Engineering Knowledge Transfer Units to Increase

Student´s Employability and Regional Development

Teaching “Basics in Vehicle Dynamics” 1

by Dr. Karl Reisinger
Intro, Tire, Longitudinal Dynamics
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
598710-EPP-1-2018-1-AT-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
FH-Joanneum GmbH.
University of Applied Sciences, Graz, Austria
Institute of
Automotive Engineering
• Bachelor‘s Degree Program
• Master‘s Degree Program
Dr. Karl Reisinger
Assoz. Prof.(FH)
• Vehicle Dynamics
• Mechatronics

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Content of Slot 1 + 2
• How do we teach Vehicle Dynamics in Bachelor's and Master's degree
program of UAS Graz.
Questions are
• My Presentation welcome, while the
• Aim, Qualification for the courses, presentation
location in curriculum.
• Our Content – Overview with examples
• Tire's behaviour, Longitudinal dynamics, Lateral Dynamics, Vertical dynamics
• Group Discussion
• Presentation and Discussion.

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Aim of the Vehicle Dynamics courses
Bachelor‘s Students shall know… Master‘s shall know …
• How does a car move?
Basic knowledge, terms, approaches • How to make a car faster and saver?
• The tire is the only contact to the road! Bachelor’s knowledge but deeper
• Primary spring • Tire behaviour under combined load
• No Force w/o Slip
• Nonlinear behaviour and models
• Combined long. and lateral force • TM-Easy by Hirschberg-Rill
• Longitudinally • Pacejka’s approach in principle
• drag resistances, modelling
• Longitudinal load transfer
• Engine power, speed, for accelerated
motion, energy consumption
• Forward, backward simulation models

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY

Aim of the Vehicle Dynamics courses 2
Bachelor‘s Students shall know… Master‘s shall know …
• How does a car move? • How to make a car faster and saver?
Basic knowledge, terms, approaches Bachelor’s knowledge but deeper
• Laterally • Laterally
• The equations to get Single Track • Lateral load transfer
Model’s ODE’s with const. speed. • Drive the fastest lap
• Tests to get transient and steady state • G-g-diagram and Milliken-Moments-
behaviour. Diagram
• Under-/Oversteering
• Ride – Vertical Dynamics
• Vertically • Find the optimal suspension spring
• Parameters for Comfort and damper in terms of comfort,
• Describe road roughness driving safety and aerodynamics.

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Aim of the Vehicle Dynamics courses 3

Bachelor‘s Students shall know… Master‘s shall know …

• How does a car move? • How to make a car faster and saver?
Basic knowledge, terms, approaches Bachelor’s knowledge but deeper
• Simulation Methods • Simulation Methods
• Backwards Simulation (Matlab) • Lap time using 1 DOF model and g-g-
• Forward Simulation (Simulink) diagram (Matlab)
• What commercial programs deliver, • Using AVL/VSM: parameter
number of it’s parameters identification using measured data,
(veDYNA/TESIS) lap time sim, sensitivity analysis,
energy optimization

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Qualification for the courses
Bachelor‘s Program Master‘s Program
• 5th semester, 2 ECTS • 3rd semester, 2 ECTS
• 20h Lecture, 4 Practices • 20h Lecture, 4 Practices
• Prior Courses necessary • Prior Courses necessary
• Engineering Mathematics • Our Bachelor‘s program or
• Basics in Mechanics/Dynamics
• Characteristics of Electric Drives
• Matlab/Simulink
• Internal Combustion Engines
• Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering,
• In Parallel to this course Mechatronic Engineering
• Chassis Engineering + Supplementary Exams in
• Drive and Propulsion Technology • Matlab, Simulink,
• In vehicle testing • Vehicle Dynamics & Chassis Eng.

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Engineering Knowledge Transfer Units to Increase
Student´s Employability and Regional Development

Overview to Tire's behaviour

How to understand slip, tire's nonlinearity and its effects.

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
598710-EPP-1-2018-1-AT-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
What drives the car?
• The tire is the only part
transferring forces to
• accelerate/brake
• drive a turn

Tyre Production:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Li-
MKobBg5w
Bias-Ply Tyre vs. Radial Tyre
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I
i0n8SK9V2s

Dr. Karl Reisinger Picture: K. Reisinger 9

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Tire = Primary Spring

• ... in 3 directions (3 DOF)

• comfort
• filters vibrations coming from the road
• traction
• less motion of suspension
• less wheel load variance
• rolling efficiency
• equalizes small unevenness’
Wheel with pressure distribution in
contact area [Bosch02]

Air-filled tires n vs. pure rubber tires

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsxP7SYRF60&feature=related Dr. Karl Reisinger
13/07/2020
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Tire Radii
• Outer Radius 𝑟𝑟0 𝑟𝑟0
• Static Loaded Radius 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
Driving Direction
• 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 = 𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 , 𝑝𝑝
𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• Effective Radius 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
2𝜋𝜋
• 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑝𝑝, 𝑣𝑣)
2 𝑟𝑟0 +𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠
• Estimations1) re ≈ vertical tire stiffness
3
1) 𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• Reimpel, Grundlagen der Fahrwerktechnik, Vogel 2000 𝑐𝑐𝑧𝑧 = �
• Rill G.: Road Vehicle Dynamics, CRC Press, 2011 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

lifting area
Dr. Karl Reisinger 11
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Rolling Resistance Coefficient fR
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 ⋅ 𝑒𝑒
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
FR = f R Fz • 𝑓𝑓𝑅𝑅 depends on
M y = Fz e = FR re

FR = f R Fz =
e
Fz
• tire radius
re
p
• toe in, camber
Fz
• pressure
e
• road
asphalt, roughness, earth, sand, …
Distribution
[Bosch95] of • speed
vertical load if • (Hub & brake friction)
rolling to left side

Dr. Karl Reisinger 12

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Efficiency Class of tires

C1 .. Passenger Car, C2 .. Light Trucks, C3 .. Trucks

https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2
009/DE/1-2009-348-DE-F2-1.Pdf

Test procedure
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1570609195857&uri=CELEX:42
011X1123(03)
plain steel drum, 𝑑𝑑𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 25 °C, for C1 :
speed=80 km/h, Fz=80% of max. tire load

Dr. Karl Reisinger 13

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Efficiency Class of tires in the future

C1 .. Passenger Car, C2 .. Light Trucks, C3 .. Trucks

https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep
/1/2018/EN/COM-2018-296-F1-EN-ANNEX-1-
PART-1.PDF (2018)

Dr. Karl Reisinger 14

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Comparison Sports to ECO-Tires,
an estimation
• Vehicle Mass mveh = 1600 kg
• neglect lift force
• Lifetime L=44 000 km1)
kWh kg
• 1 Litre petrol costs 1.20 €, fuel value 𝐻𝐻𝑢𝑢 = 11.5 ⋅ 0.75 , gives 2.32 kg CO2
kg l
• Mean efficiency of Spark Ignited Engine : approx. 25% in cycle

• Energy saves in kWh if you use Class B or Class E per 100 km

• How does consumption sink, l/100km?
• CO2 saves in g/km?
• Safed money while lifetime?
1)
https://www.reifendirekt.at/FAQs/Fragen_rund_um_die_Produkte_Fragen_zu_Reifen_Fragen_zum
_Reifenalter.html#Fragen_rund_um_die_Produkte_Fragen_zu_Reifen_Fragen_zum_Reifenalter-246
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Flatbed Tire Testing Machine

Tire in Testing Machine

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8UiE7
yvO_M&feature=related

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZhTdljr2Zc&feature=related Dr. Karl Reisinger 16

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Tire testing under real road conditions

• Real road condition

• Results change with weather
• In car measurement
• inclination angle is not
well defined Tire Measurement Trailer
• Measurement-Trailer,
Measurement-Truck

Measurement Truck: http://www.fkfs.de

Dr. Karl Reisinger 17
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Brush Model
• No stress without strain  No tire force
without slip!
Example: Wheel with drive torque, not braking
• Driven wheels turn fasten than non-driven
• Braked wheels turn slower 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢
• Brush model
• treat element front position: unloaded and undeformed
• rubber deforms due to load within the print front to rear 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• circumference speed 𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔
Driving Direction
• Different to the speed of the wheel centre.
• While wheel centre moves print length L, the tire has to
move by Δ𝑠𝑠 more to „load“ the rubber. Rel. velocities seen from wheel centre
• NO SLIP – NO GRIP
Dr. Karl Reisinger 18
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Tire Slip
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
• 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 … rim centre velocity over ground
• 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 without steering, driving straight forward
• 𝑣𝑣𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 … Slip velocity 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 − 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
… 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 − 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
−1 ≤ 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 = 0 … 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 − 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 max 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔, 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 , 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
… 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥

• Sx… Slip according Mitschke/Wallentowitz

• 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒… small number to avoid div. by zero at stillstand.

Dr. Karl Reisinger 19

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Force-Slip-Characteristics of a tire
Brake
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 • 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 … longitudinal force transferred in print
„Grip“
• 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 … longitudinal slip
=Tire Force Potential
• Rolling: 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 = 0 by definition of 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
b c 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥
• 𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 = … Long. Tire slip stiffness for lin. models
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

-100% • 𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 (𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 ) =

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥
… tire force coefficient
𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
a 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥
• Mitschke/Wallentowitz:
5-10% 100%
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 − 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
… 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔
−1 ≤ 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 = 0 … 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 − 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
… 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥

Dr. Karl Reisinger 20

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Lateral Slip =Side Slip
• Side Slip
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• Side Slip Angle 𝛼𝛼
tan 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦

• Self alignment torque

->the lateral force distribution
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦

GM Wheel [Milliken95]
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Tyre Slip in 𝒙𝒙 and 𝒚𝒚
• no stress without strain

• no force transfer
without deformation

• deformation of a rolling
wheel makes
wheel slip

• regular slip is not

skidding of rubber on
road surface!
[Milliken W., Milliken D.: Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, SAE 1995]
Dr. Karl Reisinger 22
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Self Aligning Torque 𝑴𝑴𝒛𝒛 due to Lat. Force
Rim plane small side force
• 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 ⋅ 𝑛𝑛p + 𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 Steering
np • Print sticks totally
𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
• 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∫𝑥𝑥=0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Axis on road
is not symmetrically distributed! Fy • Linear distribution
• tire trail, (pneumatic) trail 𝑛𝑛p nkin • 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 ≅
𝐿𝐿
6
1
• 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 ≅ ⋅ 𝐿𝐿, L … print length al t low 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
6
• 𝑛𝑛p decreases if the max. friction high side force
Mz
potential was reached in areas of the • Tire sticks within the front area, slides
print Fy after reaching a maximum
• 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 is a good feedback to the driver nR • Squeezing
for road friction (less if slippery) • Resultant side force moves forward
• kinematic trail 𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
• due to steering geometry
nR
• given by the engineer nR
Fy
Fy
Dr. Karl Reisinger
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Geometric trail
Castor
offset
• = kinematic trail, mechanical
trail,
Caster(Am.),Castor(Brit.)

• Distance between wheel

centre projected to road to [www.erba.at]
intersection of steering axis
and road
• Given by Castor
angle
• Caster offset
• Caster angle
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 + 𝑛𝑛𝐺𝐺 Kin. trail

https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nachlauf_%28Lenkung%29#/media/Datei:Lenkgeometrie_Zweirad.png
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Wheel Load Dependence
• Nonlinear!
• If you double the load, you
get less than double force.
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 < 2 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 < 𝜇𝜇_𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧

Same in lateral direction!

Source: Conti Formula S racing tire Dr. Karl Reisinger 25

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Self alignment torque and lateral force

Good to drive: no clear peak

Source: Continental Self Alignment Torque = Feedback to driver about grip 𝜇𝜇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 !
C15, C16 2 types of Formula S Racing tires Nonlinearity about Fz:
„You loose more at inner side, than you gain in outer side“
Dr. Karl Reisinger 26
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Influence of wheel load
distribution left right
• Example
• 1st axle: same load left and right
• Roll torque is transferred by 2nd axle
Fz1=Fz2=3600N,
Fy1=Fy2=1800N,
µy=Fy/Fz=0.5
α=2°
• 2nd axle: inner wheel is nearly lifted
• Fz1=7200N, Fz2=0 N
Fy1=3600N, Fy2=0
µy1=Fy1/Fz1=0.5
α=4°
• The axle with high wheel load
difference has more side slip.
• Influenced by Anti Roll Bar.
Seitenkraftkennfeld
[Mitschke04]

Dr. Karl Reisinger 27

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Influence of wheel load
distribution left right
Other Suspension:
Roll moment is transferred 50% / 50% front and rear axle
• Front and rear axle are loaded equally.
• 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑖𝑖 = 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ± Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• VA und HA:Fz1=5400 N, Fz2=1800 N
• Sum of lat. tire forces at one axle is given
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2 = 3600 N
• Same tire slip angle left and right, because the
wheels are connected by the car
( exact at wide curves)
• We search the slip, where 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦1 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦2 = 3600 N
• Fy1=0.42*5400, Fy2=0.73*1800
α=2.5°

Dr. Karl Reisinger 28 Seitenkraftkennfeld

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY [Mitschke04]
Cause of Wheel Steering Moment 𝑴𝑴𝒛𝒛
From tire side force From tire longitudinal force

• castor angle • king pin inclination angle

• castor offset • king pin offset
 Kinematic Trail Scrub Radius
• pneumatic trail • tire deformation

[Reimpel00]

30
Dr. Karl Reisinger
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Wheel Steering Moment
due to Combined Forces
• Intersection steering
axis to road

• Point where the

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 resultant force is
applied in the patch
Fx,T

𝜌𝜌

𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝
Fy,T
Dr. Karl Reisinger
31
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
„Kamm‘s Friction Circle“
• Wunibald Kamm, 1893 - 1966
• The geometric sum of longitudinal and lateral
force must be within a circle.
• (Krempel‘s improvement)
• 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦,max < 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• Usually this is also called Kamm‘s friction circle.
2 2
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
• + ≤ 1, 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 =
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜇𝜇𝑦𝑦,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧

Dr. Karl Reisinger 32

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Wheel Slip – Slightly different Definitions
• Mitschke-Wallentowitz (2003)
relative speed over impressed speed
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝜔𝜔−𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 = = max(𝑟𝑟 ,
max(𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝜔𝜔,𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �𝜔𝜔,𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 )
• −1 ≤ 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
• Mitschke, Pacejka 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 = = tan 𝛼𝛼
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

• 3 important angles 𝐹𝐹⃗

𝜑𝜑
• Tire slip angle 𝛼𝛼
• Force angle 𝜑𝜑 𝛼𝛼
• angle of relative velocity print to road 𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠 𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠
• Due to anisotropic tire: 𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠 > 𝜑𝜑 Velocities at the wheel [Hirschberg06]

Dr. Karl Reisinger 33

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Combined Slip and Forces
𝑁𝑁
𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 … 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

N N
Dr. Karl Reisinger
[Rill G.] 34
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Different Directions of slip and force at
10% slip

𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠
tyre‘s centre plane
forward direction 𝜑𝜑
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜑𝜑 ≠ 𝛼𝛼, 𝜑𝜑 ≠ 𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠
𝛼𝛼… Angle between wheel centre‘s velocity
and wheel‘s centre plane
𝜑𝜑𝑠𝑠 …Angle between velocity of footprint
and wheel‘s centre plane
𝜑𝜑… Angle between contact force and
wheel’s centre plane

Dr. Karl Reisinger 35

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Semi-Empirical Tire model
Hirschberg-Rill TM-Easy: F(s)
• Parameters
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹 0 = � .. Stiffness
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠=0
• 𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑀 , 𝐹𝐹 .. Maximum
𝑀𝑀

• 𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑆 , 𝐹𝐹 𝑆𝑆 .. Begin of Slide
• Equation

𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹0 𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀
𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹 0
1+ ( + 𝑀𝑀 −2)
𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑠𝑀𝑀 𝐹𝐹
• 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑀𝑀 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑀 2
𝐹𝐹 𝑆𝑆 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑆 − 𝑠𝑠 2
𝐹𝐹 𝑆𝑆

[Rill G.] Dr. Karl Reisinger 36

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Combined Slip and Forces
𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 = , 𝑠𝑠 = … 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠�𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦
�
𝑠𝑠�𝑥𝑥 , 𝑠𝑠�𝑥𝑥 … normalizing factors
𝜑𝜑… force angle

𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦𝑀𝑀
Scaling with �
𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠� N N
𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥𝑀𝑀
[Rill G.] 𝑠𝑠�𝑥𝑥
Scaling with 𝑠𝑠�𝑥𝑥 Dr. Karl Reisinger
37
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Hirschberg-Rill TM-Easy:
Combined Forces 1
• Normalized Slip
𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦
• 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 = , 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 =
𝑠𝑠�
𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠�
𝑦𝑦

• Slip Normalizing Factors 𝑠𝑠� 𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀 0 0

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 , 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 , 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 , 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 , 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 , 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 )
• considers, that the tyre is weaker in 𝑦𝑦 than in 𝑥𝑥
• Resultant Slip
𝑁𝑁 2
• 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 2 + 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦

• But: Normalization is not necessary, if 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 = 0 or 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑦 = 0

[Rill G.]
Dr. Karl Reisinger 38
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Normalized Slip is watched in 𝝋𝝋 − 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

= Force Plane

[Rill G.]

Dr. Karl Reisinger 39

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Hirschberg-Rill TM-Easy:
Load Dependence
• Force parameters 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹 0 , 𝐹𝐹 𝑀𝑀 , 𝐹𝐹 𝑆𝑆 : quadratic rule
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 1 1 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• 𝑌𝑌 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑌𝑌 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 − 𝑌𝑌 2𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 − 𝑌𝑌 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 − 𝑌𝑌 2𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 2 2 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁
𝑌𝑌 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
•  𝜇𝜇 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = ... linear interpolation
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧

• Slip parameters 𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑀 , 𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑆 : linear rule

𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• 𝑋𝑋 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 𝑋𝑋 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 + 𝑋𝑋 2𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 − 𝑋𝑋 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁 −1
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑁𝑁
[Rill G.]

Dr. Karl Reisinger 40

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Homework for students
• Please read the paper provided on moodle:
• Hirschberg_Rill_Weinfurter_Tire model TM-Simple_User-Apporpriate
Tyre-Modelling for Vehicle Dynamics in Standard and Limit Situ.pdf

Hirschberg W., Rill G.: User-Appropriate Tyre-Modelling for Vehicle Dynamics in Standard and Limit Situations, Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol.
38, 2002, Issue 2, Pages 103-125 | Published online: 09 Aug 2010

Dr. Karl Reisinger 41

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Friction Circe depending on 𝝁𝝁𝒎𝒎,𝒔𝒔 (𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛 )
𝑭𝑭𝑴𝑴 Friction Coefficient for Passenger Car Tyre 205/55R16

• 𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁 = .. max. friction, 𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁..

𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛 1

sliding friction coefficient 0.8

passenger car tyre, result of 0.6

TM-Easy
0.4

µM,Fz=2kN
0.2
µS,Fz=2kN

(F )
z
µM,6kN
0

xM,S
µS,Fz=6kN

µ
µM,Fz=10kN
-0.2
µS,10kN
Ellipse for 10kN
-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

µyM,S=FyM,S/Fz

Dr. Karl Reisinger 42

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Semi-Empirical Tyre model
Pacejka’s famous Magic Formula 1)
• “ a distorted” Sine function also for large road
• 𝑌𝑌 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 arctan BΦ + Sv wave-lengths only!
𝐸𝐸
• Φ = 1 − 𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥 + arctan 𝐵𝐵 𝑥𝑥
𝐵𝐵
• 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜅𝜅 + 𝑆𝑆ℎ , 𝑥𝑥 = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑆𝑆ℎ

𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜔𝜔−𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• 𝜅𝜅𝑥𝑥 = … slip ratio, 𝛼𝛼… sideslip angle
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 … velocity of wheel centre in direction of centre plane =x-direction
• 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, 𝐷𝐷, 𝐸𝐸, 𝑆𝑆ℎ , 𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣 … parameters to fit the behaviour,
those are different polynomic functions of 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 , inclination angle
(“camber”)
and air pressure.
• The Magic Formula can describe 𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 𝜅𝜅 , 𝜇𝜇𝑦𝑦 𝛼𝛼 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 (𝛼𝛼).
• 1) introduction: Bakker E.,Pacejka H.,Lindner L.: A New Tire Model with an Application in Vehicle Dynamics, SAE April 1989

Dr. Karl Reisinger 44

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Pacejka Magic Formula: Meaning of
Parameters
• D … Peak
• BCD … stiffness
• Sv, Sh … asymmetry
• eg: Sv due to camber
• Sh due to asymmetric profile

Dr. Karl Reisinger 45

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Pacejka’s load dependence
• Different Fit-function for each parameters, e.g.
• 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
𝑎𝑎3 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧2 +𝑎𝑎4 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎5 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• Process to get Tyre Model
• Fit 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, 𝐷𝐷, 𝐸𝐸, 𝑆𝑆ℎ , 𝑆𝑆𝑣𝑣 using Magic Formula for each 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• Fit parameters 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … using special load functions.
• Different Fit-Functions depending on version of Pacejka Model

Dr. Karl Reisinger 46

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Tire models: as fine as needed …

• Characteristic models, • Lumped Mass Models, • Continua,

(real time capable) MKS Simulation FEM Models
• ” Magic Formula” (Hans • MKS models having rigid • NVH Simulation
Pacejka), elements connected with • Tyre Development
• TM-Simple, TM-Easy springs and dampers,
(Hirschberg-Rill) • e.g. RMOD-K, F-Tyre, …
• Unevenness with wide • Offroad, curb stone edge
wave-lengths
• 1/Curvature of road > 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒

https://www.tuhh.de/forschung/fobe
/2005/a1998.5-03/w.67.1129626881235.html
Dr. Karl Reisinger MKS tyre model [Mitschke04] 47
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
F-Tire at curb stone edge

[Gipser: Reifenmodelle i.d. Fahrdynamik, wikipedia]

Dr. Karl Reisinger 48

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Engineering Knowledge Transfer Units to Increase
Student´s Employability and Regional Development

Longitudinal dynamics
Single track model, transient and steady state tests,
Backward Sim. Models, Forward Sim. Models.

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
598710-EPP-1-2018-1-AT-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
Duties of long. Dynamics
• Drag forces (aerodynamic, rolling)
• How fast accelerates a car due to an engine torque?
• How fast can a car accelerate due to tire?
• Energy consumption to drive a certain cycle?
• The Traction-Force Effort Diagram to show car’s capability

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Drag Force (Fahrwiderstand)
Static drag forces at horizontal road Our assumption Comment
Climbing resistance 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 ≅ 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ sin(𝛼𝛼) very high
Aerodynamic Drag 𝜌𝜌 Largest in horizontal road above 40-70 kph
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑐𝑐𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 ⋅ 𝑣𝑣 2
2
Rolling Force, Rolling Drag 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 Largest at low speed, very high in mud & sand; In
≅ 𝑓𝑓𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ cos(𝛼𝛼) racing, aerodyn. downforce must be considered.
Mechanical drag losses due to brakes ≈0 Neglectable with proper working brakes and low
and wheel bearings preload at bearings.
Losses in drivetrain due to bearings, … ≈0 e.g. a preloaded taper roller bearing of input shaft of
read axle differential costs 0.9% of traction energy.
Damper induced drag ≈0 Very low at regular roads, plays a rule Offroad;
Compare Putzik 2008
toe induced resistance ≈0 must be adjusted within some angle minutes

Curve induced resistance ≈0 Low with low lateral accelerations. Usually not
(lateral velocity at tire times side force considered in consumption models.
consumes power) Dr. Karl Reisinger 51
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 𝛼𝛼 … Road inclination angle
Aerodynamic Drag
• Force = Velocity Pressure x Air Drag Coefficient x Projected Area
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2
• 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣,𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑥𝑥 cwx Ax
2
• Modern passenger car
• Ax~2 m2, cwx ~ 0.3-0.4,
• Commercial vehicle
• Ax~8 m2 , cwx ~ (0.45)- 0.85

• Motorbike, driver sits up straight

• Ax~1.0 m2
• Ax cwx ~ 0.5 - 0.6 m2
• Loremo (Study): cwx =0.2
Loremo [http://www.hybridantrieb.org]

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 52
 Drag Measurement
• Coast Down Test at horizontal road in
Neutral Gear measures
• Rolling resistance
𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
• + Aerodynamic Drag
• + losses in drive train
• Measure speed over time
• Differentiate in respect to time,
calc. drag
′
𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ⋅ = 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ≅ 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 + 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Fit quadratic parabolic equation 𝑣𝑣
𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝑣𝑣 + 𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑣𝑣 2

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Aerodynamic Lift
• Relevant at racing cars
• Wind tunnel or simulation
• Measure forces at tire prints Fwx F𝑭𝑭wz
𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
• 𝐹𝐹AD𝑥𝑥 , 𝐹𝐹AD𝑧𝑧,𝐹𝐹 , 𝐹𝐹AD𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅 hw ,F

• Divide by 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 oder 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 → 𝑐𝑐𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 , 𝑐𝑐AD𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 , 𝑐𝑐AD𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧

• 𝐹𝐹AD𝐹𝐹/𝑅𝑅 =
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣,𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑥𝑥
2
cAD𝐹𝐹/𝑅𝑅 Ax or 𝑭𝑭𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨,𝒙𝒙 F𝑭𝑭wz
𝑳𝑳𝑹𝑹
,R
2
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2 X
• 𝐹𝐹AD𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧/𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣,𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑥𝑥 cAD𝐹𝐹/𝑅𝑅 Az S
2
• Attention: Different literature uses different
nominal area 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 or 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
• If lift is considered, drag applies at road level. F
𝑭𝑭𝑹𝑹 r
• No lift data?
• estimate 𝑐𝑐𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
lwb
• Estimate centre of aero drag force application
𝐹𝐹AD𝑥𝑥 for 𝑀𝑀AD𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴x ⋅ ℎ𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
d‘Allembert‘s view
delivers simple equations
1. Use CS in road plane
2. Applied loads
• drag and lift forces
• weight 𝐺𝐺 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔
split into components
• inertia force −𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
−𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 3. We get dynamic wheel loads
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅 and traction force 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 by semi-
𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 static equations
• ∑𝐹𝐹𝑋𝑋 = 0, ∑𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 0, ∑𝑀𝑀𝑌𝑌 = 0
• Using wheel contact for sum of moments
𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 delivers a low number of terms.
𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙
• Use
𝛼𝛼
𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ cos 𝛼𝛼 + 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 Dr. Karl Reisinger 55

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Example
Wheel Load Distribution, flat road
• +𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 0 with 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
• 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 … Lin. Equation
𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
• = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

•
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧
= 1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑥𝑥 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 1 − 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥̈
𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅
𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥
• Static Distribution Front: 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0.56 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
• Static Distribution Front/Rear : 56%/44%
m 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
• Dynamic Distribution Front/Rear @−10 :80.5%/19.5% 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔
s2
• Optimal Brake Distribution: In ratio to wheel load
(neglecting tire‘s nonlinearity)

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 56
 Influence of rot. Inertia
• When accelerating, we put kinetic energy into 1
• 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = ∑ 𝐽𝐽𝑖𝑖 𝜔𝜔𝑖𝑖2 = Ekin,mrot
rotating parts. 2
• J .. Inertia of flywheel/rotor, wheels
• How much mass we have to put into the boot to
𝑣𝑣
have the same behavior as the rot. Inertias? • 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ≅ 𝑥𝑥
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
• 𝜔𝜔𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
The rotating mass is to be accelerated by the 1 1 2
engine but not by the tire! • 𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 2
= ⋅ [𝐽𝐽𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 4 ⋅ 𝐽𝐽𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ]
2 2
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = −𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2
1
𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐽𝐽𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 4 ⋅ 𝐽𝐽𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ⋅ 2
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒
(𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ) ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = −𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 • The more important, the faster it runs
• More important in lower gears
• 𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝜆𝜆 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ,
1.0 < 𝜆𝜆 < (1.4)

Dr. Karl Reisinger 57

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Influence of gear ratio and efficiency
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
• An ideal gearbox is a transducer • Efficiency 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
where input and output power is • Useful output over needed input.
• Non load dependent losses often neglected.
equal.
• Accelerating, Thrust Mode
• 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑀𝑀 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔 • The engine delivers power to the wheel; In: 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ,
Out: 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
• High speed, low torque
• 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• Low speed, high torque
• Braking with engine, coast mode
• Usually engine size is defined by • The wheel delivers power to the engine; Out:
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , In: 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
torque  fast small engine. • 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
• 𝜔𝜔𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 > 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 , 𝜔𝜔𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 • Generally
• 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 > 1 𝑘𝑘 1 . . 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≥ 0
• 𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , 𝑘𝑘 = �
−1 . . < 0

Dr. Karl Reisinger 58

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Traction Force Diagram
… for non accelerated motion.

Fx in kN

Torque vs. speed of an engine, T … engine torque,

n … engine speed [Wallentowitz06]

i1 Power hyperbola
FPmax = Pmax/v
i2 ideal CVT (=Continous
i3 Variable Transmission)
i4
v in km/h

Dr. Karl Reisinger 59

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Traction Effort Diagram with Drag
• no acceleration
Traction Acceleration
offer reserve

Fx in kN Needed effort

40% Inclination

i1
20%
i2
0%
i3
i4 i5 Overdrive

vmax,5.Gear vmax v in km/h

Dr. Karl Reisinger
60
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Tractive Effort Diagram, eDrive vs. ICE

• High Starting Torque

 No Clutch
• M(n) characteristic fits
Fx in kN

perfect for low to medium 40% inc

speeds i1
20% inc
• 2 gears increase efficiency at i2
highway speeds
0% inc
i3
• Drive can deliver braking i4
torque for recuperation 
 avoid wheel lock up! vmax v in km/h
cyan: Moment of PMSM with same top speed in 4th gear

Dr. Karl Reisinger 61

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Backward Simulation Model using
Requested Trajectory v(t)
• Given • Solution
• Drivable Speed Characteristics v(t) • Integrate velocity v(t) numerically
• road: inclination(s(t))  distance s(t) used for inclination(s)
• Wanted • Differentiate velocity v(t) numerically  acceleration a(t)
• Engine torque, speed • Principle of linear momentum
Tyre Traction Force 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
• consumption
• Forces, torques in drivetrain for • Principle of angular momentum  wheel/axle load 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
fatigue testing • Traction coefficient 𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 =
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• Preliminaries • Inverted tire characteristics  𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 (𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 )
• Engine power is high enough to • Principle of linear momentum
follow the requested speed  Drive Traction Force 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
Power at wheel, Power at engine
• Wheels don‘t skid, we are in •
increasing branch of Fx(sx) • Efficiency map/fuel consumption map
 fuel/energy consumption
MATLAB (Octave)
Dr. Karl Reisinger
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 62
 NEDC
Engine Speed (RPM

Engine Speed Efficiency of electric Motor incl. Inverter + Battery, Cycle: NEDC
5000
4000

0 3000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 6
0.8

83
Time

0.
x 10
4
Engine Power 2000 0. 89
5 0.89

0.875
00..7
Power

0.5
0.3
Traction Force,N
0
1000
-5 0.89 0.92 0. 89 0. 86
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0. 86
0.83 0.86 0.83
0.8
Time 0
0.
0.
0.
0.5
0.3
87
75 0.73
0.8
0.75
0.5
0.3
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.5
0.3
2896
0.3
0.5
0.7 0.3
.90.75
0.0 .0.8
8 0.3
0.5
0.7 0. 5
0.75
0. 7
Losses 000.8 .83 0.75
0.8 0.83 0.8
0.83
4000 00.8
.863 0. 89 0.86 0.8
Losses W

00..77
0. 86

0.3
0.5
-1000 9
2000 0.92

5
0 0.89
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 -2000
Time (s)
0. 0. 89

0. 0.8
86
Efficiency (%)

Average Efficiency 0.78831

83
1 -3000
0.5
0 -4000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) speed, kph

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 US SC03
Efficiency of electric Motor incl. Inverter + Battery, Cycle: SC03
Engine Speed (RPM)

Engine Speed 4000

4000
2000
0 3000
6
0.8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

83
Time

0.
4
Engine Power 2000 0. 89
x 10 0.89

0..875
5

0.7
0.5
0.3
Traction Force,N
Power

0
-5
1000 0.89 0.92
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 00.83
.86 0.89 0. 86
.875 0.86
0.8
0.8 3 0.83
0.8
Time
0 0.75 0.32 000.
.7
0.5
0.3 0.75
0.7
0.5
0.3 0.75
0.7
0.5
0.3
Losses .0.90.5
0000.8
0.7
0.8
.8.88963 0.3
0.5
0.7
0.75
0.8 0.83
0.3
0. 75
0.75
0.
0.8 0.83
Losses W

4000 0.8
0 .863 0. 89 0.86 0.8

00..7.75
0.3
0. 86

0
2000 -1000 9
0. 92

5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0.89
Time (s) -2000
Efficiency (%)

Average Efficiency 0.72277

0. 0. 89

0. 0.8
1 86

83
0.5 -3000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) -4000
0 50 100 150 200
speed, kph
Dr. Karl Reisinger
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Forward Simulation Model using a Driver
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
• Driver (PI-Controller) 𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
iGear
• In: 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡), out: Accel. Ped. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 MEng
iGear
m1 m2
• Engine MWheel

• Throttle characteristics 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀0(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤

• 1st order delay  𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 CCS ,CSS 𝜔𝜔𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 , 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤 , 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
.. rot. only, 3 DOF
• Multi Body Simulation Model
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• Rigid bodies, 1 DOF each
• e.g.: power train: motor, clutch+gear, wheels
• chassis: 1 DOF in x Fx

• connected by massless force elements

• Clutch + torsional springs, side shaft , tire model Point mass model
DOF=1
Simulink
Dr. Karl Reisinger 65
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Principle to solve ODE‘s
• n DOF: n Nonlinear Ordinary Differential Equations of 2nd Order
Start Simulation at
Initial Condition
1 𝑞𝑞1̇
𝑞𝑞3̇ , t) 𝑞𝑞1̈
t t
𝑓𝑓 (𝑞𝑞 , 𝑞𝑞 , … , 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 , 𝑞𝑞1̇ , 𝑞𝑞2̇ , ∫
q1
𝑚𝑚1 1 1 2 ∫
t * =0 t * =0

1 𝑞𝑞2̈ t
𝑞𝑞2̇ t

∫ ∫
q2
𝑓𝑓 (𝑞𝑞 , 𝑞𝑞 , … , 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 , 𝑞𝑞1̇ , 𝑞𝑞2̇ , 𝑞𝑞3̇ , t)
𝑚𝑚2 2 1 2 t * =0 t * =0

...
𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛̈
t 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛̇ t
1 qn
𝑓𝑓 (𝑞𝑞 , 𝑞𝑞 , … , 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 , 𝑞𝑞1̇ , 𝑞𝑞2̇ ,
𝑚𝑚𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 1 2
𝑞𝑞3̇ , t) ∫ ∫
t * =0 t * =0

66 Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Practice Backwards Sim. Model

• PracticeBackLong.m

use MATLAB or Octave to run.

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Discussion
• Please form 4 -5 Groups, I propose to mix up, between the
universities.

• Discuss following Questions:

• Other didactic approaches to introduced topics
• Topics I missed generally (compared to overview sheet)
• Topics we cancelled, because we don’t think, they are so important.

• Presentation and discussion of your results.

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
Literature
• Milliken W.F, Milliken D.: Race Car Vehicle Dynamcs,SAE Int., 1995
• Rill G.: Road Vehicle Dynamics – Fundamentals and Modelling; CRC
Press Taylor Francis Group
• Heißing/Ersoy (Eds.): Chassis Handbook, 1st Ed., Vieweg+Teubner,
2011.
• Mitschke/Wallentowitz: Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge, 4. Auflage,
Springer

Dr. Karl Reisinger

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Engineering Knowledge Transfer Units to Increase
Student´s Employability and Regional Development

https://www.facebook.com/unitederasmus/

The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which
reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein. 598710-EPP-1-2018-1-AT-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
 Engineering Knowledge Transfer Units to Increase
Student´s Employability and Regional Development

Teaching “Basics in Vehicle Dynamics” 2

by Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral, Vertical Dynamics

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
598710-EPP-1-2018-1-AT-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
Lateral/Vertical Dynamics
in Bachelors Program
• How does the car move due to steering angle?
– Explanation using Single Track Model
• w/o tire slip angle  Ackermann Kinematics
• Vehicle states with tire slip angle
• Basics to derive the equations of motion for linearized single track model
• Principle behaviour read from ODE-System
• Understeer behaviour?
• Testing, Goal, Understeer Gradient, Parameter’s influence
• Two Track Model
• Wheel centre speeds at each corner, discussion of single track model and two track model
• Ackermann Steering, Role of differentials
• Vertical dynamics
• Comfort, Quarter Vehicle Model, Road Description (Power density Spectrum)
• Simulation: Forward, Backward Sim., a view to veDYNA (TESIS)
2
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral/Vertical Dynamics
in Masters Program
• Lateral wheel load transfer
• Suspended, Non Suspended Masses
• Influence of compliances and suspension geometry
• Vehicle’s lateral potential
• G-G-Diagram
• Milliken Moments Diagram
• Ride – Suspension Spring and Damper
• comfort, driving safety
• Simulation
• AVL/VSM, a hands on course to get deep insight.

3
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Kinematics in x-y-plane - Review
• Assume 2 fixed points at a body 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄
• The body has a velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃 and
rotates with 𝜔𝜔 = 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑄𝑄
• We get the velocity in 𝑄𝑄
• 𝑣𝑣𝑄𝑄 = 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃 + 𝜔𝜔 × 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃 + 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝑒𝑒𝑦𝑦 𝑄𝑄 𝑚𝑚, 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
• velocity in direction of 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 doesn‘t
change, if the body is rigid 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧
𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃
• There is an virtual point, the Ω or IC
Instantaneous center, which can be Instantaneous 𝑃𝑃
seen as a momentary hinge, the centre
body turns about.
• Each velocity is perpendicular to the 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒𝑦𝑦
line Ω𝑃𝑃 and Ω𝑄𝑄

4
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Task: Velocities w/o and with tire slip angle
• Given is a Single Track Model driving a left turn Hints: x
• representing the center of the car. Sketch velocities in wheel 𝛿𝛿
• given are a steady state turn and centers and construct IC.
• Longitudinal speed 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = const, tire radius 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 Then you‘ll find right-angled
• wheel base 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 , the center of Gravity is 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 in front of
rear axle triangles.
• we steer the front wheels by 𝛿𝛿 Use Vehicle Coordinates.
• Assume, we know the tire slip angles
Scene A: Due to slow manoeuvring, we get low lat. 𝛽𝛽 𝑣𝑣
acceleration and neglectable tire slip angles. 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥
CG
Scene B: left turn, lateral acceleration produces a inertia 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
force, which tries to move the car to right side. Thus we
get tire slip angles pointing to the right side.
• Wanted: equations for scenes A and B for Ψ̇
• Radius Ry, the y-distance of CG to IC 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• Radius R to the CG
Ψ
• Body slip angle 𝛽𝛽, the angle between 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 and x-Axis
• Yaw rate Ψ̇
y
𝑥𝑥0
• Velocity in CG 𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 .. Inertial CS, x , y .. Chassis CS
• Wheel speeds front/rear neglecting long. slip. Ψ.. Heading Angle, Yaw Angle,
𝑦𝑦0
𝛽𝛽 + Ψ.. Course Angle
0
Ψ̇ = 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧 .. Yaw Rate = rot. about z-axis
5
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Scene A), no tire slip angle
x
• 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 : Triangle CF-CR-Ω𝐴𝐴 𝛿𝛿
𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
tan 𝛿𝛿 =
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹
CF
• 𝑅𝑅, 𝛽𝛽:Triangle CG-CR-Ω𝐴𝐴
2
𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 , tan 𝛽𝛽 =
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝛽𝛽
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• Or 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 , 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧 , tan 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 CG
𝑥𝑥,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

• Ψ,̇ 𝑅𝑅: Kinematics with Ψ̇ = 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⋅ Ψ,̇ 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ Ψ̇ = 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧
cos 𝛽𝛽 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝛿𝛿 𝑅𝑅
• 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤 :In tire coordinates, no long. slip
𝑇𝑇
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅
𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 , 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 , ΩA y
cos 𝛿𝛿
CR
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦

6
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Scene B), with tire slip angle
x
• The tire follows the tire force  𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 , 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 points to the right in 𝛿𝛿
the left turn
𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹
• 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 , 𝑥𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 : Triangle X-CR-Ω + Triangle X-CF-Ω
𝑥𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 𝑥𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹 CF
tan 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 = , tan 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 =
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
• 𝑅𝑅, 𝛽𝛽:Triangle CG-X-Ω
𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑥𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝛽𝛽
𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑥𝑥𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 2 , tan 𝛽𝛽 =
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 CG
• Or 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 ⋅ cos 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 , 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = −𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 ⋅
sin 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 − 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ⋅ Ψ,̇ 𝛿𝛿 − 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 Ω 𝛽𝛽 X 𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
tan 𝛽𝛽 =
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅
• Ψ,̇ 𝑅𝑅: Kinematics with Ψ̇ = 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⋅ Ψ,̇ 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ Ψ̇ =
cos 𝛽𝛽
𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
• 𝜔𝜔𝑊𝑊 :In tire coordinates, no long. slip
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 ΩA y 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇
𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹 = , 𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹 ⋅ cos 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 ,
cos 𝛿𝛿
𝑇𝑇
CR
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 ⋅ cos 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝜔𝜔𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦

7
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
CG Acceleration
• P .. Origin of body fixed CS, this CS rotates with 𝜔𝜔 = Ψ̇
• CG .. center of Gravity of body, Velocity 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 points in dir. Ψ + 𝛽𝛽 , rotates with Ψ̇ + 𝛽𝛽̇ in z-direction
𝑥𝑥
Ψ + 𝛽𝛽
• Position 𝑟𝑟𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃 + 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

• Velocity 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑟𝑟𝐶𝐶̇ 𝐺𝐺 = 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃̇ + 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

̇ + 𝜔𝜔 × 𝑟𝑟 ,
𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑣𝑣𝐺𝐺 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚, 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
̇ ⋅ 𝑒𝑒 = 0:
with 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃 + 𝜔𝜔 × 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ,
𝑥𝑥

• Acceleration
𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺 = 𝑎𝑎𝑃𝑃 + 𝑎𝑎𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 + 𝜔𝜔̇ × 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 2 𝜔𝜔 × 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝜔𝜔 × 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺
𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺 = 𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑎𝑎𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑎𝑎𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅
With 𝑎𝑎𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑣𝑣𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0, rigidly connected
𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺 = 𝑎𝑎𝑃𝑃 + 𝜔𝜔̇ × 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝜔𝜔 × 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺 , 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Generally 𝜔𝜔̇ = Ψ̈ ≠ 0, 𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶 points in x and y
Ω or IC 𝜔𝜔 = 𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧
• CG acceleration doesn’t point to IC Instantaneous 𝑃𝑃
• Longitudinal acceleration: 𝒂𝒂𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 ≠ 𝒂𝒂𝑷𝑷𝒙𝒙 Ψ
𝟐𝟐
𝐯𝐯𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂
̇ … see also Mitschke Wallentowitz S. 552
= 𝐯𝐯𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 ⋅ (𝚿𝚿̇ + 𝜷𝜷)
center
• Centripetal acceleration: 𝒂𝒂𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 =
𝝆𝝆 𝑟𝑟𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• 𝝆𝝆 ≠ 𝑹𝑹 … 𝜌𝜌 curvature radius of CG path, R … distance CG to IC

Steady State 𝜔𝜔̇ = Ψ̈ = 0,𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝛽𝛽̇ = 0, 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ... stabilized circular driving 𝑦𝑦
• CG acceleration points to IC
• 𝝆𝝆 = 𝑹𝑹 … 𝜌𝜌 curvature radius of CG path, R … distance CG to IC 𝑟𝑟𝑃𝑃
• Longitudinal acceleration: 𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0
• Centripetal acceleration: 𝑎𝑎𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
v2CG
= vCG ⋅ Ψ̇ =𝑅𝑅 ⋅ Ψ̇
𝑋𝑋
𝑅𝑅

Please differentiate! Turn of vehicle: 𝜔𝜔 = Ψ̇ pointing in z 𝑌𝑌 0 Origin

Turn of CG velocity: Ψ̇ + 𝛽𝛽̇ gives centripetal acc. 8
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Acceleration
Please differentiate! Turn of vehicle CS: Ψ̇
Turn of CG velocity: Ψ̇ + 𝛽𝛽̇ 𝑥𝑥

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝜔𝜔
𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)
⃗
𝑑𝑑Ψ + d𝛽𝛽
𝜌𝜌
Ω or IC 𝑚𝑚
Instantaneous
centre 𝑃𝑃
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡
⃗ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) 𝑣𝑣 (𝑑𝑑Ψ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) 𝑒𝑒𝑦𝑦
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡)
⃗ 𝑣𝑣̇ 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡
⃗ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
0 𝑑𝑑Ψ + d𝛽𝛽 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)
⃗

9
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Kinetics1:
Principle of linear momentum
𝑥𝑥
δ • Position 𝑟𝑟⃗ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑦𝑦
xVeh 0
FxF • 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑅𝑅
FyF 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝐹𝐹,𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅
• 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝐹𝐹,𝑇𝑇 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
v 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 0 0
yVeh
aCP

l
cos 𝛿𝛿 sin 𝛿𝛿 0

lR
FxR • 𝐴𝐴 = − sin 𝛿𝛿 cos 𝛿𝛿 0
FyR 0 0 1

10
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Kinetics 2:
Principle of angular momentum
0 𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 cos 𝛿𝛿 sin 𝛿𝛿 0
δ • 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ⋅ 0 = 0 ⋅
xVeh 0 × − sin 𝛿𝛿 cos 𝛿𝛿
Ψ̈ 0 0 0 1
FxF 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝐹𝐹,𝑇𝑇 −𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
FyF 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦,𝑇𝑇 + 0 × 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
0 0 0
v
yVeh
aCP • 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 Ψ̈ = (𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝐹𝐹,𝑇𝑇 sin 𝛿𝛿 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦,𝑇𝑇 cos 𝛿𝛿) ⋅ 𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 − 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ⋅ 𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅

l
lR
FxR
FyR

11
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Kinetics for small angles, 𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎
x
• 𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
• 𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

• 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 Ψ̈ = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦,𝑇𝑇 ⋅ 𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 − 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ⋅ 𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅

lF
CG 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦

lR

y
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY

12
Dr. Karl Reisinger
 Linearized tire Model
𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹
Example: 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 lin. approach for tire C16, Fz=1400N 𝑇𝑇 ′ x
• 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑥𝑥𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣𝐹𝐹
𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 • 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ′ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦𝑇𝑇

• 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼 ′ … cornering stiffness

including compliance
(=suspension weakness) CG
• 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼 = 𝑓𝑓(𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 ), use correct 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
• Remember: we have 2 wheels per 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅
axle to transmit wheel load and
side force. 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅

y
Source: Continental 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
C15, C16 2 types of Formula S racing tires

13
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Equations of Motion
Don‘t memorize this result,
watch it in books.
• 2 ODE‘s of 1. Order in 𝛽𝛽 und Ψ̇ Please remember the
shape and the influencing
𝑐𝑐 +𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅 −𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅𝑙𝑙𝐹𝐹 𝑐𝑐
• 𝛽𝛽̇ = − 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛽𝛽 + − 1 ⋅ Ψ̇ + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿 parameters
mv 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣
2 2
𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑙𝑙 −𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑙𝑙 −𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑐
• Ψ̈ = − 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝛽𝛽 − 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ Ψ̇ + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿
IZZ 𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 𝑣𝑣 𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

• 𝛽𝛽̇ = 𝑓𝑓1 ⋅ 𝛽𝛽 + 𝑓𝑓2 ⋅ Ψ + 𝑓𝑓̇ 3 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿

Remember how we got it!
• Ψ̈ = 𝑓𝑓4 ⋅ 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑓𝑓5 ⋅ Ψ̇ + 𝑓𝑓6 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿 • Kinematic Constraints
• Kinetics
• 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼,𝑅𝑅 , 𝑙𝑙𝐹𝐹,𝑅𝑅 , 𝑚𝑚, 𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 , 𝑣𝑣 ≠ 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) • Tire

14
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Force Excited Single Mass Vibrator
• Linear Momentum 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥̈ = −𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
• Link Equation 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = +𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥̇
c Fe
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
m
• ODE 𝑥𝑥̈ = − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥̇ +
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
d x
• Substitution 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑧𝑧1̇ = 𝑥𝑥̇
• 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥,̇ 𝑧𝑧2̇ = 𝑥𝑥̈

𝑧𝑧1̇ 0 1 𝑧𝑧1 0
• Result = − 𝑐𝑐 −
𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧2 +
1 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
𝑧𝑧2̇ 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

15
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
behavior of a car is described by
• 2 ODE‘s of 1st order in 𝛽𝛽 and Ψ̇ • Highly damped, oscillatory stable or
𝑐𝑐 +𝑐𝑐
• 𝛽𝛽̇ = − 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛽𝛽 +
𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅 −𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅𝑙𝑙𝐹𝐹
−1
𝑐𝑐
⋅ Ψ̇ + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿 instable system
mv 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣

• Ψ̈ =
𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑙𝑙 −𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑙𝑙
− 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝛽𝛽 −
2
𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅 2
−𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅𝑙𝑙𝐹𝐹
⋅
𝑐𝑐
Ψ̇ + 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿
• Parameters
IZZ 𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 𝑣𝑣 𝐼𝐼𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍
• Cornering stiffness‘
• State Space Representation • Position of CG
• 𝛽𝛽̇ = 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝛽𝛽 𝑏𝑏
+ 1 ⋅ 𝛿𝛿
• Mass, Inertia 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
𝜔𝜔̇ 𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝜔𝜔 𝑏𝑏2 • Speed
• Compare to single mass vibrator with force
exciting
𝑧𝑧1̇ 0 1 𝑧𝑧1 0
• = − 𝑐𝑐 −
𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧2 + 1 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
𝑧𝑧2̇ 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

16
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
 Transient Testing
• We watch at constant speed 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Lateral Acceleration Body Slip Angle

Steering Angle

• Body Slip Angle 𝛽𝛽(𝑡𝑡)

• ̇
Yaw Rate Ψ(𝑡𝑡)
• Lateral Acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡
• Steering wheel step response
• Open Loop Control
• Measure time to reach 90% of steady state value
• Overshoot U
Yaw Rate

• steady state value

• Sine Input
• Increase steering input frequency slowly but
continuously
• ̇
Measure responses 𝛽𝛽(𝑡𝑡), Ψ(𝑡𝑡), 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡
• Use Fast Fourier Transformation to generate a Bode-
Diagram
• Result: Yaw-Damping, Yaw-Eigenfrequency

[ Heißing02 ]

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY

17
Dr. Karl Reisinger
Sine Steering

https://www.yout
ube.com/watch?v
=_RrhctXIJKU&t=
8s

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger

Steady State Circular Driving
• Needed steering wheel input to get radius R
𝑙𝑙
δ
𝛿𝛿 ≅ + 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 − 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 = 𝛿𝛿𝐴𝐴 + 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 − 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 vyF vveh,yF
𝑅𝑅
+αF
• 𝛿𝛿 must be increased to compensate front tire slip angle,
• 𝛿𝛿 must be decreased to compensate rear tire slip angle! vxF
• Using single track model:
𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 1 𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅 1 𝑙𝑙𝐹𝐹
𝛿𝛿 ≅ + 𝑚𝑚 ′ ⋅ − ′ ⋅ β
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙

lF
vVeh FC
Ackermann 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 Correction yVeh
Ψ
.
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2
• Lateral Acceleration is increased by speed or Radius: 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 =

l
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 vyR
• If we have to

lR
vxR −αR
• steer more, (𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 > 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 )  UNDERSTEERING
• steer less, (𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 < 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 )  OVERSTEERING
• Otherwise: NEUTRAL
′
• Cornering Stiffness 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼/𝑅𝑅 including tire and suspension compliance

19
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
 Steady State Circular Driving Test
with constant Radius
• Steady State: slow or step by step We have to increase 𝛿𝛿 with increased 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 to stay on track.
acceleration at test circle.
• Steer to stay on test circle (R=40m, 100m) If we do nothing, we get a stable wider circle, having less accel.
• No load change, no long. accel.

𝑖𝑖𝑆𝑆
𝛿𝛿
• Measure 𝛿𝛿𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦

Steering Wheel Angle 𝛿𝛿𝐻𝐻 =

𝛿𝛿
• 𝛿𝛿𝐻𝐻 = , iS .. Steering gear ratio
𝑖𝑖𝑆𝑆
𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹 −𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅 1 𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅 1 𝑙𝑙𝐹𝐹
• 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = ′ ⋅ − ′ ⋅ .. Understeer Gradient
𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙
• Understeer U𝐺𝐺
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• That is, what we want, >0
𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
• Oversteer
• That is, we have to avoid, also in racing cars!
• Don’t mix with power induced oversteer, inr rear wheel drive
Test Facility 𝑣𝑣 2
[www.magnasteyr.com] No tire Slip Lat. Acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝑅𝑅

Counter-steering necessary to stay on any circle, otherwise skidding!

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 20

Dr. Karl Reisinger
Influence of suspension
and steering compliance
• „compliance=1/stiffness“

[Pacejka H.: Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, Elsevier Amsterdam et. al. 2006 ]

21
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Yaw Intensification
• Steady State Yaw Intensification 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
Ψ̇ 𝑣𝑣
• =

Wheel Steering Angle 𝛿𝛿

𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2
𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 +𝜕𝜕𝑎𝑎 ⋅𝑣𝑣 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑦𝑦

• Use ODE’s for single track model to

derive
• Oversteering Cars 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
• Have a critical speed 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
• Understeering Cars
• Have a characteristic speed 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , the 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
speed with best response to steering Lat. Acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
input
• 65 km/h < 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐 < 100km/h

22
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Understeer – Watch the steering wheel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWKCilizzkU&list=TLPQMjcw
23
MTIwMjDU2sYsGCVbJA&index=2 FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Oversteer – Watch the steering wheel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWKCilizzkU 24
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Power induced oversteering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=shwgNV36xFA&t=4s
25
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
2-track model in the x-y-plane – low speed
𝒂𝒂𝒚𝒚 ≪ 𝟏𝟏 → 𝑭𝑭𝒚𝒚 ≅ 𝟎𝟎, 𝜶𝜶 ≅ 𝟎𝟎

• Rudolph Ackermann
)
• 1764–1834 vx,FR vx,R
• Steering Trapezoid
• velocities for no tire slip
)
• 100% Ackermann: vx , FR
steering bars cross at rear axle.
• Wheel speeds 𝛽𝛽
• 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜔𝜔
• higher at outer side
• higher at front vx,R
• Mean front speeds > mean rear
speeds
)
• Typically solution: vx , RR
• Max. wheel steering angle is defined
by space and drive joint. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ackermann_New.jpg]
• less steering at inner wheel to
decrease turning circle.

26
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
 2-track model in the x-y-plane with tire
slip
vyFL
vyFR
• Instantaneous center
vxRL
vxRL vxRR vxRR
• Moves to front
• At wider radii (if understeering)
−β
𝛽𝛽 • Wheel speeds
Ω
vVeh • High difference left/right 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 > 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅
vyR
vyR
 Axle Differential
vRL vxRL
vRR
vxRR • Less difference of mean values
front and rear compared to
𝑣𝑣 +𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 +𝑣𝑣
Ω Ackermann Ackermann 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ≈ 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅
2 2
Vehicle CS
 center Differential can be
tire CS locked at higher speeds.

27
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
 Compensation via road
• Kart
• Rigid rear axle
• Slow Turn
• Rear inner wheel is to fast drives
Foto: Wikipedia • Rear outer wheel is to slow brakes
• Idle Power is transferred via road
• High yaw torque makes strong 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
understeering
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
• Fast Turn
• Due to lateral acceleration we get a
low wheel load at inner wheel.
• Inner wheel skids
• Equalizing
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥speeds becomes easy. 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

28
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Differential
Axial, radial: slide bearings
Radial: slide bearings or roller bearings
Axial: slide bearings, roller bearings
or friction surface to increase friction
𝑀𝑀1 𝑀𝑀2

• TORque SENsitive
𝑀𝑀1 + 𝑀𝑀2 • Locking Ratio (Sperrgrad) (EU)
𝑖𝑖𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀1 −𝑀𝑀2
• 𝑆𝑆 = , 0 < 𝑆𝑆 ≤ 1 , typ. 10% - 15%
• Equalizes speed differences 𝑀𝑀1 +𝑀𝑀2

• Splits torque
• Due to radii of toothed wheels on both outputs • Torque Bias Ratio (US)
• Axle: same radius, split 50:50 max 𝑀𝑀1 ,𝑀𝑀2
• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = , typ: 1 < 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 < 10
• Torque depending friction min 𝑀𝑀1 ,𝑀𝑀2
• We like it to increase traction on µ-Split (ice on one side of car)

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY

29
Dr. Karl Reisinger
What does AWD?
Forces, slip A: RWD B: AWD
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 4000 N 2800 N
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 aus 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 2000 N 2000 N
Ax 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 20 % 5%
Long. Force 𝛼𝛼 6° 3°

Bx Reduce longitudinal force

 less long. slip
 tire can transfer more lat. force
By Ay Lat. Force  less lateral slip at same side force
AWD influences front/rear tyre slip angle
and Understeer Gradient.
30

5% 20%
Traction and Lateral Force vs. slip for different 𝛼𝛼
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
 Weight Transfer:
A motorcyclist
performing a stoppie

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_transfer)

31
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Friction Circe depending on 𝝁𝝁𝒎𝒎,𝒔𝒔 (𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛 )
Friction Coefficient for Passenger Car Tyre 205/55R16

• We loose µ with increasing load,

especially in lateral direction! 1

• driving a turn: 0.8

• “You loose more in the inner side, 0.6

than you gain in the outer side” 0.4

• We must know the wheel load 0.2

µM,Fz=2kN

distribution left/right to know

µS,Fz=2kN

(F )
z
µM,6kN
0

the axle’s side force potential

xM,S
µS,Fz=6kN
µM,Fz=10kN

µ
and side slip. -0.2
µS,10kN
Ellipse for 10kN
-0.4

-0.6
𝑭𝑭𝑴𝑴
𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁 = .. max. friction
𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛 -0.8
𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁.. sliding friction coefficient
passenger car tyre, result of TM-Easy -1

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

µyM,S=FyM,S/Fz

32
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Tyre forces at each wheel while
cornering and g-g-diagram

• (Milliken)

Rouelle C.: Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Applied to Race Car Design & Development, www.optimum.com 33
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Wheel Loads @ Three-Wheeler
• ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 0
• for Front / Rear axle
• ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 = 0
• roll moment is distributed
by front axle only
Use static equations to
determine the wheel loads.

Figure 1: Morgan Three-Wheeler, MY 1932 (Wikipedia)

34
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Tractors have a hinge joint at front axle

35
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral Total Weight Transfer:
Front+Rear in sum
𝑔𝑔 ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿,𝑅𝑅 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 ± 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
2 𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 • tip over if 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 < 0
• Influence of suspension in steady
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔 state: NONE! (except camber)
• The sum of the weight transfer
front and right depends on the
ratio CG-height ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
above road over
track width,
𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡
• But we can choose the ratio of
weight transfer front over rear to
influence the vehicle dynamics.
(http://racingcardynamics.com/weight-transfer/)

36
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
 rigid vehicle

ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

suspended vehicle

ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ℎ
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

WT of suspended mass and non suspended mass

𝒎𝒎𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 ⋅ 𝒂𝒂𝒚𝒚 ⋅ 𝒉𝒉𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 makes the car flipping over

13/07/2020 37
Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral Weight Transfer
• Problem
• 4 wheels deliver a statically overdetermined Total Weight
problem. Transfer (WT)
• consider deformation to solve.
• different components are suspended by
different springs
• Wheel, hub, …  tire Non
Suspended WT
• chassis  suspension + tire Suspended WT
• influence of roll centre (RC)?
• Approach
• We assume a linear system “Elastic” WT
• Thus we can superimpose single causes
• Split into
• Non Suspended WT  tire, wheel, ½ suspension
• Elastic WT  chassis mass rotating about RC “Geometric”
• Geometric WT  chassis mass applied at RC WT
see also: Rouelle C.: Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Applied to Race Car Design & Development,
www.optimum.com 38
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral WT and CG’s

(Claude Rouelle, Optimum G)

39
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Non Suspended WT
• actually tyre suspended WT • e.g. Rigid Axle
• separated to front axle and rear axle
• the roll stiffness of an axle
𝑡𝑡
𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 2 Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 2 t2
• 𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = = c −Δ𝑧𝑧𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝜑𝜑𝑥𝑥 Δ𝑧𝑧𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 z +Δ𝑧𝑧𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑡𝑡
2
𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ay
• High roll stiffness
 quick WT
• No ARB-influence ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 −Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 +Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧

• Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = = 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

40
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
WT of suspended mass and
non suspended mass II
• Non Suspended WT
ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• „Geometric“ WT
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
• „Elastic“ WT
ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
• Non Suspended WT and Geometric WT acts quickly,
Elastic WT acts slower, the suspension has to wind up.

41
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Wheel Suspension: Roll Centre
1. Connect instant centre of
motion of the wheel relative to
chassis with the contact point
on left side
2. do same at right side
RC 3. we get the Roll Centre at the
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
intersection of the lines above
(is not at y=0 in turns due to
roll motion and asymmetry in
the suspension!)

42
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Roll Centre Ro of Double A-Arm with
Anti-Feature
1. Point C: Intersect Axis 23 with a plane 𝜖𝜖1
parallel z-y-plane through 1
2. Project C and 1 to a z-y-parallel plane
through wheel centre and connect these 𝑔𝑔1 𝜖𝜖1
points with a line 𝑔𝑔1 . 𝑔𝑔2
3. Point D: Intersect Axis 56 with a plane 𝑔𝑔3
parallel z-y-plane through 4
4. Project D and 4 to z-y-parallel plane through
wheel centre and connect these points with
a line 𝑔𝑔2 .
5. The intersection of 𝑔𝑔1 and 𝑔𝑔2 gives the
instantaneous centre P for moving the wheel
with fixed body.
6. Connect P to the centre of print W
(= intersec. of wheel centre plane) to get 𝑔𝑔3 .
7. Intersect 𝑔𝑔3 of left and right side to get Ro.

(Trzesniowski M.: Rennwagentechnik, Vieweg+Teubner 2008)

43
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Find the exact CoG

(Claude Rouelle, Optimum G)

44
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Elastic Weight Transfer
• chassis rotation axis:
front RC to rear RC
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• inertia force 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
is applied in 𝐶𝐶𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
• has an arm (ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ) ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• the elastic part of roll
moment 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
is supported to front and rear ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
according compliances. ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

45
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Measurement of Chassis Compliance
Mount on rigid
rim and block
suspension!

(Kottnig G., Summer A.: Parameter of compliance, Seminar thesis AVD, 2015)
46
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Chassis Compliance UAS FS15

(Kottnig G., Summer A.: Parameter of compliance, Seminar thesis AVD, 2015)

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 47

Dr. Karl Reisinger
Torsional Springs in Series and Parallel

“elastic” roll moment to front “elastic” roll moment to rear

• Spring1F: • Spring 1R: Chassis Compliance to rear
Chassis compliance from CG to front • Spring2R: total rear suspension
• Spring 2F: Roll stiffness of suspension • Spring3R: rear tyres
+ it’s compliance
t2 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• Spring 3F: front tyres croll = c
2 z
𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY 48

Dr. Karl Reisinger
Elastic Roll Moment Distribution
• Parallel connection of
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
springs
• sum of stiffness 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
• 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
• Series connection of ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
springs ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
• sum up the compliances 𝑐𝑐𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆,𝑅𝑅
𝑐𝑐𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆,𝐹𝐹
1 1 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅
• = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇,𝐹𝐹 ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑖𝑖
𝑐𝑐𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶,𝐹𝐹
𝑐𝑐𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶,𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴,𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴,𝑅𝑅

49
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Geometric Roll Moment Distribution
• The geometric part
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
produces no Moment
around the roll axis 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
 lever rule delivers a split
into front and rear ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑏𝑏𝑆𝑆 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑎𝑎𝑆𝑆 + 𝑏𝑏𝑆𝑆 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑎𝑎𝑆𝑆
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀
𝑎𝑎𝑆𝑆 + 𝑏𝑏𝑆𝑆
• handle like NSM
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦

𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑀𝑀𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

50
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
2nd Homework: Weight transfer
𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Wanted:
• Determine
𝑚𝑚
the weight transfer Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 for
𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 1 2 of inner and outer front
𝑠𝑠
wheels.
ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 • Determine
𝑚𝑚 the weight transfer Δ𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 for
ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 1 2 acceleration of front and rear
𝑠𝑠
wheels.

• The suspended mass 𝑚𝑚𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 220 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. It’s CG is 𝑎𝑎 = 1.2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑏𝑏 = 0.8𝑚𝑚, ℎ𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 0.25 𝑚𝑚, .
• Front and rear suspensions are similar. The mass of 2 wheels, wheel hubs, half of suspensions is 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 30 kg. It′s CG is located at
ℎ𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0.25 m.
• The roll axis is determined by ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0.05 𝑚𝑚, ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 0.1 𝑚𝑚. Front and rear track width is 𝑠𝑠 = 1.5 𝑚𝑚.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
• The compliance for roll motion is described by the stiffness’ of front suspension 𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 3000 , rear suspension 𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
3500 ,chassis to front 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 80000 , chassis to rear 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 160000 . There is one front anti roll bar with a
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
stiffness of 𝑐𝑐𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 20000 and no rear stabilizer bar. The tyre stiffness 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 100 .
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚

Solution 51
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Full 2-Track-Model
for wide radii
• 𝑅𝑅 ≫ 𝑙𝑙𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 :
• 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 ≅ 𝛼𝛼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
• 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 ≅ 𝛼𝛼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
else consider
• kinematics
• steering gear
ratio

(Claude Rouelle, Optimum G)

52
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
g-g-diagram Formula-1

(Trzesniowski: Rennwagentechnik 2008)

53
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
2Track Model vs. Single Wheel Model
2-Track Model Single Wheel Model
• WT is considered • No WT, no tyre load dependence
• higher accuracy
• lower accuracy
• g-g- and yaw-moment-diagram
• usable to optimize components • only g-g-diagram
• tyre‘s wheel load influence • usable to optimize path
• camber
• mass distribution • delivers an idealized vehicle
• compliances, ARB‘s, suspension springs
• suspension kinematics
• good results to find accelerations
• ... limits
• a lot of parameters must be known to
set up

54
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Simplified Model to obtain the g-g-
diagram
• Mono-Cycle with wheel-load from bicycle
model.
• split into front and rear axle mass
𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹 =
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑏𝑏
, 𝑚𝑚𝑅𝑅 =
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
1
• Axle load front: 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = (𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹 𝑔𝑔 + 𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙,𝐹𝐹 )
2
1
• Lateral Force: 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
2 𝑎𝑎
... assuming steady state => 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 0
• Longitudinal Force:
1 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ⋅ 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
2 𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 +𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

• Inclination Angle 𝛾𝛾 = 0, steering angle 𝛿𝛿 ≪ 1 𝑏𝑏

• Same with rear axle, one axle reaches the limit

earlier
𝑚𝑚𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦

55
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
g-g-diagram: 𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙 (𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙 , 𝒗𝒗𝒙𝒙 )
theoretical=potential measured=driver’s courage

[Milliken W.,Milliken D.: Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, SAE 1995]

56
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Measured g-g-diagram
• How far does the
driver use the
limits?

passenger car
(http://www.trailbrake.net/featured-articles/the-g-g-diagram) 57
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
How can we pass the lap as fast as
possible?
• G-G-diagram • No longitudinal force in apex point
delivers maximal speed
• strait forward
1 • Brake before apex
• radius 𝑅𝑅 = ∞, curvature 𝜅𝜅 = =0
𝑅𝑅 • Tire potential in apex is used fully for lateral
• No lateral force 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 acceleration.
• Full longitudinal force 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 to accelerate/decelerate • Accelerate after apex
is possible
• 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0 𝑅𝑅2
• The shape of a turn is defined by it’s 𝐴𝐴2
curvature/radius along the path length 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡)
• the radius 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) decreases continuously until 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠)
reaching the apex point (Scheitelpunkt)

𝑅𝑅1

𝐴𝐴1 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡)
58
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lap Time Simulation with known path

59
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Trip Time Simulation 2
2. accelerate after apex 𝐴𝐴1 • We solve a 1st Order ODE
• current lateral force due to curvature starting at apex point.
and speed
• 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (𝜅𝜅, 𝑣𝑣)
• tire’s potential in x 2
2
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
• 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 , 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 (𝑣𝑣) , e.g 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑀𝑀
+ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑀𝑀
=1
• engine’s potential
𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ⋅𝜂𝜂
• e.g. 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 =
𝑣𝑣𝑢𝑢
• current drag
• 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (𝑣𝑣, 𝑠𝑠)
• long. acceleration
• 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 − 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
• integration of 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) to get speed
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) and path length 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) [Milliken W.,Milliken D.: Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, SAE 1995]

60
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Trip Time Simulation 3
𝜅𝜅
3. brake to next apex 𝐴𝐴2
a) find brake point 𝐵𝐵 recursively 𝐴𝐴2
• try a brake point 𝐴𝐴1
• brake as fast as possible due to tire’s s(t)
potential 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 , 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦
• check speed in next apex and correct brake
point
b) calc. speed out of next
apex using negative time
• accelerate in reverse direction with brake s(t)
potential starting at next apex.
• brake point is the intersection of the
𝑣𝑣 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) curves
• We brake in that way, that we reach the
maximum possible speed in 𝑣𝑣
next apex.
• Single point model delivers a goal, which 𝐵𝐵
can be reached by optimal car setup
s(t)
61
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Turning Manoeuvre
• Change Velocity Direction
• accelerate the body laterally
𝑣𝑣 2
𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 =
𝑅𝑅
• Change Heading Angle 𝜓𝜓
• yaw acceleration 𝜓𝜓̈ > 0 before apex point
• yaw deceleration 𝜓𝜓̈ > 0 after apex point

• Newton‘s Law
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = ∑𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦,𝑖𝑖
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ⋅ Ψ̈ = ∑𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑖𝑖
We need force and torque to make the turn!
(Claude Rouelle, Optimum G)

62
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Yaw Moment and Lateral Acceleration

(Claude Rouelle, Optimum G)

63
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Yaw Moment vs. Lateral Accelleration

(Claude Rouelle, Optimum G)

64
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Yaw Moment while Entering a Corner

𝑑𝑑Ψ̇
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Ψ̇ 2
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ⋅ = � 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2

(Claude Rouelle: OptimumG)

65
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Tyre model delivers forces in tyre
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
coordinate system 𝛾𝛾

• Tyre Model delivers for

• longitudinal slip,
• lateral slip
• Tyre Forces 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 . 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
• applied in tyre CS
• Torques
• self alignment torque 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 due to trail
and deformation 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥
• Overturn torque 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 due to
deformation and inclination angle 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥
• Drive Torque
• 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
66
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Forces applied on vehicle body
y
Turn
(Claude Rouelle: OptimumG) x
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ⋅ Ψ̈ = 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
Milliken-Moments-Diagram:
• Rolling 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⋅ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 0
• for given 𝜷𝜷 and 𝜹𝜹 we get side slip angles
and tyre forces
• resultant forces 𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 , 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
• diagram 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦

𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + [+FxFL sin 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 + FxFR sin 𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎 − 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏 + ∑𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑖𝑖 +
−FxFL sin 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 + FxFR sin 𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 −FxRL +𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

67
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Milliken Moments Diagram
= Yaw Moment vs. ay Diagram
We change steering angle 𝛿𝛿 and body slip angle 𝛽𝛽 and measure 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 and 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 .

(Milliken&Milliken 1995)

68
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral Force and Yaw Moment vs. 𝜷𝜷, 𝜹𝜹

(Milliken&Milliken 1995)

69
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
YMD

SAE-Coordinate are used here!

(Claude Rouelle: OptimumG)
or we can also Steeringwheel
scale the moment 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 =
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ 𝑙𝑙

Body Slip Steady state

𝛽𝛽 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 cornering

𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
=
𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔
70
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Force-Moment-Analysis, Yaw-Moment Analysis,
Milliken Moments Diagram

• … is a Steady State Force Analysis, of the unbalanced car, we neglect

• tyre dynamics - Tyre needs about print length L to build up forces
• damper‘s influence in load transfer
• Gives answers to
𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
• Controllability >0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Does an increase of 𝛿𝛿 cause an tighter turn?
An increase of 𝛿𝛿 increases Yaw Moment (=yaw acceleration for more yaw angle)
𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
• Stability <0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Is there a backing torque, 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 < 0, if 𝛽𝛽 drifts from equilibrium?
 A increase of 𝛽𝛽 decreases Yaw Moment (=yaw acceleration backwards reducing 𝛽𝛽)

71
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
YMD – Understeer/oversteer

Steeringwheel Moment
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 increasing
Yaw rate
Left turn

Oversteer behaviour!
A yaw increasing moment
delivers higher lat. accel.
Body Slip
𝛽𝛽 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

SAE-Coordinate are used!

72
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY
(Claude Rouelle: OptimumG)
Dr. Karl Reisinger
Stability & Controllability: Inclination in YMD

Does an increase of 𝛿𝛿 Does an increase of 𝛽𝛽

increase yaw rate? produce a moment moving back?

73
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
YMD – Stability
Moment increasing
the Yaw rate
𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
Steeringwheel
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
If 𝛽𝛽 becomes larger we have a moment
decreasing yaw rate
= moving back  stable
Left turn

Driver must stabilize actively by 𝛿𝛿!

Body Slip
𝛽𝛽 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

SAE-Coordinate are used! 74

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY (Claude Rouelle: OptimumG)
Dr. Karl Reisinger
YMD – Control(ability)
Moment increasing
Yaw rate
Steeringwheel
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Left turn 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
If driver increases 𝛿𝛿 we get an
moment increasing yaw rate.
 Sharper turn

Body Slip SAE-Coordinate are used!

𝛽𝛽 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (Claude Rouelle: OptimumG)

75
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
YMD Flowchart

Loop for WT

76
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Lateral Forces

77
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Yaw Moment from Lateral Forces

78
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger
Discussion
• Please form 4 -5 Groups, I propose to mix up, between the
universities.

• Discuss following Questions:

• Other didactic approaches to introduced topics
• Topics I missed generally (compared to overview sheet)
• Topics we cancelled, because we don’t think, they are so important.

• Presentation and discussion of your results.

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger

Literature
• Milliken W.F, Milliken D.: Race Car Vehicle Dynamcs,SAE Int., 1995
• Rill G.: Road Vehicle Dynamics – Fundamentals and Modelling; CRC
Press Taylor Francis Group
• Heißing/Ersoy (Eds.): Chassis Handbook, 1st Ed., Vieweg+Teubner,
2011.
• Mitschke/Wallentowitz: Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge, 4. Auflage,
Springer
• Rouelle C.: Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Applied o Race Car Design &
Development, Optimum G Seminar, Denver 2016,
www.optimumg.com

FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE ONLY Dr. Karl Reisinger

 Engineering Knowledge Transfer Units to Increase
Student´s Employability and Regional Development

https://www.facebook.com/unitederasmus/

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the
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