HKDSE BIOLOGY: Connecting Concepts

Revision notes

7 Nutrition in humans

7.1 The processes of nutrition and the human digestive

system
1. Humans obtain nutrients and energy from food in several stages:

• Ingestion: the intake of food through the mouth cavity

• Digestion: the breakdown of complex food molecules into simple,
soluble molecules
• Absorption: the entry of simple, soluble molecules from the
digestive system into the bloodstream
• Assimilation: the uptake and use of food substances by cells to
release energy and in metabolism
• Egestion: the removal of undigested and unabsorbed materials
out of the body as faeces

2. The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and

several associated glands.
Food
Ingestion
Mouth cavity Salivary glands

Pharynx

Digestion Oesophagus

Stomach Gastric glands

Liver
Small intestine
Absorption Pancreas
Large intestine

Anus
Egestion
Faeces

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HKDSE BIOLOGY: Connecting Concepts Revision notes

7.2 Ingestion
3. Food is ingested into the mouth cavity, and is then chewed and cut
into small pieces by teeth.

4. A set of human teeth consists of four types: incisors, canines,

premolars and molars. Each tooth consists of the outermost enamel
or cementum, dentine in the middle and an innermost pulp cavity.

5. Dentition describes the number and arrangement of different

types of teeth in a mammal. It can be expressed as a dental formula
which shows the types and numbers of teeth on one side of the upper
and lower jaws. Humans have two successive sets of teeth during their
lives: milk teeth and permanent teeth.
2 1 2 212 )
• Dental formula for milk teeth: i , c , m (or
2 1 2 212
2 1 2 3 2123 )
• Dental formula for permanent teeth: i , c , pm , m (or
2 1 2 3 2123

7.3 Digestion in the mouth cavity

6. Physical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth cavity and is
completed in the small intestine.

Significance Examples
Physical • The breaking up of food • Chewing action of teeth
digestion into smaller pieces by
• Churning by the stomach
physical means
• Peristalsis along the
• Increases the surface
alimentary canal
area of the food for the
action of digestive • Emulsification of lipids by
enzymes bile salts
cont'd

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Significance Examples
Chemical • The breakdown of large, • Carbohydrases catalyse
digestion complex food molecules the breakdown of
into small, simple carbohydrates into
molecules through disaccharides or
chemical reactions monosaccharides
(hydrolysis)
• Proteases catalyse the
breakdown of proteins
into polypeptides,
peptides or amino acids
• Lipase catalyses the
breakdown of lipids into
fatty acids and glycerol

7. During mastication, food is cut into small pieces and mixed with
saliva. Saliva is slightly alkaline. It contains water, mineral salts,
mucus and salivary amylase which catalyses the breakdown of starch
to maltose.

8. The chewed food is rolled into a bolus by the tongue and is then
swallowed through the pharynx into the oesophagus. From the
oesophagus to the anus, food is moved along the alimentary canal by
peristalsis. Peristalsis also mixes food with digestive juices to speed
up digestion.

7.4 Digestion in the stomach

9. The stomach continues the physical and chemical digestion of food.

10. Gastric glands in the inner wall of the stomach secrete gastric juice,
which contains:

• pepsin, which catalyses the breakdown of proteins into peptides

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• hydrochloric acid, which provides an acidic pH for proteases to

work in. It also denatures proteins in food and kills many of the
bacteria taken in with food.
• mucus, which forms a physical barrier to prevent the acid and
digestive enzymes from damaging the stomach
11. The muscular wall of the stomach undergoes rhythmic contractions
called churning. Food is thoroughly churned and mixed with gastric
juice, forming a semi-liquid paste called chyme.

7.5 Digestion and absorption in the small intestine

12. In the small intestine, the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins
continues, while the digestion of lipids begins.

Digestive Site of Enzymes or chemical

Effect
juice production substances present
Bile Liver • Bile salts • Lipids s maller droplets
(alkaline) emulsification
• Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
Pancreatic Pancreas • Pancreatic amylase • Starch ➞ maltose
juice
• Lipase • Lipids ➞ fatty acids +
(alkaline)
glycerol
• Proteases • Proteins ➞ peptides
• Sodium • Peptides ➞ amino acids
hydrogencarbonate
Intestinal Intestinal • Water
juice glands
• Mucus
(alkaline)
• Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
cont'd
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HKDSE BIOLOGY: Connecting Concepts Revision notes

Digestive Site of Enzymes or chemical

Effect
juice production substances present
/ / Enzymes present on
the cell membranes of
the epithelial cells in
the intestinal wall:
• Carbohydrases • Disaccharides ➞
monosaccharides
• Proteases • Peptides ➞ amino acids

13. Digestion is completed in the small intestine, resulting in a watery

emulsion called chyle. The chyle contains monosaccharides, amino
acids, fatty acids and glycerol, which are easily absorbed from the
small intestine.

14. The small intestine is adapted for absorption in several ways:

Adaptation Significance
It is very long. Allows sufficient time for the
complete digestion and absorption
of food as food passes along the
small intestine
Its inner wall is highly folded and Increases the surface area for
has numerous villi; epithelial cells absorption
of villi have microvilli.
The epithelium of villi is very thin This shortens the distance for
(one-cell thick). transport of food molecules.
Each villus contains a lacteal Allows the absorbed food to be
surrounded by a dense network of transported away rapidly, hence
capillaries. maintains a steep concentration
gradient for food absorption

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15. In the small intestine, digested food molecules are absorbed by two
routes:
monosaccharides, amino acids,
minerals, water-soluble vitamins

diffusion and active transport

water

osmosis
epithelial cell

blood capillaries

lacteal diffusion fat-soluble

vitamins
diffusion

lipids
glycerol

fatty acids

villus (T.S)

7.6 Absorption in the large intestine and egestion

16. The large intestine absorbs water, minerals and some vitamins
from the remaining undigested material.

17. After the remaining undigested material has passed through the
caecum and colon, faeces form and are temporarily stored in the
rectum. The removal of faeces out of the body through the anus is
called egestion or defaecation.

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7.7 Assimilation
18. Assimilation takes place in all parts of the body. Food substances are
used by cells to release energy and in metabolism.

19. The absorbed food substances are transported to all parts of the body
by the circulatory system.

aorta

heart
hepatic vein

liver lymph vessel

villus
hepatic lipid molecules
portal vein lacteal
monosaccharides,
amino acids, blood
capillary
minerals or water-
soluble vitamins to different
parts of the
body

20. The liver has many functions in addition to acting as a gland of the
digestive system. Some of them are:

• regulating blood glucose level

• deaminating excess amino acids
• producing bile
• storing glycogen, iron and fat-soluble vitamins
• detoxifying toxins

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