern communication in both print and digital
environments. Persuasive texts seek to convince the responder of the
strength of an argument or point of view through information, judicious
use of evidence, construction of argument, critical analysis and the use
of rhetorical, figurative and emotive language. They include student
essays, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics, advertising,
propaganda, influential essays and articles. Persuasive texts may be
written, spoken, visual or multimodal.
upper and lower Upper case (also called capital letters) and lower case letters are two forms
case of the letters of the alphabet. Lower case letters are used except when it is
necessary to:
● indicate specific names, for example those of organisations, titles,
countries
● indicate the beginning of a sentence or the initial letter of a proper noun.
value systems The set of personal, social and cultural beliefs that underpin a text. For
example, in the western genre a clear line is drawn between good and evil
and great value is placed on rugged masculine individualism as a means of
keeping order.

values These are the ideas and beliefs in a text. They may be reflected in
characters, through what they do and say; through the setting of the text,
reflecting particular social views; and through the narrative voice of the text,
perhaps through authorial comment. Values are specific to individuals and
groups, and a text may contain a number of conflicting values.
vector An item that directs our eyes towards a focal point, for example when the
subject in a visual text is pointing or looking in a certain direction. As the
reader or viewer, our eyes will follow the direction in which they are pointing
or looking.
verb The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb states
what is happening in the sentence. Finite verbs locate the condition or
action of the verb in a specific time frame: past, present or future (see finite
verbs and tense). Verbs create the relationship between the subject and the
object of the verb (see subject–verb agreement). Different types of verbs
include:
● action verbs, for example 'They danced all night.'
● relating verbs, for example 'Cows are herbivores.'
● thinking verbs, for example 'She forgot his name.'
● feeling verbs, for example 'Sarah likes baked beans.'
● possessing verbs, for example 'He has a new car.'
verb groups A group of words built up around a verb. Verb groups may include auxiliary
verbs (ie those 'helping' verbs used to indicate tense or modality), for
example 'She is going soon', 'They must leave before dark'. Verb groups
can contain two or more verbs, for example 'He huffed and puffed', 'They
were going to climb the fence'. These are sometimes called
complex/compound verbs. Some verb groups include other words such as
adverbs and prepositions, for example 'The plane took off' (see auxiliary
verb).
viewing Observing and comprehending a visual text, for example diagram,

illustration, photograph, film, television documentary, multimedia. This
sometimes involves listening to and reading accompanying written text.
visual features Visual components of a text for example placement, salience, framing,
representation of action or reaction, shot size, social distance and camera
angle.
visual language Language that contributes to the meaning of an image or the visual
components of a multimodal text and are selected from a range of visual
features like placement, salience, framing, representation of action or
reaction, shot size, social distance and camera angle. Visual language can
also include elements, for example symbol, colour, scene and frame
composition, setting and landscape, lighting and the use of editing.

visual literacy The ability to decode, interpret, create, question, challenge and evaluate
texts that communicate with visual images as well as, or rather than, words.
Visually literate people can read the intended meaning in a visual text such
as an advertisement or a film shot, interpret the purpose and intended
meaning, and evaluate the form, structure and features of the text. They
can also use images in a creative and appropriate way to express meaning.
visual memory The retention, recall or recognition of things seen. In reading and writing,
visual memory is helpful in learning letter forms and their sequence in
words.
visual processing The reader's reaction to the visual features or appearance of written text.
This is influenced by the reader's familiarity with letter strings and multi-
letter patterns (see graphological).
visual texts Texts in which meaning is shaped and communicated by images rather
than words. Visual texts use techniques, for example line, shape, space,
colour, movement, perspective, angle and juxtaposition to shape meaning.
Examples of visual texts include cartoons, billboards, photographs, film, TV,
artworks, web pages and illustrations.
voice ● In reference to a text, voice means the composer's voice – the idea of a
speaking consciousness, the controlling presence or 'authorial voice'
behind the characters, narrators and personas in a text. It is also
described as the implied composer. The particular qualities of the
composer's voice are manifested by such things as her or his method of
expression (for example an ironic narrator) and specific language.
● Grammatically, voice refers to the way of indicating who is doing the
action. Active voice is where the 'doer' of the action comes before the
verb, for example 'Ann broke the vase'. Passive voice is where the
'receiver' of the action is placed before the verb, for example 'The vase
was broken by Ann' (see theme). Stylistically, active voice is usually
preferred in writing, as it places the agent of the verb at the start of the
sentence and has a sense of immediacy, whereas passive voice
creates a sense of detachment between subject and verb and is not so
easily read and understood.
● In speaking, a description of the oral production of text.
voice-over The voice of an unseen commentator or narrator heard during a film or

presentation.
word chain A sequence of nouns and noun groups or verbs and verb groups that
unifies a text by linking a particular content strand. Chains can also be
established through repetition. For example, in a text about birds, words
such as pelicans, blue cranes, moorhens and ibises create a word chain
based on a pattern of words connecting classes of items.
word origin The source and history of a word (etymology), for example photograph
(from the Greek words for 'light' and 'picture').
word play Experimenting with and manipulating language (often in humour), usually
for entertaining effect, for example spoonerisms, double meanings, puns.

writing Plan, compose, edit and publish texts in print or digital forms. Writing
usually involves activities using pencils, pens, word processors; and/or
using drawings, models, photos to represent text; and/or using a scribe to
record responses or produce recorded responses.
youth cultures The shared beliefs, knowledge, creative activities, customs and lifestyle of
young people, particularly teenagers, within a culture. Youth cultures
develop in those societies which differentiate teenagers as a group
separate from children and adults. In Australia, the dominant youth culture
identifies closely with popular culture and finds expression in the music and
multimedia texts of popular culture.

English Glossary Terms

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Glossary

Glossary term Definition

Aboriginal cultural Aboriginal cultural protocols describe appropriate ways of behaving,

Aboriginal English Aboriginal English is a dialect of Standard Australian English. It is a

active voice (see voice)

adverb A word class that modifies:

In English many adverbs have an -ly ending.

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 75

adverbial An adverbial phrase or clause contributes additional information to the main

An adverbial can also contribute evaluative interpersonal meaning to a

aesthetic Relating to a sense of beauty or an appreciation of artistic expression. The

allusion A deliberate and implicit reference to a person or event, or a work of art

analogy A comparison demonstrating the similarities between two things, people or

animation A simulation of movement created by displaying a series of pictures or

apostrophe (') A punctuation marker used to:

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 76

appreciation The act of discerning quality, value and enjoyment in imaginative,

argument The reasons and evidence given to support an idea or a proposition.

bias In argument or discussion, to favour one side or viewpoint by ignoring or

body language A form of non-verbal communication which consists of body movements

brackets (see parentheses)

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 77

clause A clause is a complete message or thought expressed in words. The

collaborative An approach to teamwork that enables students to combine their individual

colloquial Informal expression of language, characteristic of speech and often used in

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 78

comma (,) A punctuation marker used to indicate the grammatical organisation of

communication An overarching term encompassing the technologies (applications and

complex sentence (see sentence)

composer A collective noun to include an author, poet, playwright, director, designer

compound sentence (see sentence)

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 79

contraction A contraction is a shortened form of one or two words (one of which is

creating/composing ‘Creating’ refers to the development and/or production of spoken, written,

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 80

creativity The dynamic process of using language to conceptualise, interpret and

critical Exploration of the quality of argument, content, analysis, information or

cultural expression The articulation or representation of beliefs, practices or attitudes pertaining

dash (–) A punctuation marker used to indicate a break or pause in a sentence or to

decode The process in which knowledge of letter–sound relationships, including

dependent clause (see clause)

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 81

e-literature The electronic publication of literature using the multimedia capabilities of

ellipsis Ellipsis is the omission of words where:

email Electronic mail. Correspondence sent and received using electronic

emotive language Language that creates an emotional response.

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 82

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 83

grammatical/syntact Information about language structure in comprehending a text, for example

grapheme A letter or combination of letters that corresponds to or represents

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 84

idiom An expression peculiar to a language, that cannot be taken literally, for

imagery The use of figurative language or illustrations to represent objects, actions

English Standard Stage 6 Syllabus 85

imaginative text (see types of texts)

indirect speech (see reported speech)

inference The process of drawing conclusions based on evidence from a text.

informative text (see types of texts)

interpretive Responding to a text in order to draw meaning from it.