Section 4: Motivational Techniques

Chapter 12: Relationship of Need and Motivation

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO):

 Relate need and motivation

This chapter examines the various concepts and perspectives about motivation, as
defined and viewed by different motivation theorists. Of practical significance is
the concept about the relationship between need and motivation, i.e. the presence
of a need drives one to act or to behave in ways that will satisfy and fulfill that
need. As a result, that action or behaviour is heightened and strengthened.

Motivation is a complex phenomenon. There are many theories and views

which try to explain motivation. The basic needs model, referred to as
Content Theory of Motivation focuses on the specific factors that motivate an
individual to act in a certain way. These factors are found both within and outside
an individual. All people have needs that they want satisfied. The primary needs
like food, water, and sleep are biological in nature and are not learned. Secondary
needs are psychological and are learned through experience. These are internal
states such as the desire for power, achievement, and love. Education has
considered and studied the relationship of needs to motivation because it
provides the platform for
developing methodologies that drive students to achieve the best learning
possible.as future teachers, it is important for you to be theoretically grounded on
the subject matter of motivation. This will enable you to develop and apply the
necessary strategies and techniques to develop students’ motivation to learn and
achieve their goals and more importantly, to sustain it.

What is Motivation? –
is defined as an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior
(Woolfolk, 2013; Ormrod, 2015). Defines motivation as something that
energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour; it gets students moving, points
them in a particular direction and keeps them going. The students’
motivation is often reflected in personal investment and cognitive engagement in
an activity (Maehr & Meyer, Paris & Paris, Steiberg in Woolfolk, 2013). As
deduced from these definitions, motivation is an internal state, that is
reflected in observable and measurable behaviour of pursuing one’s goals. Further,
motivation represents a “force” or “energy” that makes one move or behave toward
a goal and sustain it. It is thus important to consider students’ motivation as a
factor to learning.

Content Theory of Motivation –

the basic needs model, focuses on the specific factors that motivate an individual to
act in a certain way, these factors are both found both within and outside of an
individual.

Perspectives of Motivation Researchers and theorists have studied motivation from

four perspectives (Ormrod, 2015):
1. Trait Perspective - motivation is an enduring personality characteristic
which people have at differing amounts, - some people have it to a greater
extent, and some, to a lesser extent. One example of a much-studies trait is
the need for achievement also known as achievement motivation. It is the
need to pursue excellence for its own sake, without regard for external
rewards. This was initially thought of as a general trait and is consistent
across variety of tasks. However, more recently achievement motivation is
now seen as specific to certain tasks and occasions, and that it has a
cognitive component. Thus, descriptions of achievement motivation are veering
away from the trait approach toward the cognitive approach.
2. Behaviorist Perspective - maintain that people behave to obtain
reinforcing outcomes or to avoid punishment. Thus, students might study hard if
the teacher praises them for their efforts. Or they might misbehave in class if only
to get the attention of the teacher. It used to be that behaviourists think specific
consequences are reinforcing only if they address a particular drive
necessary for optimal functioning (e.g., food, water, etc.). This is the drive-
reduction theory. However, it was found that learning can occur even if a certain
drive is not addressed or reduced. As a result, these theorists not focus more on the
purposes particular behaviours may serve for people, rather than on physiological
drives. However, whatever perspective one takes, theorists now recognize
that the consequences of behaviour can certainly affect students’ motivation
to exhibit those behaviours.

3. The Social Cognitive Perspective - places heavy emphasis on the goals

people strive for, as seen in the choices they make and the behaviors they show.
Reinforcement and punishment that follow certain behaviors affect people’s
expectations of the consequences of their future behaviors. People’s belief
about their capacity to perform in an activity is a factor in their decision to engage
and persist in that activity. Thus, goals, expectations and efficacy are important
cognitive factors in motivation.

4. The Cognitive Perspective - focuses on how mental processes affect

motivation. They maintain that human beings are naturally inclined to make
sense of their world, that their curiosity is often aroused by new and puzzling
events and are more motivated by perceived discrepancies between new
information and their existing beliefs. Hence, to motivate students, teachers should
capitalize on the curiosity of the students, by presenting challenging or even
inconsistent and puzzling situations.

There is no single perspective that will fully explain human motivation and its
underpinnings. However, teachers should be able to selectively glean useful ideas
from each perspective as o how students could be best motivated in classroom
settings.

Factors that Drive One to Achieve a Goal Being motivated means moving
energetically toward a goal, or to work hard in achieving a goal, even if the tasks to
achieve the goal are difficult. Following are some of the underlying reasons and
factors that drive one to work hard to achieve a goal (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 431):

a. Drives - to satisfy a physiological state like hunger

b. Basic Desires - yearning to be accepted and recognized
c. Incentives - expected rewards after achieving the goal
d. Fears - dread of censure or criticism
e. Goal - an important aspiration for the individual to achieve
f. Social Pressure - demands from family or social circle
g. Self-confidence - desired bigger amount of self-assurance
h. Interests - high concern in meeting a goal
i. Curiosity - inquisitiveness about expected outcomes
j. Beliefs - one’s thinking about the goal
k. Values - if goal is related to one’s morals
l. Expectations - the expect outcomes of a goal
m. Cognitive Ability - a good grasp of one’s goal will lead one to work hard for it

Benefits of Motivation Ormrod (2015) lists several effects or benefits of

motivation on students’ learning and behavior
1. It directs behavior toward particular goals. Social cognitive theorists
propose that individuals set goals for themselves and direct their
behaviour toward these goals. Motivation determines the specific goals
which people strive to reach or achieve (Maehr & Meyer, 1997 in Ormrod,
2015). Thus, motivation bears on specific choices that students make as for
example, whether to attend a photography class or finish an assignment in
math or watch a basketball game on TV.
2. It leads to increased effort and energy. Motivation increases the amount of
effort and energy that students spend on activities especially if these are
related to their needs and goals. Thus, motivation determines whether
the student will pursue an activity or a task, with much enthusiasm
and energy; or with less enthusiasm.
3. It increases initiation of and persistence in doing activities. Students are
more likely to begin a task that they want and are interested to do, and are
more likely to persist and finish the task, even if there are barriers,
hindrances, or interruptions while doing the task.
4. It enhances cognitive processing. Motivation affects what and how
information is processed. Students who are highly motivated at doing a task
will pay more attention to the task, understand it more, and think more about
the details. They exert extra effort to deduce meaning out of the material,
rather than go through the motions of finishing the task in a superficial
or haphazard manner.
5. It determines what consequences are reinforcing. The more students are
motivated to achieve, the more proud they feel of getting a high grade, or
feel upset when they get only a passing mark. The more students feel
accepted and respected by peers, the more meaning they get out of their
membership in that group. Thus, to a student whose life and efforts
revolve around science, winning or not winning in a prestigious science
competition may be a consequence of significant importance.
6. It leads to improved performance. Because of the above-mentioned
effects of motivation on goal-directed behaviour, effort, initiation and
persistence, cognitive processing and reinforcement, motivation necessarily
leads to improved performance. Students who are highly motivated have
better chances of better performance.

Knowing the effects of motivation on the learning of students

has implications for teaching. It is a challenge to determine what
teaching techniques to use and what kind of teaching environment to create
to engage students to set goals for themselves, persist in achieving their
goals, sharpen their cognitive skills in the process, and eventually improve
 their performance. A basic principle would be for the teacher to present and
clarify to the students the goals or objectives of the lesson or a classroom
activity. Thus, the students are guided to set and direct their goals. This
should be followed by the teacher getting an idea of the level at
which the students are motivated. Simply observing them for their
attention or non-attention can be a clue to the teacher on the extent to
which students are motivated to do the task or the activity. It would also be
good to find out if the motivation comes from within as being “genuinely
interested” in doing the activity; of is the motivation comes from the outside,
as wanting to get a high grade as reason for joining the activity. In the
process, giving feedback to the students and guiding them as to what they
should do, or correcting them for errors is a plus. It is also important for
the teacher to give rewards and incentives for students’ performance
and make sure that they exert extra effort and persist in achieving the goal/s
of the activity.

Kinds of Motivation

Intrinsic - the natural tendency of an individual to seek out and conquer

challenges as he pursues his personal interest and exercise his capabilities.
When intrinsically motivated, there is no need for incentives or
rewards, because the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman &
Anderman, Deci & Ryan, Reiss, in Woolfolk, 2103).
- internal stimulus to learning; is based on motives that the individual is
trying to satisfy. Motive is a thought, feeling, or condition that causes one
to act.

- most common forms: desire

for knowledge, to explore and
to construct
- driven by three psychological
needs: the need for autonomy,
the need to feel competent, the
need for relatedness
- all in all, he individual is
intrinsically motivated to pursue
a goal because it makes him feel
he has
a handle or control of his life
and that he can harmonize
himself with the world
- most common forms: desire
for knowledge, to explore and
to construct
- driven by three psychological
needs: the need for autonomy,
the need to feel competent, the
need for relatedness
- all in all, he individual is
intrinsically motivated to pursue
a goal because it makes him feel
he has
a handle or control of his life
and that he can harmonize
himself with the world
- most common forms: desire for knowledge, to explore and to construct
- driven by three psychological needs: the need for autonomy, the need to
feel competent, the need for relatedness
 - all in all, he individual is intrinsically motivated to pursue a goal because
it makes him feel he has a handle or control of his life and that he can
harmonize himself with the world

Extrinsic - conquering a challenge for reasons like earning a high

grade, avoiding punishment, please a teacher, or some other reason that
has very little to do with the task itself. There is really no interest in the
task or activity itself, but only the gains one expects to get out of
the task (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 431).
- an external stimulus to learning activity. Praise and blame, rivalry, rewards
and punishment are the more common forms of extrinsic motivation.
- most common forms: praise and blame, rivalry, rewards and
punishment. It is based on incentives. The student is encouraged to do
good work by such drives as high marks, honors, prizes, scholarships, and
privileges.

It is rather difficult to determine whether a behavior is intrinsically or

extrinsically motivated by just simply looking at the behaviour of the
person. The difference lies in the student’s reason for acting, whether
the locus of causality for the action is internal (inside) or external (outside)
to the person. To cite an example, a student who may be practicing to
sing chooses to do so freely because it is a personal interest and enjoys
doing it. This is a case of internal locus of causality or intrinsic motivation.
However, if the student is practicing to sing because he is looking forward to
get an award in a musical competition, then he is extrinsically motivated.

The dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is not an all or

nothing thing. There are two explanations for this view.
a. Our activities fall along a continuum from fully self-determined (intrinsic
motivation) to fully determined by others (extrinsic motivation). For
example, students may choose to work hard on an activity that is not
particularly enjoyable, but they know that working hard on an activity
will make it easier for them to reach their goals.
b. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not two ends of a continuum.
Rather, they are two independent possibilities, and at any given time,
we can be motivated by some aspects of each (Covington &
Mueller in Woolfolk. 2013). For example, teachers may realize that
intrinsic motivation may not work all the time for students. There will
be situations where incentives and external supports are necessary.

Approaches to Motivation
1. Behavioral Approach - student motivation starts with the teacher
doing a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards present and
available in the classroom. A reward is an attractive object or event
given as a result of a particular behaviour. An incentive is an object or
event that encourages or discourages behaviour. The promise of a high
grade is an incentive. Receiving the grade is a reward. Giving grades,
stars, stickers and other reinforcers for learning, or demerits for
misbehaviour are ways to motivate students by extrinsic means of
incentives, rewards and punishment.
2. Humanistic Approach - emphasizes intrinsic sources of motivation like
need for self-actualization, or the need for self-determination. From the
humanistic view, to motivate is to encourage people’s inner resources,
 their sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy and self-
actualization. It is thus important for teachers to provide activities
or opportunities that will develop students’ self-confidence and a
sense of competence inside the classroom.
3. Cognitive Approach - emphasizes intrinsic motivation, and believes that
behavior is determined by our thinking, not because we were rewarded or
not punished for past behaviour. Behavior is initiated and regulated by
plans, expectations and attributions. It is thus important for teachers
to provide activities to students that will challenge their thinking
processes, and encourage problem-solving and independent thinking.
4. Social Cognitive Approach - motivation is seen as the result of two
forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal, and the value
of that goal to the person. If these two forces are present, then
motivation will be strong. However, if either one force is zero, then there
is no motivation to work toward a goal. For teachers, this means that
to lead students to reach a goal (like completing a laboratory
experiment), the expectations should be clear to the students and the
value of attaining that goal be emphasized, too.- motivation is seen as the
result of two forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal, and
the value of that goal to the person. If these two forces are
present, then motivation will be strong. However, if either one force is
zero, then there is no motivation to work toward a goal. For teachers,
this means that to lead students to reach a goal (like completing a
laboratory experiment), the expectations should be clear to the students
and the value of attaining that goal be emphasized, too.
5. Socio-cultural Approach - emphasis is on participation in
communities of practice. People engage in activities to maintain
their identities and their interpersonal relations in the community.
Thus, students are motivated to learn if they belong to a classroom or
a group that values learning, and where they believe learning is
important to their lives. Thus, we learn to dress, or speak in a
particular manner as we learn from the other or more capable members of
the community. The value held by the whole group or class should be
clear to the students, from which they could identify with those values.

Theories on Relationship Between Need and Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Maslow (in Woolfolk, 2013) asserts that
humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower level needs for
survival and safety to higher levels needs for intellectual
achievement and finally self-actualization, or self-fulfillment.

Self-actualization
Needs (realizing one’s full potential)

Self-esteem
Needs (feeling good about oneself)

Social Needs (Belonging, friendships, relationships)

Safety Needs (feeling safe and secure)

Physiological Needs (satisfying basic needs: hunger and thirst)

 1. Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, sleep
2. Safety needs: security, protection from danger and freedom from pain
3. Social needs: love needs like friendship giving/receiving love,
engaging in social activities, group membership
4. Esteem: need for self-respect and for others; the desire for self-
confidence, achievement, recognition and appreciation; feeling good
about oneself
5. Self-actualization: to become everything one can be (“Maslow’s
Motivation Theory,” n.d.)

- The theory further asserts that lower needs have to be met or satisfied
first before the next higher needs could be addressed. The four lower-
level needs – for survival, safety, belonging and self-esteem – are
deficiency needs. When these needs are satisfied or met, the
motivation for fulfilling them decreases. The three higher-level needs
are intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation and self-
actualization needs. When such needs are met, a person’s motivation
does not cease, but instead increases to seek further fulfilment. These
needs can never be completely filled.
- A criticism of Maslow’s theory, however, is that people do not always
behave in accordance with the hierarchy. A person may pursue
knowledge, understanding or self-esteem while denying himself
friendship or social interaction. Despite this criticism, Maslow’s theory
provides us a way of looking at the student whose physical, emotional
and intellectual needs are interrelated. It also means that the teacher
will be able to help his students on their journey to self-actualization, by
seeing to it that the lower level needs or the survival needs are
first met and satisfied. The classroom environment should also be such
the students feel accepted by their peers and teachers.

Self-determination: Need for

Competence, Autonomy and
Relatedness
- this theory espouses that we
all need to feel competent and
capable in our interactions with
others,
have choices, and a sense of
control over our lives and to
belong to a social group
Self-determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness
- this theory espouses that we all need to feel competent and capable in
our interactions with others, have choices, and a sense of control over our
lives and to belong to a social group.
- need for autonomy is central to self-determination because it is the
desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures
to determine our actions. People strive to have authority in their lives
and be in control and in charge of their own behaviour. Thus, when
students in the classroom have the authority to make choices, they come
to believe that their work is important, even if it is not fun. Thus they
tend to internalize educational goals as their own. In contrast,
controlling environments tend to improve performance only on rote
recall tasks. When there is pressure to conform, students tend to look
for the fastest, quickest and easiest solutions, without much thought of
deducing meaning and significance of the material.