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Afrikan American Women
Living at the Crossroads of Race, Gender, Class, and Culture

Edited by Huberta Jackson-Lowman

Florida A&M University
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dedication

To my daughter, Awoyunla; my niece, Hadiya; and my

granddaughters, Cama, Nadia, Jada, & Diara.

May you live your lives knowing, loving, and ap-

preciating all of who you are, expressing your true selves
authentically and with confidence and courage, and using
your God-given gifts to enhance the lives of your family and
community, and particularly women of Afrikan ancestry.
 C ontents

Acknowledgmentsix

Introduction: Why the Need for a Psychology of Black Women 1

Huberta Jackson-Lowman

P art I. Defining Who We Are at the Crossroads of R ace, Gender, Class,

and C ulture 

A Culturally Syntonic Model of Healthy Identity for Afrikan American Women 11

Huberta Jackson-Lowman

Ancient Models of Afrikan Womanhood: Challenging Contemporary Perceptions 27

of Black Womanhood

Huberta Jackson-Lowman & Mawiyah Kambon

Ancestral Memory: Identity Concepts in African American Women of Northern 47

Louisiana 1865–1900

Patricia Canson-Griffith

Distinguishing Features of Black Feminist Thought 79

Patricia Hill Collins

 Africana Womanism  97
Clenora Hudson-Weems

Oppositional Consciousness Within An Oppositional Realm: The Case of Feminism & Womanism 111
in Rap and Hip Hop: 1976–2004

Layli Maparyan, Kerri Reddick-Morgan, & Dionne Patricia Stephens

P art II. Seeking A uthenticity at the C rossroads of Race, Gender, Class, & Culture
Introduction: The Maafa and the Distortion of Black Female Authenticity 133
Huberta Jackson-Lowman

Mythical illusions: Cultural Images and Black Womanhood 137

Julia S. Jordan-Zachery

An Analysis of the Impact of Eurocentric Concepts of Beauty on the Lives of Afrikan American Women 155

Huberta Jackson-Lowman

The Strong Black Woman: A Half-told Tale of Race, Gender, and the Body 173

Tamara Beauboeuf-LaFontant

The Whole Picture: Examining Black Women Through the Life Span 189

Keisha Bentley-Edwards & Valerie N. Adams-Bass

Black Female Adolescents: Defying the Odds 203

Morgan Maxwell, Jasmine Abrams, Michell Pope, & Faye Belgrave

Jezebel’s Legacy: The Development of African American Heterosexual Girls’ Emerging Sexuality 221
in the Context of Oppressive Images and the Armoring Influence of Mother–Daughter Relationships

Tiffany G. Townsend & Anita Jones Thomas

 Scripted Realities: Sexual Scripting, Co-Opted Hip-Hop, and Sexual Risk-Taking Among African American Women 235
Madelyn N. Coleman

A Different Look Through the Lens of Oppression: African American Women and HIV/AIDS 257

Barbara Haile

Black Women’s Love Relationships 269

Patricia Hill Collins

Sisters Gone Missing: The Lack of Focus on African American Lesbians in Mental Health Counseling and Research 287

Debra A. Harley, Kim L. Stansbury, & Marva Nelson

Gender Violence and African American Women 305

Jackie Collins Robinson

Superwoman Schema: African American Women’s Views on Stress, Strength, and Health  317

Cheryl L. Woods-Giscombé

P art III. Finding Purpose at the Crossroads of Race, Gender, Class, and C ulture
Introduction343
Huberta Jackson-Lowman

Black Mother–Daughter Interactions & Hair Combing Rituals 345

Marva L. Lewis

The Power of Self-Definition 369

Patricia Hill Collins

 The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Black Women’s Lives 373
Velma E. Love

Healing, Coping, and Transcending the Legacy of Racism, Sexism, & Classism 387

Linda James Myers

A Vital Cohesion: African American Women as Activists in the Family and Society 397

Tameka Bradley Hobbs

P art IV. Appendices

Selected Film Resources on Afrikan American Women Issues 423

Author Biographies 429

 The task of expressing gratitude to all those who have
acknowledgments helped and supported me through the completion of this
first book is more than daunting. It is insufficient to simply
say that all those who have crossed my path have in one
way or another influenced me, although this is certainly
true. Stepping out on faith I offer my sincere expressions
of gratitude and appreciation to each of you who has
contributed to this achievement. I have done this with
an exceptional group of women authors, for women of
Afrikan ancestry and for those who do not know who we
really are.
My backers and supporters are extensive. First, I must
begin by saying Maferefún Égún (I give praise and honor to
the ancestors), those known and unknown, those that I can
name and those that I cannot name, those lost during the
Middle Passage, those scattered throughout the Diaspora,
those buried in the soil of Afrika. It is their collective energy,
efforts, and struggle for dignity, social justice, liberation,
and for the sovereignty of Afrikan people that I have called
upon, and it is their shoulders on which I stand. I sincerely
hope their contributions are adequately recognized and
lifted up in this book. Included among them are my par-
ents—Emma (Martin) Jackson and Hugh Jackson, whose
lives shaped everything that I am today.
My family, in particular my husband Bill, has stood by
me, giving me the space to undertake this work. Without
Bill’s continuous support and assistance, this book would
never have been completed. He filled in wherever he was
needed and did so graciously and without hesitation.
Other family members—Burrietta, my sister, and my
daughter, Awoyunla—have offered feedback to me on
various chapters of the book, while still others constantly
encouraged me to go forward and believed in my ability to
successfully complete this book.
I am particularly grateful to Dr. Kobi Kambon, who has
been a friend and jegna (trusted advisor) since my arrival
at Florida A&M University (FAMU). He provided valuable
feedback to me on parts of the book and his work has been
a source of inspiration for me. I must acknowledge my
long standing jegna, Dr. Jerome Taylor, currently Chair of

ix
x    A frikan A merican W omen

the Africana Studies Department at the University of Pittsburgh. He has influenced my life directly and indi-
rectly in many countless ways through his support, the work ethic that he modeled, and his style of leadership
and interaction. Organizationally, the Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) has been my professional
extended family and has provided the place for me to test out my ideas and receive critical feedback and
encouragement. I am extremely appreciative of all the support that I have received from ABPsi over the
years. Librarians Tiger Swan and Elaine McCreary at FAMU’s Coleman Library were particularly helpful and
efficiently carried out their roles providing me with the resources that I needed along the way.
I began this trek with three friends who were graduate students also in the Department of Psychology
at the University of Pittsburgh—Dr. Anita Brown, Dr. Beverly Goodwin, and Barbara Hall. It is our work
together for over ten years that is the basis for what appears in this textbook. As instructors of the first course
on the Psychological Experiences of Black Women at the University of Pittsburgh in the mid-1970s, and as
partners in Nia Associates—an organization we created to provide training, consultation, and research on the
psychological experiences of Black women—we diligently and enthusiastically began to carve out a focus on
Black women as worthy subjects of study and investigation. To you, I am deeply indebted for helping me to
define and clarify a mission that I consider to be integral to my life purpose.
I cannot conclude my acknowledgments without also saying Eeepa-ooo Obàtalá, my father and owner of
my head. I know that I have been spiritually guided by the wise and patient hand of Obàtalá. I am grateful for
my godmother, Oshun Gwere egbe kunle, who crowned me over 28 years ago and my Ojubona, OmiYinka,
iba’ye. To them I am deeply indebted for passing this sacred ashe on to me. I pray that I will use it well and
through it bring light, peace, and healing to Afrikan women and facilitate the restoration of Afrikan women
to our appropriate place on the stage of humanity.
I ntroduction P ersonal R eflection

Why the Need for a

A s a graduate student in psychology at the University
of Pittsburgh in the seventies, one of my most
prescient memories of the experience was realizing that
what I was learning had very little to do with who I was
Psychology of Black as an Afrikan American woman. The nation had just gone
Women through a period of tremendous upheaval as a result of the
Civil Rights and Black Consciousness Movements, which
challenged the legacy of Jim Crow segregation and called
for the establishment of Black Studies Programs, among
Huberta Jackson-Lowman other things. Aside from opening its doors to Afrikan
American students and hiring two Black professors, the
Department of Psychology had done little else to address
the needs of this new group of students. Fortunately, the
University of Pittsburgh was one of the first institutions
to establish a Black Studies Program in response to the
demands made by Black students, faculty, and community
residents. I took advantage of the opportunity to attend a
Black Psychology class, which was my first introduction
to psychology from an Afrikan perspective. My professor,
Yusef Ali, obviously loved the class and I was completely
enthralled with it. Finally, I was getting what I had been
longing for—an opportunity to explore the dynamics of
being Black in America. As appealing as this was, though,
I wanted more. I began to engage in conversations with
some of my friends who were also graduate students in
the Department of Psychology. We shared similar views
regarding the invisibility of Afrikan American women
in the psychology curriculum. Thus, our quest began to
create a course on the psychological experiences of the
Black female. Our dream was realized in 1976. Anita
Brown, Beverly Goodwin, Barbara Hall, and I launched
the university’s first course dealing with the psychology of
Black women. The course was initially populated only by
Black women. It provided a site where Black women could
discuss some of their most personal thoughts and experi-
ences regarding what it meant to be Black and female. We
quickly realized the need for and value of this work. This

1
2   A frikan A merican W omen

experience led to the formation of a partnership focused on offering consultation addressing the issues of
Black women. For over five years, as Nia Associates, we offered workshops, presentations, retreats, and did
radio and TV interviews focused on the psychology of Black women. We also wrote an article that was pub-
lished in the Psychology of Women Quarterly criticizing the discipline and psychology of women textbooks
for their lack of inclusion of women of Afrikan descent (Brown, Goodwin, Hall, and Jackson-Lowman, 1985).
Though we eventually went our separate ways to pursue our various careers, my interest in this field has
persisted. Over the 35-plus years since we developed the first course on the psychology of Black women, I
have witnessed tremendous changes in the discipline of psychology; however, the need for courses focusing
on Black women remains.

A C all for P sychology of B lack W omen

Brown and colleagues’ analysis (1985) suggested that psychology of women writers needed to confront their
racism, ethnocentrism, and classism and to examine the impact of culture, race, and social class on behavior.
Other recommendations that they offered included the development of courses to address the psychological
experiences of women of Afrikan ancestry as well as women of other racial/ethnic groups and the develop-
ment of a more comprehensive and inclusive psychology of women. A decade later, Reid (1994) reviewed
submissions to the Psychology of Women Quarterly and Sex Roles journals for the 1986–88 and 1989–91 time
periods. The majority of submissions did not identify ethnicity, implying that this was not a relevant variable
for analysis. Reid (1994) critiqued the discipline for its treatment of women of Afrikan ancestry as anomalies,
its assumption that Afrikan American women are monolithic, and its failure to consider poor women (1993).
She also called for a comprehensive psychology of women. Recently, efforts to make psychology of women
textbooks more inclusive have been undertaken (Crawford, 2006; Lips, 2006; and Matlin, 2008). These authors
note the complexity of developing a comprehensive psychology of women that sufficiently addresses the di-
versity of women of different race/ethnicities, nationalities, abilities, sexual orientations, religions, and other
characteristics. Their attempts, though laudable, reveal the monumental challenge of adequately addressing
the complexity of Black women’s psychological experiences within a general or “comprehensive” psychology
of women course. Since the 1980s, considerable research has been carried out on women of Afrikan ancestry
by researchers, many of Afrikan ancestry; however, still missing from the landscape are courses that focus on
the Psychology of Black women.
This chapter introduces readers to the rationale that underlies the need for the development of courses
focusing on the Psychology of Black women; delineates goals and principles that should guide these courses;
and presents key issues that guide my approach to this endeavor. Thomas’ (2004) treatise on the Psychology
of Black women comprehensively describes those characteristics that distinguish Afrikan American women,
essentializing the need for courses that distinctively investigate Black women’s experiences from the perspec-
tive of Black women. Building on the work of Thomas (2004), I extend her foundational analysis adding factors
that support the crucial place of Psychology of Black Women in Psychology, Africana Studies, and Women’s
Studies departments.
 I ntroduction      3

R ationale for P sychology of B lack W omen

A number of authors have explored in depth the shortcomings of the discipline of psychology as a whole,
psychology of women courses, and Black psychology courses with regard to the treatment of Black women
as a group (Reid, 1994; Jackson-Lowman, 1998; Thomas, 2004). To sum up their criticisms, these areas of
study have been shackled by influences of racism, ethnocentrism, sexism, and/or classism on their analyses
or have demonstrated the wholesale exclusion of women of Afrikan ancestry. Psychology’s treatment of Black
women has often been pejorative, value-laden, and decontextualized. When Black women are studied, typi-
cally the focus has been on the poor and they have been used to represent the entire group (Reid, 1993). In
sum, the discipline’s treatment of women of Afrikan ancestry and poor women has violated its own standard
of external validity or generalizability, which requires the inclusion of Blacks, women, the poor, and other
excluded groups in order to make claims of universality (Thomas, 2004). Rarely included in research samples
or included in ways that disguise their uniqueness and differences, evaluated with measures that have not
been standardized on Afrikan American women, the discipline has fallen significantly short of the standards
it set for itself.
Psychology of Women, though meant to be the correction for an androcentric psychology, initially repeat-
ed this error in their treatment of women of color. In an effort to become more comprehensive, writers have
recently attempted to incorporate women of color into the content, but the uniqueness, range, and breadth
of the experiences of Black women is not adequately captured in these efforts. Certainly women of Afrikan
ancestry share the patriarchal oppression of European American women; however, the virulence of this op-
pression is intensely magnified when the dimension of race is added—a factor not typically acknowledged in
Psychology of Women texts. The evidence of the potency of the oppressive forces that has affected Afrikan
American women is registered in the disproportionate rates of obesity, abuse, violence, rape, incarceration,
STIs and HIV/AIDS, and premature deaths. Rarely are these disparate issues addressed in these texts. Without
a cultural and historical analysis, these conditions will not be fully understood nor will interventions designed
to address them be effective. Psychology of women courses, even with a more comprehensive emphasis, are
unprepared to unpack these afflictions.
On the other hand, Black Psychology courses that were meant to address the exclusion of Afrikan people
from the domain of psychology and to use Africentric perspectives to evaluate the experiences of Afrikan
people have been primarily male-centered and generally silent about the issue of sexism in the Afrikan
American community. Consequently, insufficient consideration is too often given to the experiences of
Africana women and the role that gender socialization plays in the lives of both men and women.
From a historical perspective there should be little, if any, need to defend the creation of courses focusing
on women of Afrikan ancestry. It is now a well-known fact that an Afrikan woman was the first ancestor of
all of humanity. Thus, the reality is that the Afrikan woman is the mother of humanity—the first woman. An
accurate study of the psychology of women would ideally begin with Afrikan women and their descendants, if
the assumption is made that this is the origins of humanity. Yet, even in Black feminist writings, the fact that
Afrikan women are the foremothers of humanity has not been acknowledged.
As a result of all of these identified inadequacies, a significant vacuum has been left with regard to examin-
ing the psychological experiences of women of Afrikan ancestry. Courses on the Psychology of Black Women
and Africana Women’s Studies may address these omissions and/or deficiencies among other things, while
also serving as a stimulus for course revisions and for tackling issues of social justice. To be effective, though,
there are certain characteristics that these courses need to display.
4   A frikan A merican W omen

D efining the P sychology of B lack W omen

Thomas (2004) suggests that Psychology of Black women courses need to exhibit four key characteristics in
their quest to address the psychological experiences of the Africana woman. Addressing the epistemological
question, “How do we know,” the first characteristic that she identifies distinguishes Psychology of Black
women from the more traditional focus of the discipline. She stresses the importance of extending the field’s
narrow emphasis on experimentally designed and/or quantitatively focused approaches for gaining knowl-
edge and advocates for the inclusion of qualitatively designed strategies. Qualitatively designed studies allow
the voices of women of Afrikan ancestry to be heard and their perspectives to be understood. Thus, the use of
standpoint epistemologies (Collins, 2000) is emphasized in Psychology of Black Women. Through the use of
standpoint epistemologies both the lived experiences of Afrikan women and their intuitive experiences can
be acknowledged and considered. In contrast, the discipline of psychology, steeped in Western Eurocentric
philosophy, does not value intuition, in spite of the fact that it has unwittingly influenced the direction of
much of the research that is purported to be strictly based in logic and reason.
As Thomas (2004) states, the Psychology of Black Women must use a contextual approach to examine
the lives of women of African ancestry. A contextual approach recognizes that survival for Black women
requires that they adapt to oppressive settings; thus, their behavior, as Kurt Lewin (Thomas, 2004) specifies
in field theory, is a function of “Person X Environment.” In defining context, though, both present and past
context—one’s history, individually and collectively—must be considered, not just the present context as
Lewin suggests. Past context for women of Afrikan ancestry includes their pre-colonial Afrikan experiences
as well as their experiences during their enslavement and subsequently. No true understanding of women of
Afrikan ancestry will occur without the inclusion of their historical context, which predates enslavement by
the Europeans. On this point Thomas’ analysis must be extended to reflect an ecological framework rooted in
the pre-colonial history and culture of Afrikan people.
A third notable characteristic of psychology of Black women is an appreciation of the diversity that exists
among women of Afrikan ancestry. Ladner (1970) in her landmark book, Tomorrow’s Tomorrow, sought to
debunk the notion of a monolithic Black woman. Diversity is integral to the experience of the Africana woman
and is reflected in the variations in our locations, languages, social classes, education, incomes, sexual orienta-
tions, abilities, and religious preferences. Needless to say, as Ladner has adroitly indicated, the commonalities
that bind us are our Afrikan history and the experience of oppression; however, these commonalities are
filtered through a range of diverse settings. Reckoning with these diverse settings and examining how they
have affected our adaptations to an oppressive environment is essential when investigating the psychological
experiences of women of Afrikan descent.
Having theory that is compatible with the lives and experiences of women of Afrikan ancestry is critical to
the study of Africana women. Black feminist theories, along with theories that emerge from social, cultural,
and cross-cultural domains, offer the potential of explaining and predicting the behavior of women of Afrikan
ancestry (Thomas, 2004). Another framework, which emanates from an Africentric perspective that is also
appropriate for use in the study of the psychology of Black women, is Africana womanism (Hudson-Weems,
2008). Both of these theoretical frameworks, and others not mentioned here, are used to explain and predict
the behavior of Afrikan American women. Black feminism provided the theoretical framework for holding
the dual identities of being woman and also of Afrikan ancestry through the development of the concept of
“intersectionality.” It also furthered the understanding of Black women’s multiple oppressions through the
concept of the “simultaneity of oppression,” which recognized that women of Afrikan ancestry were at once
oppressed due their race, sex, and class. Black feminism’s kinship with Africentric philosophy is evident in
 I ntroduction      5

its use of an interdisciplinary approach and application of a diunital or both/and approach rather than the
Eurocentric either/or dichotomy to its analyses. Similarly, Africana Womanism offers an Africentric analysis
in which the criteria associated with the Africana womanist are delineated. In conclusion, an Africentric
philosophical lens is needed to fully comprehend women of Afrikan ancestry.

T asks and S cope of P sychology of B lack W omen

This textbook addresses three foundational issues first articulated by Franz Fanon (Karenga, 1988). The first
issue concerns the importance of knowing who we are—the question of identity. The identity of Afrikan
women has been sullied by myths and stereotypes. Our history has been ignored and misrepresented. The
first task of Psychology of Black Women must be to bring clarity to the issue of who we are as women of
Afrikan ancestry. Consequently, it is essential that history be an integral part of the analysis of Black women’s
psychology. It is assumed that in spite of the fact that we experienced the beginning of our disconnection with
our Afrikan past in 1619, our DNA continues to bear witness to our Afrikan ancestry as expressed through a
variety of Afrikan retentions. Integrating ancient cultural and historical experiences of Afrikan women into
course content is crucial to clarifying the identity of Afrikan American women.
The second key issue concerns the ability of Afrikan American women to be their authentic selves. This
capacity has been mitigated by the Maafa/Afrikan Holocaust, which disrupted our connection to Afrika—our
culture, languages, traditions, values, customs, clans, and families—and which continues to undermine our
capacity to be fully authentic. It is suggested that the Maafa persists in the form of the continued oppression
of Afrikan people, and Afrikan women specifically. Furthermore, it is assumed that many of the maladies
experienced by Afrikan American women are connected to these wounds, which have never been treated.
Third, the capacity to be self-determining women and to manifest the divine purpose that all human beings
possess depends upon our ability to achieve knowledge of self and to display who we are in authentic ways.
Psychology of Black Women courses, by providing a safe space where the complex and deep-seated issues that
have been passed from one generation to the next can be deconstructed and resolved, can fulfill a liberating
purpose with regard to the minds of Afrikan American women. Thus, through addressing these critical issues
women of Afrikan ancestry can be pointed toward the achievement of their maximum potential, which in
Maslow’s terms ultimately leads to self-actualization. In Afrikan-centered thought, actualization of self is
grounded in one’s connection to community.
The scope of this textbook is Afrikan American women, those women of Afrikan ancestry, most of whose
ancestors were enslaved and brought to the United States. While there are numerous similarities between
the experiences of Afrikan American women and other women of Afrikan ancestry, the limitations of space
do not allow for an adequate treatment of the diversity that exists across nationalities and ethnicities. Thus,
the term “Afrikan American” is being used to refer to this select group of women of Afrikan ancestry. Afro-
Caribbean women, though they may find many parallels between their experiences and those of Afrikan
American women (particularly if they have resided in the U.S. for at least two generations), will not be focused
on in this text. It is hoped that other authors will pursue the development of books that address the unique
experiences of Afro-Caribbean women as these are also very much needed.
Finally, several terms are used in this textbook to refer to Afrikan women. The term “Black” generally
is an inclusive term that references women of Afrikan ancestry throughout the diaspora and in Africa. The
terms “Africana women,” “women of Afrikan ancestry,” “women of Afrikan descent,” and “Black” are used
6   A frikan A merican W omen

interchangeably. My preference in the spelling of “Afrika” with a “k” rather than a “c” represents my choice to
honor the majority of Afrikan languages that do not include the letter “c.” In those cases where authors have
chosen to use the traditional spelling of “Afrika,” it will not be altered.

D elineating the G oals of P sychology of B lack W omen

Thomas (2004) identifies seven guiding principles for courses that focus on the psychology of Black women:
Knowledge development, contextuality, connectedness of theory and research, collaboration and cross-
fertilization, diversity and equity promoting conceptual and methodological frameworks, dissemination, and
advocacy of social justice. Building on these principles, there are three critical goals that courses addressing
the psychology of Black women should consider. These goals reflect the very real reality that over 500 years of
oppression have created and the importance of courses on Black women dealing directly with the lived experi-
ences of women of Afrikan ancestry. Thus, reconstructing the vision of who Afrikan women are based upon
placing content in an historical context that predates enslavement, providing a framework for understanding
and confronting the wounds that have resulted from enslavement and continued oppression, and addressing
the role of advocacy for social justice in facilitating self-determination, are indispensable dimensions that
must be embraced in the content and process of these courses.
It is essential that Afrikan American women gain familiarity with the historical context from which they
emerged. Again, this historical context places them on the stage of humanity as its foremothers. Through
explorations of the history of Afrikan people with a targeted focus on the Afrikan woman, the necessary tools
for debunking persistent, debilitating myths and stereotypes of Afrikan womanhood will be gained. There
is a significant and growing body of research supporting the destructive effects of myths and stereotypes on
self-perception and sense of efficacy as well as on the perceptions of others and their treatment of those that
they have stereotyped. Another valuable sequela of infusing Afrikan history in the content of psychology
of Black women courses is that it facilitates challenging Western norms regarding femininity and woman-
hood. Furthermore, it serves to cleanse the vision of women of Afrikan ancestry enabling them to begin to
appreciate their unique beauty within an Afrikan-centered context. It is also within an historical context that
Afrikan women and others can begin to understand and appreciate the wounds that they have experienced
and how these wounds, unrecognized, unattended, and unhealed, have affected their health and well-being.
Not enough can be said for the models of resistance that are buried in the history of Afrikan women. These
stories of resistance foster pride, courage, and commitment to a more authentic way of functioning. The
principle of knowledge development serves to motivate the investigation of the history of Afrikan women
across the millennia, and the development of theory and undertaking of research guided by the insights that
are therein revealed. Through this enterprise an accurate analysis of women of Afrikan ancestry will occur.
A second goal of relevance to courses on the psychology of Black women involves the clarification of values
associated with our identity, and with our ability to be authentic and self-determining people. Although not
independent of the first goal, for through our historical study we are introduced to the values of our foremoth-
ers, which can be contrasted with the values that we have assumed. How these values have shaped our choices
and decisions and affected the quality of our lives in our families and communities, often contributing to the
maintenance of the oppressive conditions that we seek to escape, is a much-needed discussion. Learning about
ancient value systems such as the Ma’at (truth, justice, harmony, balance, reciprocity, order, propriety) and
contemporary value systems based in Afrikan culture (e.g., Nguzo Saba) can facilitate greater comprehension
 I ntroduction      7

of the dilemmas that Afrikan American women face in their relationships, families, communities, and society,
and point the way toward viable solutions.
Theories of Black feminism and Africana womanism both stress the importance of self-definition or
Kujichagulia/self-determination. As defined by Maulana Karenga (1988), kujichagulia entails defining one-
self, naming oneself, speaking for oneself, and creating for oneself rather than being defined, named, spoken
for, or created for by someone else. As expressed in the Afrikan proverb, “Until the lioness (lion) has her (his)
own herstorian (historian), tales of the hunt will always glorify the hunter,” the psychology of Black women
restores women of Afrikan ancestry to the position of being subjects of their own experiences. This particular
goal underscores the need for continued knowledge development, for theory development, for undertaking
research, and for advocating for social justice, as Thomas (2004) has suggested, so that Afrikan women can
tell their own stories. How this is done necessarily involves interdisciplinary collaboration, and the use of a
variety of methodologies inclusive of quantitative, experimentally designed studies, qualitatively designed
studies, and spiritually based approaches grounded in Afrikan and Afrikan American religious and spiritual
traditions.

S tanding on the S houlders

In the spirit of all those women who have sought to address the challenges of being Black and female in a
society where both are considered devalued statuses—Jeanne Noble (1978), Joyce Ladner (1970), bell hooks
(1981), Phyllis Giddings (1984), Audre Lorde (1984), La Francis Rodgers-Rose (1980), Kimberly Vaz (1995),
Gail Wyatt (1997), Beverly Guy-Sheftall (1995), Patricia Hill Collins (2000), Darlene Clark Hines (1994), Jones
and Shorter-Gooden (2003), and others too numerous to name—this book builds on this sturdy foundation.
Integrating Afrikan and Afrikan American history, including theoretical and empirical articles that are based
in both quantitative and qualitative research, and drawing on the work of scholars across different disciplines,
this text strives to, in the words of Maria Stewart, “awake, arise, no longer sleep nor slumber …” students,
scholars, and researchers whose quest is to gain a better understanding of who the Afrikan American woman
is. As Melissa Harris-Perry (2011) so cogently states: “It is African American women, surviving at the nexus
of racialized, gendered, and classed dis-privilege, who mark the progress of the nation.” (p. 17)

R eferences
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