Modes of Reproduction
Modes of Reproduction
Modes of Reproduction
Reproduction is a process by which one organism produces offspring. It is one of the basic
processes in all known life forms. Every organism we see around us is a direct result of reproduction.
A. Sexual reproduction
Requires two parents. Each parent contributes a gamete - a sex cell that has half of the normal
DNA of a regular body cell. In males, the gametes are sperm and in females, the gametes are eggs.
When these two gametes combine during fertilization, the result is a zygote, which then continues to
develop into an embryo.
Sexual reproduction in animals may happen through internal fertilization (humans, dogs) or external
fertilization (certain reptiles and birds).
External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm are
released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external
fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or several females release their
eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The release of the
reproductive material may be triggered by water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all
fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and
echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers).
Internal fertilization occurs most often in land-based animals, although some aquatic animals
also use this method. There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal
fertilization.
o In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop there,
receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg. This occurs in most bony
fish, many reptiles, some cartilaginous fish, most amphibians, two mammals, and all
birds. Reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds and turtles produce eggs
with high concentrations of calcium carbonate in the shell, making them hard. Chicken
eggs are an example of this second type.
o In ovoviviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the embryo obtains its
nourishment from the egg’s yolk and the young are fully developed when they are
hatched. This occurs in some bony fish (like the guppy Lebistes reticulatus), some sharks,
some lizards, some snakes (such as the garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers,
and some invertebrate animals (like the Madagascar hissing cockroach Gromphadorhina
portentosa).
o In viviparity the young develop within the female, receiving nourishment from the
mother’s blood through a placenta. The offspring develops in the female and is born
alive. This occurs in most mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles.
B. Asexual Reproduction
It is the mode of reproduction which involves only one organism. The offspring that is produced
is genetically identical to the mother and almost always has the same number of chromosomes. Hence,
they are called clones. Moreover, they are exact copies of their parent cell.
In the natural mode of asexual reproduction, a plant can give rise to an offspring with the help of
roots. Certain plants also use budding and cutting to reproduce asexually.
1. Binary Fission - Type of asexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more
equal parts
2. Fragmentation - Type of asexual reproduction where the
body breaks into two or more parts, with each fragment capable of
becoming a complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is
usually followed by regeneration where the missing parts are
produced. For example, a lost arm of the starfish may be
regenerated by mitotic cell divisions.
4. Sporulation - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual forms from an aggregation
of cells surrounded by a resistant capsule or spore, which later on germinates
5. Parthenogenesis: An
embryo develops from an unfertilized cell.
Occurs in invertebrates, as well as in some fish, amphibians, and
reptiles.
Baby Komodo dragon produced through parthenogenesis.