Enrichment Activity

Name: Ellen Mae Ortega Course, Year & Section:BEED 2

Date of Submission: _________

Directions: Surf the internet and look for 1 research/study related to the 14 LCP. Fill out the organizer
provided below.

PROBLEM Research Methodology

The methodology developed for this study included the

Effectiveness of Personal research design, thedevelopment of the instrument and
the pilot test, the participants’ characteristics, the
Interaction in a Learner- sampling procedure, and the data collection and
analysis techniques.
Centered Paradigm Research Design

Distance Education Class A survey was developed for this particular study called
the Students’ Perceived Interaction Survey (SPIS). The
Based on Student survey was administered to the participants through
WebCT during the week of November 29 to December
Satisfaction 7, 2005.
Shu-Hui Hsieh Chang and Roger A. Smith
Participant Characteristics
Iowa State University
Computer Science 103—Computer Literacy and
Applications, at one large Midwestern university, is a
one-semester online computer literacy and applications
course. In the fall of 2005, 949 students enrolled in the
class and 25 teaching assistants were employed to help
grade student homework. These Computer Science 103
students volunteered to participate in this study while
taking the course. Freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and
seniors with various majors in various colleges
participated, along with different ethnicities and
genders.
Development of the Instrument and Pilot Test
The survey was developed in four phases. In phase one

the original version of the survey was prepared and

initial exploratory data were collected. Phase two
consisted of a survey review by an expert committee of
professors. Phase threeinvolved a pilot test where 20
Computer Science 103 teaching assistants took the
survey, along with 46 Computer Science 103 students.
The survey was revised at each phase and finalized in
the fourth phase.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
To examine the validity and reliability of the Students’
Perceived Interaction Survey (SPIS) instrument for
distance education, factor analysis and Cronbach’s
alpha tests were conducted. Factor analysis was one of
the primary statistical methods used in this research. By
using the principal component method, individual
factors were extracted from each of the scales. Kaiser’s
rule and Scree plots were used to determine the
number of factors. To justify the factor analysis results,
the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy
(KMO) was examined. To access internal consistency,
the Cronbach’s alpha statistic, based on standardized
item scores for a set of unidimensional items, was
calculated. After running the factor analyses for parts
2–6, most of the values of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) were greater
than 0.8.These results indicated that the factors were
well defined and the probability would be high that if
another sample was obtained and the analysis
repeated,the resulting factors would be consistently the
same (Tabachnick & Fidell,2001). Most of the reliability
of Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items
scores for each factor were greater than 0.7. A
Cronbach’s alpha score greater than 0.7 indicates
strong internal consistency of a construct (Cronbach,
1951).These scores indicate how consistently
individuals respond to the items within a scale. Table 1
(p. 414) shows the factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha
scores for the six factors found in the SPIS.
 Data Collection and Data Analysis

The survey results were analyzed using SPSS 14.0 for

Windows. The Univariate General Linear Model
Procedure and Linear Regression Procedure in SPSS
were used to perform a multiple regression analysis to
determine the relationship between the independent
variables and course satisfaction. Descriptive statistics
were calculated for each of the demographic variables:
age, gender, race,college classification, and prior
distance education experiences.

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION

To examine the relationship between course As distance education has become a more and more
satisfaction and other independent variables, a multiple popular educational practice, it is crucial to examine
linear regression model was developed by the online course quality. For students to successfully learn,
researcher. The most appropriate statistical method to teachers must present clear goals and objectives so
analyze the data was regression analysis. The model students do not get frustrated (Porter, 1997).
used a set of continuous and categorical variables to Instructors in the online environment must focus on
predict course satisfaction. For the categorical learners’ needs and plan and execute their lessons
independent variables, dummy variables were created. clearly and effectively to help students learn the
The model developed was as follows: maximum amount of information (Barker & Patrick,
1989; Knowlton, 2000).There are many ways to
where Y = Course satisfaction promote learner achievement in online class
environments, but learner satisfaction is one especially
X1 = WebCT effectiveness important component in successful distance education
courses (Ritchie & Newby, 1989). Some researchers
X2 = Prior partial online experience
believe student satisfaction should be examined before
X3 = Prior entirely online experience learning outcomes,because students’ negative opinions
can hinder their learning (Biner, Dean& Mellinger,
X4 = Student-TA interaction 1994). Student satisfaction should be taken into
account by instructors because attitudes are often
X5 = Student-instructor interaction
indicative of success. Barrett et al. (2007)reported that
X6 = Student-student interaction the online instructors need to shift their teaching styles
from teacher-centered to learner-centered paradigms
in order to facilitate better online learning
environments and promote student satisfaction. Based
on these research findings, several recommendations
have been made regarding how to create a learner-
centered online classroom that incorporates effective
WebCT features, increases student-instructor
interaction, increases student-student interaction, and
increases student-content interaction. The results of
this research can help educators create a rich distance
education environment that encourages students to
enjoy what they’re learning and perform well.These
research results showed that student-instructor,
student-student, and student-content interactions, as
well as gender and WebCT features are predictors of
course satisfaction. The following are suggestions for
X7 = Student-content interaction future research:

Z1 = Gender (Male) 1. Investigate if increased interaction will increase

student learning outcomes measured by grades or
Z21 = Year (Freshman)
academic achievement.
Z22 = Year (Sophomore)
2. Replicate this study on a national level for
Z23 = Year (Junior) undergraduate students who are taking a similar course
using various course management systems.
Examination of Overall Model 3.Replicate this study in other courses in other subject
areas.
The F test (shown in Table 2) was used to examine the
overall multiple regression model. The null hypothesis 4. Conduct a qualitative research study to investigate
was H0 : βi = 0, while the F statistic was 179.447. The p- students’ perceptions of the relationships between
value was < 0.001, meaning the model was significant. interaction and their course satisfaction.
The R square value of 0.702 indicated that all the
independent variables together predicted 70.2% of the 5. Conduct an experimental study with a control group
variability of course satisfaction, which was fairly high. to measure if increasing interaction will increase course
The assumptions of this model—independence, satisfaction. One group would require little to no
normality, and equality of variances—were satisfied. interaction, while another group would be given a
Because students completed the surveys at times that sufficient amount of interaction.
were personally convenient as opposed to a classroom
setting, independence can be assumed. The histogram 6. Conduct the same study on different course
of standardized residuals showed the residuals closely management platforms other than WebCT.
followed a normal distribution. The results of the
7. Determine if the research results concerning gender
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances (Table 3, p.
and preference remained consistent in other subject
416) indicated the F value was 1.427 and the Pvalue
matter. This course was a computer science course;
was 0.191. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not
perhaps a broader subject area would change the
rejected and the model met the equality variance
results.
assumption; the error variance of the dependent
variable was equal across groups. VIF (variance inflation 8.Determine whether other factors affect interaction,
factor) was used to assess multicollinearity, which exists such as students’ learning styles and instructors’
when the independent variables correlate with each teaching styles, which are not addressed in this study.
other. If a VIF value is above 10, then these values Further study is needed in these areas.
indicate serious multicollinearity, which inflates
theJournal of Research on Technology in Education

.This tested the null hypothesis that the error variance

of the dependent variable was equal across groups.
Design: Intercept + Gender + Academic Year + WebCT
Effectivess + Partial Online Experience + Entirely Online
Experience + StudentTA Interaction + StudentInstructor
Interaction + StudentStudent Interaction +
StudentContent Interaction standard errors of the
regression coefficients. At a result, t-tests would not be
accurate for testing deviation of the regression
coefficient from zero. According to Table 4, VIF statistics
for this model were between 1.084 and 3.372. These
statistics did not indicate any multicollinearity
problems. Because all the assumptions for multiple
regression were satisfied, this model was used to test
the research question.
Testing the Null Hypotheses, Findings, and Discussion
Nine hypotheses were tested using the multiple
regression model at an alpha level of 0.05 (one tailed).
The multiple regression results took into account the
relationships of all variables in the model
simultaneously, and thus provided a more accurate
measure of how any one independent variable was
related to the dependent variable. The regression
model estimated the partial slopes between each of the
predictor variables and the dependent variable. This
estimate differed from the bivariate correlation
between these variables, which did not partial out the
relationships among the other variables in the model.
The research results demonstrated that student-
instructor interaction, student-student interaction, and
student-content interaction, along with gender and
student perceptions of WebCT features were predictors
of course satisfaction. In this study 94% of the
participants indicated they were satisfied with the
course.Moore (1989) found that there were three
critical types of interaction in distance education:
student-instructor, student-student, and student-
content,which this study supports. Interaction is
considered the key to success in traditional classrooms,
as well as in the distance education environment
(Fulford &Zhang, 1993). The results of this study
strongly support this perspective.

Testing the First Null Hypothesis:

According to the results shown in Table 4 for student-
instructor interaction, the p-value for the t test was
0.003, which was less than 0.05. Therefore,the null
hypothesis was rejected. The results showed that there
was a positive and significant relationship between
students’ scores on the student-instructor interaction
items in the SPIS instrument for distance education and
students’scores on the course satisfaction items in the
SPIS instrument for distance education.
Student-Instructor Interaction is a Predictor of Course
Satisfaction

Moore and Kearsley (1996) indicated that the instructor

is responsible for facilitating student-instructor,
student-student, and student-content interactions in
the distance education classroom environment. In
addition, interaction between the instructor and
students greatly impacts students’ perceptions of
distance education (Hiltz, 1995). Computer Science 103
presented several opportunities for student-instructor
interaction, which contributed to students’levels of
satisfaction with the course. These opportunities
included: 1) face-toface orientation sessions in the first
week of the semester, 2) effective communication via
WebCT e-mail, 3) synchronous chat sessions to develop
interactive communication, 4) access to a frequently
updated grade book, 5) constructive feedback about
students’ performances, 6) opportunities to reflect on
learning and identify ways to improve performance. In
this study 90.4% of the participants stated that they
enjoyed the class very much. The prompt feedback and
constructive comments from the instructor increased
students’ enjoyment levels and influenced their course
satisfaction.

Testing the Second Null Hypothesis:

The mean of the student-TA interaction variable was

5.171. According to the results shown in Table 4, the
regression coefficient of the student-TA interaction
variable was estimated to be 0.017. The corresponding
p-value for the t test was 0.196, which was greater than
0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. It
suggested that there was no positive and significant
relationship between the students’ scores on the
student-TA interaction section in the SPIS instrument
and their scores on the course satisfaction section in
the SPIS instrument. However, several circumstances
could explain these results. Computer Science 103 was
a large class that consisted of 949 students divided into
40-person sections with a total of 25 sections. A total of
25 section TAs were assigned to grade students’
homework and answer questions about course
material. In general, students appreciated the work of
the TAs, but students’ opinions about the quality of
their own TA varied significantly, potentially affecting
students’perceptions of student-TA interaction.
Therefore, compared to other factors such as student-
instructor interaction, student-student interaction,
student-content interaction, WebCT features, and
gender, student-TA interaction was not significant in
predicting course satisfaction.
Testing the Third Null Hypothesis:

According to the results for student-student interaction

shown in Table 4, the p-value was less than 0.001 for
the third hypothesis. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
rejected. The results showed that there was a positive
and significant relationship between the students’
scores on the student-student interaction section in the
SPIS instrument for distance education and their scores
on the course satisfaction section in the SPIS
instrument.Student-Student Interaction is a Predictor of
Course Satisfaction Students in an online classroom
environment often feel isolated because of a lack of
interaction with other students. It is crucial for online
instructors to develop a curriculum that actively
promotes student-student interaction. There were
several student-student interactions that occurred as
part of this study that contributed to increasing
students’ levels of course satisfaction; namely: 1)
constructivist-based hands-on projects and simulation
tests, 2) discussion board case study projects, 3) a
student homepage design project, and 4) chat
sessions.Students responded positively to these
activities; discussion board postings from Computer
Science 103 totaled more than 51,000 over the course
of the semester. Over 97% of survey participants
indicated they appreciated the opportunity to work
with partners on the case study projects, and 83.6%
indicated they posted at least 60 comments about the
work of other groups. Students also appreciated the
chat sessions—many participants (90%) within this
study indicated that they liked the opportunity provided
for them to get to know their
fellow students in the Computer Science 103 online
community.

Testing the Fourth Null Hypothesis:

The results for student-content interaction, shown in
Table 4, indicated the
p-value for the t test for hypothesis four was less than
0.001. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. The
results showed that there was a positive and significant
relationship between the students’ scores on the
student-content interaction section in the SPIS
instrument and their scores on the course satisfaction
section in the SPIS instrument.

Student-Content Interaction is a Predictor of Course

Satisfaction

Several types of student-content interaction

contributed to students’ satisfaction with the course. In
this study, over 96.8% of the participants reported that
the Computer Science 103 WebCT course materials
were well organized, and about 94.2% indicated that
they were satisfied with the quality of the streaming
lectures. Well-organized course material and streaming
lectures can assist student learning, facilitate student-
content interaction, and increase learning retention.
According to Choi and Johnson (2005), video-based
instruction methods provided higher retention rates
than traditional text-based instruction.Johnson’s
assertions are supported by the results of this
study.Furthermore, the instructor posted simulation
projects and many other content-rich course materials
in each weekly module for students to learn. Because of
the instructor’s extra efforts, over 97.1% of the
participants indicated that they were satisfied with the
content of the course. Furthermore, 93.2% of the
participants responded that they were satisfied with the
amount of learning they achieved in the class.
Testing the Fifth Null Hypothesis:
In the results for gender shown in Table 2, the p-value
for the t test was 0.002,which was less than 0.05.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected, suggesting
that the mean score of females was less than the mean
score of males on the course satisfaction items in the
SPIS instrument for distance education. The mean for
males was 5.263, while the mean for females was
5.164. Males were more satisfied than females with the
course, although the practical difference is small.

Gender as a Predictor of Course Satisfaction

The results of this study demonstrated that both male
and female participants were very satisfied with the
course. However, males were slightly more satisfied
with the course than females. This online course
provided flexibility, social presence, a cooperative
learning community, along with high quality student-
instructor, student-student, and student-content
interactions. These components were satisfactory for
both male and female students. However, Pascarella
and Ternzini (2005) indicated that men performed
better than women performed in the areas of
mathematics and science, and Kearsley (2000) and
many others stated that males held more positive
attitudes toward computers and technology than
females (Furger, 1998; Shashaani, 1994; Spender, 1995,
Ullman, 1997). Furthermore, Keinath (1991) indicated
that females often felt like they did not have enough
time to complete everything they wanted, not only in
coursework,but also in all aspects of life. Because the
coursework for Computer Science 103 was demanding,
females might have felt they had less time to
accomplish the required assignments in the class and
were therefore less satisfied than males with the
course.
Testing the Sixth Null Hypothesis:
According to the results shown in Table 2, the p-value
for the t test related to classification in college was
0.165, which was greater than 0.05. Therefore the null
hypothesis was not rejected. There was no positive
relationship between students’ academic classifications
and students’ scores on the course satisfaction section
in the SPIS instrument for distance education. Zhang
(2005) also found that there was no significant
relationship between age and how receptive distance
education learners were. However, Lim (2001)found
that there was a negative relationship between
academic status and course satisfaction. The results of
this research are consistent with Zhang’s findings,
indicating no significant relationship between academic
classification and course satisfaction.
Testing the Seventh Null Hypothesis:
Table 4 shows a p-value for the t test related to
students’ experience with distance education was
0.471, which was greater than 0.05. Therefore, the null
hypothesis was not rejected. There was no positive
relationship between students’prior experiences with
distance education in partially online class settings and
their scores on the course satisfaction section in the
SPIS instrument. Discussion regarding this hypothesis is
closely tied with the next hypothesis, and will be
included in the next section.
Testing the Eighth Null Hypothesis:

According to the results shown in Table 4, the p-value

for the t test related to experience with a totally online
class was 0.190, which was greater than 0.05.Therefore,
the null hypothesis was not rejected. There was no
positive relationship between students’ prior distance
education experience in an entirely online class and
their scores on the course satisfaction section in the
SPIS instrument.Several factors could have contributed
to these results. First, the course was well organized,
helping students easily find the information they
needed. Second, successful orientation sessions may
have helped students understand what they needed to
do to succeed and made online learning easy and
enjoyable.Third, the technologies adopted by the
instructor promoted active learning.Fourth, the course
instructor maintained a high level of communication
with students, helping them stay on task and be more
satisfied with the course. All of these factors could help
explain why prior distance education experience did not
impact students’ course satisfaction.
Testing the Ninth Null Hypothesis:

The mean of the WebCT features variable was 5.055.

According to the results shown in Table 4, the p-value
was less than 0.001. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
rejected, suggesting that there was a positive and
significant relationship between students’ scores on the
effectiveness of WebCT features section in the SPIS
instrument for distance education and students’ scores
on the course satisfaction section in the SPIS. The
instructor adopted several WebCT features that
promoted active student learning and increased
interaction between students and the instructor, other
students, and the course content. The use of these
features also built an online learning community.
Overall, 97.5% of participants within this study stated
that the WebCT features used in this class were easy to
learn. The results of this study are consistent with Lai
(2004) and others who concluded that effective WebCT
tools enhanced the student learning experience
(LeRouge et al., 2002;Hutchins, 2001).