Mathematics of Voting
Learning Objectives;
1. Construct and interpret a preference schedule for an election involving
preference ballots.
2. Implement the various vote counting methods.
Voting
Voting is a sacred right and power that citizen in a democratic country
exercise to select their leaders.
Voting is a method for a group in order to make a collective decision
or express an opinion.
Mathematics of Voting
The mathematics of the intricacies and subtleties of how
voting is done and the votes are counted.
Mathematics of Voting
Preference Ballots
A ballot in which the voters are asked to rank the candidates in order of
preference.
A preferential voting system asks a voter to state a preference by ranking
alternatives.
Mathematics of Voting
Preference Table or preference schedule
Rankings
1st Choice A C D B C
2nd Choice B B C D D
3rd Choice C D B C B
4th Choice D A A A A
Number of 14 10 8 4 1
Votes
Mathematics of Voting
Preference Table or preference schedule
Rankings Candidates Rankings
1st Choice A C D B C A 1st 4th 4th 4th 4th
2nd Choice B B C D D B 2nd 2nd 3rd 1st 3rd
3rd Choice C D B C B C 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd 1st
4th Choice D A A A A D 4th 3rd 1st 2nd 2nd
Number of 14 10 8 4 1 Number of 14 10 8 4 1
Votes Votes
Mathematics of Voting
Relative Preference of a Voter
The first is that a voter’s preference are transitive,
i.e., that a voter who prefers candidate A over Rankings
candidate B and prefers candidate B over candidate
1st Choice A
C automatically prefers candidate A over C.
2nd Choice B
Secondly, that the relative preferences of a voter are 3rd Choice C
not affected by the elimination of one or more of 4th Choice D
the candidates.
Mathematics of Voting
Relative Preference by elimination of one
or more candidates
Rankings Rankings
1st Choice A 1st Choice A
2nd Choice B 2nd Choice C
3rd Choice C 3rd Choice D
4th Choice D
Mathematics of Voting
Methods of Voting
1. Plurality Voting Method
2. Plurality with Elimination Method
3. Borda-Count Voting Method
4. Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
Mathematics of Voting
Majority rule
The candidate with a more than half the votes
should be the winner.
Majority candidate
The candidate with the majority of 1st place
votes .
Plurality Voting Method
Election of 1st place votes
The Candidate with the most 1st place votes wins
Plurality Voting Method
Election of 1st place votes
The Candidate with the most 1st place votes wins
Example:
512 people ranked their preferences of five contestants in a singing contest,
using 1 for their favorite and 5 for their least favorite. Results of the text votes
were tallied below. Rankings
1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B
3rd C D E A C
4th B C A E D
5th A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Plurality Voting Method
The Candidate with the most 1st place votes wins
Rankings
1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B
3rd C D E A C
4th B C A E D
5th A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Plurality Voting Method
The Candidate with the most 1st place votes wins
Rankings Contestants 1st-place votes
1st E A B C A A 98 + 49 = 147
2nd D E D B B B 50
3rd C D E A C C 175
4th B C A E D D 0
5th A B C D E E 140
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Since contestant C received 175 votes which is the most number
of votes, this contender wins the contest.
Who wins by the plurality method?
Rank Number of Votes
3 1 1 1 1 1 1
1st A A B B C C D
2nd D B C C B D C
3rd B C D A D B B
4th C D A D A A A
Plurality With Elimination
1. Eliminate the candidate with the fewest number of first place votes.
2. If two or more of these alternatives have the same number of first-
place votes, all are eliminated unless that would eliminate all
alternatives. In that case, a different method of voting must be
used.
3. Adjust the voters’ rankings of the remaining candidates.
4. Repeat the process of elimination and adjustment until two
candidates are left.
5. The candidate with the majority votes wins the election
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings
1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B
3rd C D E A C
4th B C A E D
5th A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings
1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B
3rd C D E A C
4th B C A E D
5th A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
D is eliminated since D has no first-place votes. Then make adjustments of
the voters’ rankings of the remaining candidates
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Rankings
1st E A B C A 1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B 2nd C E E B B
3rd C D E A C 3rd B C A A C
4th B C A E D 4th A B C E E
5th A B C D E Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
D is eliminated since D has no first-place votes. Then make adjustments of
the voters’ rankings of the remaining candidates
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Contestants 1st-place votes
1st E A B C A A 98 + 49 = 147
2nd C E E B B B 50
3rd B C A A C C 175
4th A B C E E D 140
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
512/2 = 256 + 1 = 257
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Rankings
1st E A B C A 1st E A E C A
2nd C E E B B 2nd C E A A C
3rd B C A A C 3rd A C C E E
4th A B C E E Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
B is eliminated since B has the fewest first-place votes. Then, again
make adjustments of the voters’ rankings of the remaining candidates
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Contestants 1st-place votes
1st E A E C A A 98 + 49 = 147
2nd C E A A C C 175
3rd A C C E E E 140 + 50 = 190
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Contestants 1st-place votes
1st E A E C A A 98 + 49 = 147
2nd C E A A C C 175
3rd A C C E E E 140 + 50 = 190
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Is the table enough to identify the winner? If yes, who is the winner?
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Rankings
1st E A E C A 1st E E E C C
2nd C E A A C 2nd C C C E E
3rd A C C E E Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Plurality With Elimination
Rankings Contestants 1st-place votes
1st E E E C C C 175 + 49 = 224
2nd C C C E E E 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Thus, using plurality with elimination method of voting, candidate E wins.
Who wins by plurality with elimination
method?
Rank
1st A B C C D E
2nd B D A E C D
3rd C E E B A C
4th D C B A E A
5th E A D D B B
Number 10 5 3 1 4 4
of votes
Borda Count Method
In the Borda Count Method each place on a ballot is assigned points. In an election
with N candidates we give 1 point for last place, 2 points for second from last place, and
so on.
At the top of the ballot, a first-place vote is worth N points. The points are tallied for
each candidate separately, and the candidate with the highest total is the winner. We call
such a candidate the Borda winner.
Borda Count Method
Rankings
1st (5 points) E A B C A
2nd (4 points) D E D B B
3rd (3 points) C D E A C
4th (2 points) B C A E D
5th (1 point) A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Borda Count Method
Rankings
1st (5 points) E A B C A
2nd (4 points) D E D B B
3rd (3 points) C D E A C
4th (2 points) B C A E D
5th (1 point) A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
For contestant A: 140(1) + 98(5) + 50 (2) + 175(3) + 49(5) = 1 500
Borda Count Method
Rankings
1st (5 points) E A B C A
2nd (4 points) D E D B B
3rd (3 points) C D E A C
4th (2 points) B C A E D
5th (1 point) A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
For contestant A: 140(1) + 98(5) + 50 (2) + 175(3) + 49(5) = 1 500
For contestant B: 140(2) + 98(1) + 50(5) + 175(4) + 49(4) = 1 524
Borda Count Method
Rankings
1st (5 points) E A B C A
2nd (4 points) D E D B B
3rd (3 points) C D E A C
4th (2 points) B C A E D
5th (1 point) A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
For contestant A: 140(1) + 98(5) + 50 (2) + 175(3) + 49(5) = 1 500
For contestant B: 140(2) + 98(1) + 50(5) + 175(4) + 49(4) = 1 524
For contestant C: 140(3) + 98(2) + 50 (1) + 175(5) + 49(3) = 1 688
Borda Count Method
Rankings
1st (5 points) E A B C A
2nd (4 points) D E D B B
3rd (3 points) C D E A C
4th (2 points) B C A E D
5th (1 point) A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
For contestant A: 140(1) + 98(5) + 50 (2) + 175(3) + 49(5) = 1 500
For contestant B: 140(2) + 98(1) + 50(5) + 175(4) + 49(4) = 1 524
For contestant C: 140(3) + 98(2) + 50 (1) + 175(5) + 49(3) = 1 688
For contestant D: 140(4) + 98(3) + 50 (4) + 175(1) + 49(2) = 1 327
For contestant E: 140(5) + 98(4) + 50 (3) + 175(2) + 49(1) = 1 641
Borda Count Method
Rankings
1st (5 points) E A B C A
2nd (4 points) D E D B B
3rd (3 points) C D E A C
4th (2 points) B C A E D
5th (1 point) A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
For contestant A: 140(1) + 98(5) + 50 (2) + 175(3) + 49(5) = 1 500
Thus, using Borda
For contestant B: 140(2) + 98(1) + 50(5) + 175(4) + 49(4) = 1 524
count Method of
For contestant C: 140(3) + 98(2) + 50 (1) + 175(5) + 49(3) = 1 688
voting, contestant C
For contestant D: 140(4) + 98(3) + 50 (4) + 175(1) + 49(2) = 1 327
wins.
For contestant E: 140(5) + 98(4) + 50 (3) + 175(2) + 49(1) = 1 641
Who wins by Borda-Count method of voting?
Number 5 6 3 2 4
of votes
1st A B B C D
2nd D C D A C
3rd C D A D A
4th B A C B B
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
The Method of Pairwise Comparisons
In a pairwise comparison between X and Y every vote is assigned to either X or
Y, the vote/s go to whichever of the two candidates is listed higher on the ballot. The
winner is the one with the most votes; if the two candidates split the votes
equally, it ends in a tie.
The winner of the pairwise comparison gets 1 point and the loser gets none; in
case of a tie each candidate gets ½ point. The winner of the election is the
candidate with the most points after all the pairwise comparisons are tabulate.
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
Number of Comparisons
For example, suppose we have three candidates:
Alice, Bob, and Carol.
We have to compare Alice versus Bob, Alice versus Carol, and Bob versus Carol.
As the number of candidates grows, so do the number of head-to-head
comparisons that need to be made. For n candidates, there are
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
2
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
Number of Comparisons
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
2
Rankings
1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B
3rd C D E A C
4th B C A E D
5th A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
Number of Comparisons
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
2
Rankings
1st E A B C A
2nd D E D B B 𝑛(𝑛−1) 5(5−1) 5(4)
3rd C D E A C = = = 10
2 2 2
4th B C A E D
5th A B C D E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
A vs B
A was favored over B: 98 + 49 = 147 Rankings
B was favored over A: 140 + 50 + 175 = 365 1st E A B C A
A vs C
A was favored over C: 98 +50+ 49 =197 2nd D E D B B
C was favored over A: 140 + 175 = 315 3rd C D E A C
A vs D
A was favored over D: 98 +175+ 49 =322 4th B C A E D
D was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190 5th A B C D E
A vs E
Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
A was favored over E: 98 +175+ 49 = 322
E was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190 C vs D
B vs C C was favored over D: 175 + 49 =224
B was favored over C: 50+ 49 =99 D was favored over C: 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
C was favored over B: 140 +98 +175 = 413 C vs E
B vs D C was favored over E: 175 + 49 =224
B was favored over D: 50 +175 + 49 =274 E was favored over C: 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
D was favored over B: 140 + 98 = 238 D vs E
B vs E D was favored over E: 50 + 49 =99
B was favored over E: 50 +175+ 49 =274 E was favored over D: 140 + 98 + 175 = 413
E was favored over B: 140 + 98 =238
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
A vs B
A was favored over B: 98 + 49 = 147 Rankings
B was favored over A: 140 + 50 + 175 = 365 1st E A B C A
A vs C
A was favored over C: 98 +50+ 49 =197 2nd D E D B B
C was favored over A: 140 + 175 = 315 3rd C D E A C
A vs D
4th B C A E D
A was favored over D: 98 +175+ 49 =322
D was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190 5th A B C D E
A vs E Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
A was favored over E: 98 +175+ 49 = 322
E was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190
B vs C
B was favored over C: 50+ 49 =99
C was favored over B: 140 +98 +175 = 413
B vs D
B was favored over D: 50 +175 + 49 =274
D was favored over B: 140 + 98 = 238
B vs E
B was favored over E: 50 +175+ 49 =274
E was favored over B: 140 + 98 =238
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
A vs B
A was favored over B: 98 + 49 = 147 Rankings
B was favored over A: 140 + 50 + 175 = 365 1st E A B C A
A vs C
A was favored over C: 98 +50+ 49 =197 2nd D E D B B
C was favored over A: 140 + 175 = 315 3rd C D E A C
A vs D
4th B C A E D
A was favored over D: 98 +175+ 49 =322
D was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190 5th A B C D E
A vs E Number of Votes 140 98 50 175 49
A was favored over E: 98 +175+ 49 = 322
E was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190 C vs D
B vs C C was favored over D: 175 + 49 =224
B was favored over C: 50+ 49 =99 D was favored over C: 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
C was favored over B: 140 +98 +175 = 413 C vs E
B vs D C was favored over E: 175 + 49 =224
B was favored over D: 50 +175 + 49 =274 E was favored over C: 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
D was favored over B: 140 + 98 = 238 D vs E
B vs E D was favored over E: 50 + 49 =99
B was favored over E: 50 +175+ 49 =274 E was favored over D: 140 + 98 + 175 = 413
E was favored over B: 140 + 98 =238
Pairwise Comparison Voting Method
A vs B
A was favored over B: 98 + 49 = 147 Contestants Total
B was favored over A: 140 + 50 + 175 = 365 Points
A vs C A 2
A was favored over C: 98 +50+ 49 =197
C was favored over A: 140 + 175 = 315 B 3
A vs D C 2
A was favored over D: 98 +175+ 49 =322
D was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190
D 1
A vs E E 2
A was favored over E: 98 +175+ 49 = 322
E was favored over A: 140 + 50 = 190 C vs D
B vs C C was favored over D: 175 + 49 =224
B was favored over C: 50+ 49 =99 D was favored over C: 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
C was favored over B: 140 +98 +175 = 413 C vs E
B vs D C was favored over E: 175 + 49 =224
B was favored over D: 50 +175 + 49 =274 E was favored over C: 140 + 98 + 50 = 288
D was favored over B: 140 + 98 = 238 D vs E
B vs E D was favored over E: 50 + 49 =99
B was favored over E: 50 +175+ 49 =274 E was favored over D: 140 + 98 + 175 = 413
E was favored over B: 140 + 98 =238
Who wins by pairwise comparison?
Number of 21 13 7 5
votes
1st E D A D
2nd A A D E
3rd D E E A
Which of the following are valid weighted
voting systems?
1. [10: 9, 7, 6, 3, 1]
2. [5: 3, 2, 1, 1]
3. [21: 11, 8, 5, 2, 1]
Special types of systems:
• Dictatorial system. A system in which one voter holds votes more than the
quota and the sum of the rest of the voters is less than the quota.
Example: {15:24, 1, 1, 1, 1}
• One person, one vote system. This is a system where every voter has only
one vote.
Example: {3:1, 1, 1, 1, 1}
• Null System: This is a type of system where no possible coalition of voters
can achieve the quota.
Example: {10: 2, 3, 1, 1, 1}
• Veto power system. This system cannot pass a measure if one voter does
not vote for it.
Example: {5:1, 1, 1, 1, 1}
Suppose that the set of 4 members of the Board, say Mark, Steve,
Bill, William have the following votes, respectively: 325, 265, 250,
and 160. That is,
Board Number of
Member Votes
Mark 325
Steve 265
Bill 250
William 160
Coalition table All possible Sum of Votes Remarks
coalitions (quota = 501)
MSBW 1000 Winning
MSB 840 Winning
MSW 750 Winning
MBW 735 Winning
SBW 675 Winning
MS 590 Winning
MB 515 Winning
MW 485 Losing
SB 515 Winning
SW 425 Losing
BW 410 Losing
M 325 Losing
S 265 Losing
B 250 Losing
W 160 Losing
The Critical Voter
Table of Critical Voters
All winning Sum of votes Critical
coalitions voter(s)
MSBW 1000 None
MSB 840 None
MSW 750 M, S
MBW 735 M, B
SBW 675 S, B
MS 590 M, S
MB 515 M, B
SB 515 S, B
Given the weighted voting system: [17: 10, 6, 5, 3, 2]
The Banzhaf Power Index
•
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐴 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
The Banzhaf Power Index
•
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐴 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
All winning Sum of votes Critical
coalitions voter(s)
MSBW 1000 None
MSB 840 None
MSW 750 M, S
MBW 735 M, B
SBW 675 S, B
MS 590 M, S
MB 515 M, B
SB 515 S, B
The Blocking Coalition
All possible Sum of Votes Remaining Remarks
coalitions (quota = 501) votes
MSB 840 160 Blocking Coalition
MSW 750 250 Blocking Coalition
MBW 735 265 Blocking Coalition
SBW 675 325 Blocking Coalition
MS 590 410 Blocking Coalition
MB 515 425 Blocking Coalition
MW 485 515 Not
SB 515 485 Blocking Coalition
SW 425 515 Not
BW 410 590 Not
M 325 675 Not
S 265 735 Not
B 250 750 Not
W 160 840 Not
