CAP College Self-Learning Series

For

History 1
(Philippine History and Culture)

Module III
(The Philippine Revolution and the American Colonial Era)

Contents

Lesson 1. The Birth of Philippine Nationalism

Lesson 2. The Propaganda Movement and the Katipunan

Lesson 3. The Philippine Revolution

Lesson 4. Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic

Lesson 5. American Occupation of the Philippines

Lesson 6. American Heritage

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 History 1
(Philippine History and Culture)

Module III. The Philippine Revolution and the American Colonial Era

Copyright 1991

CAP College
149 Legaspi St., Makati
Metro Manila

and

SONIA M. ZAIDE
55 Rizal Street
Pagsanjan, Laguna 4008
Philippines

Revised by

CARIDAD A. RODRIGUEZ, M.A., Professor Emeritus

Silliman University
1994

All rights reserved

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 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT

At CAP COLLEGE you learn through self-instructional modules, otherwise

known as CAPsels (short for CAP College Self-Learning Series), such as the one you are
now reading. To gain the most out of these materials, it is important that you observe the
following instructions:

1. Every subject or course has an average of five modules, each one of which
contains two to five or more lessons. You must satisfy the work prescribed by
each module before you can sit for the final examination that will determine
whether you pass or fail the course.

2. Make effort to do some extra reading. The titles listed under Suggested
Readings are neither exclusive nor conclusive. Any reference book on the
subject will do.

3. Test your own progress by performing the Self-Progress Check Test at the end
of each lesson. Read the test instructions carefully and understand them well.
Do not look at the answers while taking the test.

4. Check your answers with the key at the end of the module. Unless there is
specific instruction on how to score your paper, compute it by dividing the
correct answers with the total number of points and multiplying the quotient by
100. Keep your own scores. If you get 70% or higher, you pass; otherwise,
you have to review the lesson and do the re-test, if any, before advancing to the
next one. Take note that in some cases, these lesson tests are presented as
Activities. Do them the same way

5. At the end of the module, perform the Module Test. Clip the question sheet
from the module and submit them with the answer sheet to:
The Dean of Studies
CAP College
149 Legaspi Street, Legaspi Village
1229 Makati City
for correction and grading. Make sure to affix the proper amount of postage
stamps. Do not forget to enclose all accomplished SPCTs in each Module
Test. (See no. 3 above). Corrected tests will be returned to you with the
corresponding grade or further instruction, if needed. While waiting, go on to
the next module and observe the same study procedure.

6. When you are done with all modules of all subjects in which you are enrolled,
you are to come to the College to take the final tests in person. If you are in
the province, arrangements will be made for you to take them at a pre-
designated place or center.

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 Module III
The Philippine Revolution and the American Colonial Era

Scope of the Module

Module III consists of six lessons, as follows:

Lesson 1. The Birth of Philippine Nationalism

Lesson 2. The Propaganda Movement and the Katipunan
Lesson 3. The Philippine Revolution
Lesson 4. Rise and Fall of the First Philippine Republic
Lesson 5. American Occupation of the Philippines
Lesson 6. American Heritage

Overview of the Module

The third module consists of a brief survey of the transition from Spanish rule to
American colonization, which opens the chapter on the bloody and controversial
Philippine Revolution of 1896 and closes with the perfidious annexation of the
Philippines by the United States, which had posed as a friend at the start. However,
neither the relative prosperity under America nor the gloomy estimates of what a free
Philippines would be like by American imperialists stopped the Filipinos from agitating -
-- through democratic peaceful means this time --- for independence. We shall also look
at the colorful and enlightening American heritage of the Filipinos --- from basketball, to
new names, to religious freedom.

Objectives of the Module

(1) To understand the various contributory factors that brought about Filipino
nationalism against Spanish rule.
(2) To realize the importance of the Propaganda Movement to the rise of Filipino
nationalism.
(3) To trace the steps and events in the Philippine Revolution against Spain.
(4) To understand why the Americans came to the Philippines in 1898.
(5) To appreciate the American policies that trained the people in self-government
and democracy.
(6) To know and evaluate the cultural heritage that the Filipinos got from
American rule.

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Suggested Readings

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. and Milagros Guerrero. History of the Filipino People.

Quezon City: RP Garcia Publishing Co., 1972.

Atkinson, Fred W. The Philippine Islands. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1905.

Barrows, David P. A Decade of American Government in the Philippines 1903 -

1913. New York: World Book Co., 1914.

Costa, Horacio de la, S.J. Readings in Philippine History. Manila: Bookmark,

1965.

Ellsworth, Herbert E. The Philippine Islands. Boston: Philippine Publishing Co.,

1905.

Forbes, William Cameron. The Philippine Island. vols. I and II. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1928.

Llana, Pedro De la and F. B. Icasiano. (eds.) The Philippine Commonwealth

Handbook. Manila: General Printing Press, 1986.

Marquart , Frederick S. Before Bataan and After. New York: Bobbs Merill Co.,
1943.

Phelan, John I. The Hispanization of the Philippines. Madison University of

Wisconsin Press, 1959.

Quezon, Manuel L. The Good Fight. New York: Appleton-Century, 1946.

Taylor, John R. M. The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States. Vol. V.
Pasig, Manila: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971.

Wernsted, Frederick I. and Joseph E. Spencer. The Philippine Island World.

Berkeley University Press, 1967.

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 Worcester, Dean C. The Philippines: Past and Present. Vol. I. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1930.

6
History 1
Module III

Lesson 1. THE BIRTH OF PHILIPPINE NATIONALISM

Lesson Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
1. be aware of the various grievances of the Filipinos against Spanish rule;
2. know the events happening outside the country that help develop Filipino
nationalism;
3. understand how the Cavite Mutiny or the execution of Gomez, Burgos and
Zamora started real Filipino nationalism.

Grievances of Filipino Against Spanish Rule. By the last decades of the 19th
century the Filipino people were agonizing beneath the yoke of Spanish misrule. Dr. Jose
Rizal, an eyewitness of their sufferings, realizedthatiftheirgrievances would not be
heeded by Spain, they would in despair, rise in arms and fight for freedom's sake. Thus,
he predicted: "The sleep lasted for centuries, but one day the thunderbolt struck and in
striking, infused life. Since then new tendencies are stirring our spirits, today scattered
will someday be united, guided by God who has not failed other peoples, and who will
not fail us, for His cause is the cause of Liberty!"

The Filipino grievances against Spanish rule were the following: (1) little
participation of Filipinos in their government; (2) human rights were denied to them; (3)
corrupt Spanish officialdom in the Philippines; (4) abuses and immoralities of the friars;
(5) racial discrimination against Filipinos; (6) Spanish maladministration of justice; and
(7) persecution of Filipino patriots.

Little Participation of Filipinos in their Government. All high positions in the

governments, armed forces, and in the Church were occupied by Spaniards. Only a few
Filipinos of brains and wealth were appointed to some position of prestige. Elections
were allowed only for selecting municipal officials, but the right to vote and to be elected
to local offices was enjoyed only by the minorityprincipalia. After 1837 Philippine
representation to the Spanish Cortes was abolished and was never restored.

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 Human Rights Denied to Filipinos. Among these human rights were freedom of
the press, freedom of speech, right to a fair trial in court, right to form associations, and
right to petition the government for redress of grievances. These human rights were
enjoyed by Spaniards in Spain, but were denied to Filipinos in the Philippines. Thus Don
Sinibaldo de Mas bewailed in 1843: "Why do we fall into an anomaly, such as
combining our claim for liberty for ourselves, and our wish at the same time to impose
our law on remote peoples? Why de we deny to others the benefits which we desire for
our fatherland?"

Corrupt Spanish Officialdom in the Philippines. Many Spanish colonial

officials were corrupt, incompetent, and worse, abusive. They were usually the indigent
job seekers, carpetbaggers, and vagabonds, who came to the Philippines, where they,
despite their lack of education and good moral character, found good jobs as alcalde
mayores, politico-military governors, and army officers.

Some Spanish governors general in the 19th century became notorious for
enriching themselves in office. For instance, General Wyler arrived in Manila in 1888 as
a penniless debtor hounded by his creditors. At the end of his gubernatorial term in 1891,
he returned to Spain a millionaire, with an ill-gotten fortune of P3,000,000. Another
Spanish 0governor general who illicitly enriched himself was General Primo de Rivera
(1880 - 1883, first term) who accepted bribes from the gambling syndicate in Manila.

Abuses and Immoralities of Bad Friars. Not all Spanish friars in the
Philippines during the 19th century were bad. But the Filipinos came to hate the friars
for their abuses and immoralities, so that they wanted them to be expelled from the
Philippines as attested by the "Anti-Friar Manifesto of 1888". This was also one of the
demands of the Propaganda Movement.

The bad Spanish friars were portrayed by Dr. Rizal in his novels (Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo) and by Graciano Lopez - Jaena in his novelette Fray
Botod. These bad friars were arrogant, abusive, and immoral. Quite a number of them
had illicit relations with the native women, by whom they sired bastard children. In a
public hearing conducted by the First Philippine Commission in 1900 at Manila, Attorney
Felipe C. Calderon's testimony mentioned the names of many friars in Manila and the
provinces and the names of their children by their native mistresses. He also said: "My
mother is the daughter of a Franciscan friar."

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 Racial Discrimination. The Spanish authorities regarded the brown race an
inferior people and derisively called them "Indios". This racial prejudice against native
Filipinos existed in the government offices, in the armed forces, in the universities and
colleges, in the courts of justice, and high society.

In his mischievous pamphlet written in Tagalog and titled Si Tandang Basio

Macunat (Printed in Manila, 1885), Fray Miguel Lucio Bustamante, Franciscan friar,
portrayed the Filipino as of low mentality, incapable of acquiring education, and was
fitted only to take care of the carabao and plow the fields.

Jose Rizal, by surpassing Spanish writers in literary contests and winning fame as
a physician, man-of-letters, scholar, and scientist, proved that a brown man could be as
great or even greater than a white man.

Spanish Maladministration of Justice. The courts of justice in the Philippines

during the twilight of Spanish rule were honeycombed with graft and corruption so that
they could be better called "courts of injustice." The judges, fiscals, and other court
officials were incompetent, dishonest, and venal. Poor persons had no chance of winning
their cases in court, for money was the deciding factor in winning a litigation. The
expenses incurred in civil suits often exceeded the value of the property at issue or the
amount involved, so that the litigant, even if he wins the case, found himself
impoverished at the end of the case. Criminal cases dragged on in the court for many
years, during which period the "delinquents take to flight, or the documents get lost."

The judicial procedure was so clumsy and confusing that justice was delayed.
Any justice delayed, as popular legal maxim states, is justice denied. Thus recounted
John Foreman, an eyewitness of the last days of Spanish rule in the Philippines: "It was
hard to get the judgment executed as it was to win the case. Even when the question at
issue was supposed to be settled, a defect in the sentence could always be concocted to
reopen the whole affair. If the case had been tried and judgment given under Civil code,
a way was found to convert it into a criminal case, and which, apparently settled under
the Criminal Code, a flaw could be discovered under the Laws of the Indies, or the Siete
Partidas, or the Roman Law, or the Novisima Recopilacion, and so forth, by which the
case could be re-opened."

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 A classic example of the Spanish maladministration of justice in the Philippines
was the infamous Juan de la Cruz Case 1886 - 1898. On the night of June 7, 1886, two
men were brutally murdered at the waterfront of Cavite City. The next day, Juan de la
Cruz, the patron (coxswain of a steam launch) was arrested on suspicion that he might
have been the murderer. He was thrown in the Cavite jail, and there remained for twelve
years waiting for his trial, which never came. When the Americans came on May 1,
1898, they found him still in jail and promptly set him free.

Persecution of Filipino Patriots. Another grievance of the Filipino people

against Spanish rule was the persecution of their patriotic leaders who had the courage to
denounce the evils of the colonial administration and to advocate reforms. The Spanish
authorities and the friars called these patriots filibusteros and persecuted them --- sending
them to prison, exiling them to Mindanao, Marianas, and other places, or executing them.

Ironically, it was the persecution of Filipino patriots for freedom, which sounded
the death-knell for Spanish rule in the Philippines. When the leading Filipinos -- like
Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora and Dr. Jose Rizal -- were exiled or martyred, other
Filipinos became emboldened to continue their fight for freedom.

The influx of the liberal ideas from abroad, the Spanish Revolution in 1868, the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the martyrdom of Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and
Zamora were the factors that gave birth to Philippine Nationalism. They ignited in the
people the nascent sparks of nationalism, the consciousness of being one nation with
common blood and race, common customs and traditions, common history and destiny,
and common grievances and aspirations.

The Influx of Liberal Ideas. When the Philippines was opened by Spain to
world trade, the liberal ideas of Europe and America streamed into the country, borne by
ships and men from foreign ports. These liberal ideas, contained in books nd
newspapers, were the ideologies of the American and French Revolutions and the
thoughts of Montesquieu, Rosseau, Voltaire, Locke, Jefferson, and other political
philosophers.

Influenced by these ideas, the Filipinos began to wonder at their deplorable

situation. They began to discuss politics, justice and liberty, and in the course of time,

10
they became bold enough to ask for government reforms -- which were urgently needed
to correct conditions causing hardships among them.

The Spanish Revolution of 1868. In the year 1868, Spain was swept by a
revolution led by General Juan Primo and Francisco Serrano against the autocratic rule of
Isabela II (1833 - 68), the beautiful but tactless queen. The revolution was successful and
Spanish patriots established on February 12, 1873 the First Spanish Republic over the
ruins of the Bourbon monarchy.

The triumph of liberalism in Spain resounded across the seas to the shores of her
overseas colonies. The Filipinos came to enjoy for the first time the sweet elixir of a
liberal regime including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly,
and other human rights. Many colonial officials, notably General Carlos Ma. de la Torre,
with democratic ideas and sentiments, were sent to Manila.

The Suez Canal and the_Filipinos. The opening of the Suez Canal to world
shipping on November 17, 1869 stimulated Philippine progress. This canal is 103 miles
long, and connects the Mediterranean with the Gulf of Suez and hence with the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean.

By shortening the sea route between Manila and Spain, the Philippines was
brought closer to Europe. In previous years, a steamer from Barcelona had to sail around
the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Manila after a hazardous voyage of more than three
months. With the shorter route via the Suez Canal the trip was reduced to only 32 days.

With the facilitation of sea travel and communication, more and more Spaniards
(officials, adventurers, and job seekers) came to the Philippines and swelled the Spanish
population. In 1810 there were only 4,000 Spanish residents in the Philippines; this
number increased to 15,000 in 1870. Not only Spaniards, but also other European
travelers and liberal ideas reached the Philippines via the Suez Canal.

De la Torre, Liberal Spanish Governor (1869 - 71). The fall of Queen Isabela
II and the rise of liberalism in Spain brought a new Spanish governor general to Manila.
He was General Carlos Maria de la Torre, an able soldier and a true democrat. The
Filipino people and the Spanish liberals welcomed him. They rejoiced as he took office
on June 23, 1869.

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 Governor de la Torre, true to expectations, was a good chief executive. He
showed his democratic philosophy in both his personal conduct and official acts. He
lived simply without the glittering pomp and extravagance of his predecessors. He
dismissed the palace halberdiers who, with their colorful uniforms and medieval arms,
had surrounded the Spanish governor general since 1591. He went about in the city
streets, dressed in civilian clothes and unescorted by guards. He mingled freely with the
brown-skinned Filipinos and treated them equally with the pale-complexioned Spaniards
and Spanish mestizos (half-breeds).

The Liberal Serenade of 1869. On the evening of July 12, 1869, the Filipinos
serenaded Governor de la Torre at his official residence to manifest their appreciation of,
and gratitude for his liberal policies. The serenade was led by prominent residents of
Manila, including Jose Cabezas de Herrera (Civil Governor of Manila), Father Jose
Burgos, Maximo Paterno, Manuel Genato, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Angel Garchitorena,
Andres Nieto, and Jacobo Zobel.

The popular governor general welcomed the serenaders at his palace and invited
them to a buffet. He drank various toasts with them to liberty and good health. Mrs.
Maria de Sanchez, charming wife of an artillery colonel and talented poetess, declaimed a
patriotic poem.

The serenade shocked the monarchist Spaniards in Manila, for never had the
Filipinos been permitted to talk openly of liberty and democracy and never had a Spanish
chief executive invited Filipinos to the palace buffet. Governor de la Torre made many
Spanish enemies; on the other hand, he acquired numerous Filipino friends.

Liberty Parade and Red-Ribbon Reception. On September 21, 1869, the new
Spanish Constitution was proclaimed in Manila. To celebrate this historic event, the
Filipinos and the Spanish liberals gaily paraded that night in the city. The parade was a
jubilant affair with colored lanterns, banners and music. The paraders wore red ties,
which Mrs. Sanchez had made fashionable. These red ties were emblematic of liberty.

Governor de la Torre entertained the Filipino leaders who prepared the liberty
parade, at a magnificent reception in his palace. The vivacious Mrs. Sanchez acted as
palace hostess, because the governor's wife was an invalid. She was dressed in red, with
a red ribbon in her hair containing the words Viva el Pueblo Soberano! (Long Live the

12
Sovereign People) and with a red ties, on one of which was written Viva La Libertad!
(Long Live Liberty!) and on the other end, Viva el General la Torre! (Long Live General
la Torre!). Because of her pro-Filipino sympathies, she was called the "Mother of the
Filipinos!"

At the height of the reception, Angel Garchitorena, Filipino patriot and carriage
manufacturer recited some Spanish verses eulogizing Spain and General de la Torre. The
governor general led the cheers" "Long Live the Constitutional Cortes!"

Liberalism and the Filipino Patriots. The success of the Spanish Revolution of
1868 and the liberal regime of Governor de la Torre encouraged the Filipino patriots to
discuss political matters and aspired for reforms. They formed an organization called the
"Committees of Reformers" (Comite de Reformadores), with three sections -- clergy,
laymen, and students. Among the members of the clergy sections were Gom-Bur-Za
(Fathers Gomez, Burgos, Zamora) and Fathers Agustin Mendoza, Pedro Dandan, Toribio
H. del Pilar, Feliciano Gomez, Jose Guevarra, and Mariano Sevilla. Among the leading
laymen members were the merchants Jose Ma. Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and Maximo
Paterno, and the lawyers Antonio Ma. Regidor, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, and Jose Basa y
Enriquez. Among the students who figured prominently in the reform movement were
Felipe Buencamino Sr., Gregorio Sanciano, Paciano Rizal (older brother of Dr. Rizal).
Mamerto Natividad, Florentino Torres, and Simeon Vasquez. Buencamino led several
student demonstrations against the Dominican authorities of the University of Santo
Tomas for better classroom instructions, academic freedom, and fair treatment of native
Filipino students. For leading these demonstrations, he was arrested on October 18, 1869
and jailed. He was, however, set free after a brief imprisonment by Governor de la Torre,
upon the request of Father Burgos.

Achievement of De la Torre. During his two-year term, Governor de la Torre

had many fruitful achievements. He abolished the strict censorship of the press and
fosterd the free discussion of political problems. He recognized the freedom of speech
and of the press, which were guaranteed by the Spanish Constitution. Because of his
tolerant policy, Father Burgos and his compatriots agitated for the Filipinization of the
parishes.

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 On July 7, 1869, Governor de la Torre suspended flogging as punishment for
desertion of Filipino soldiers. He substituted one month's imprisonment for it, obviously
a more humane penalty than flogging.

De la Torre's greatest achievement was the peaceful settlement of the agrarian

trouble in Cavite. This province had been a hotbed of agrarian unrest since the middle of
the 18th century because of the oppression of the Filipino tenants who had lost their
lands. In 1822 Luis Parang led an agrarian revolt which spread to Imus, Kawit, Silang,
Calamba, Biñan, Tanauan and other towns. This revolt was put down by Governor
Ricafort in 1828. Years later, another agrarian uprising flared up in Cavite under the
leadership of Eduardo Camerino. Like Robin Hood of England, he championed the cause
of the downtrodden masses. His exploits became a by-word in the rural areas and the
oppressed tenants regarded him as their avenging angel.

Governor de la Torre, wishing to solve the agrarian trouble without bloodshed,

went to Imus, Cavite, and had a conference with Camerino. He pardoned the latter and
his followers. To give them a decent livelihood, he appointed them members of a new
policy force, called Guias de la Torre (aides of de la Torre) with Camerino as captain.

Restoration of the Reactionary Regime. The Provisional Republic of Spain,

which was founded by the Spanish revolutionist in 1868, came to an end in 1870. The
monarchy was restored. The new king was Amadeo of Savoy (1871 - 73), the second son
of the Italian king. Because of the change of government in Spain, the political
atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed. The brief era of de la Torre's democratic
regime ended, and the reactionary regime was restored.

Izquierdo, Autocratic Governor (1871 - 73). On April 4, 1871, General Rafael

de Izquierdo assumed the governorship succeeding de la Torre. He was a typical
reactionary. He boasted that he came to the Philippines "with a crucifix inone hand and a
sword in the other."

Izquierdo's first official act was the disapproval of the school of arts and trades,
which was being organized by the Filipinos of Manila. His objection was based in the
flimsy suspicion that the school might be used as a political club. With the support of the
friars and the monarchist Spaniards, he restored the old order of things. He revived the
censorship of the press; he banned all talks of political rights and Filipinization of the

14
parishes; and he looked with suspicion on all Filipinos who had supported de la Torre's
administration.

The Cavite Mutiny of 1872. On the night of January 20, 1872, about 200
Filipino soldiers and workers in the Cavite arsenal mutinied. Their leader was Lamadrid,
a Filipino sergeant. The mutineers had been led to believe that Filipino soldiers in
Manila would join them in a concerted uprising, the signal being the firing of rockets
from the city walls on that night. Unfortunately, the suburb of Sampaloc in Manila
celebrated its Fiesta on that very night with a gay display of fireworks. The Cavite
plotters, thinking that hostilities had been started by the Manila troops, rose in arms,
killed their Spanish officers, and took control of the arsenal and fort.

The following morning, government troops under Don Felipe Ginoves were
rushed to Cavite. A bloody fight ensued. Many of the mutineers, including Lamadrid,
were killed in the fighting. On January 22, the survivors were subdued, taken prisoner,
and brought to Manila.

This mutiny was magnified by the Spaniards into a "revolt" to implicate the
Filipino priest and patriots. It was in reality only a violent outburst of the Cavite soldiers
and workers who resented the government action in abolishing their former privileges,
notably exemption from forced labor and the tribute. Spanish writers alleged that it was a
seditious "revolt" directed against Spanish rule and instigated by Father Burgos, Gomez
and Zamora, and other Filipino leaders. Such a charge, although false, was made by the
Spanish authorities because it gave them justification to persecute those Filipino patriots
who advocated reforms.

Immediately after the mutiny, scores of Filipino priest and patriots were arrested
and thrown into jail. They were tried in a military court behind closed doors on the
charge of treason and sedition. On January 27, 1872, Governor Izquierdo approved the
death sentence of 41 of the mutineers. On February 6, eleven more were condemned to
death, but the governor commuted the death penalty to life imprisonment. On February
8, Camerino was sentenced to die and eleven of the Guias de la Torre were each given a
ten-year prison sentence for their complicity in the mutiny. Other patriots and priest were
exiled to Guam.

15
 The Trial of Gom-Bur-Za. The three most illustrious victims of the Cavite
Mutiny were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. Their trial, like
those of their fellow accused was a farce. There was no positive evidence of their guilt.
The star witness of the government Francisco Zaldua, former Bicolano soldier of the
Battalion of Artillery was bribed by the government authorities to testify against Gom-
Bur-Za. He incriminated the three heroic priests. Thus was the triumvirate of priest-
martyrs railroaded to their doom. During the farcical trial the lawyers for the Gom-Bur-
Za defense made no effort for the acquittal of their clients. One of them, Attorney Jose
Arrieta, Burgos' vindictive enemy, did not plead the case to prove Burgos' innocence. On
the contrary, he rarely requested the court for clemency, declaring that Burgos had
confessed his guilt.

Aroused by his lawyer's damaging perfidy, Father Burgos flared up in the

courtroom and exclaimed: "I have not confessed any guilt, for I am not guilty! That is
not my defense -- that gentleman (pointing to Arrieta) had changed it. I deny all the
charges against me. They have no foundation in fact of law."

The Martyrs' Execution. At sunrise of February 17, 1872, Father Burgos,

Gomez, and Zamora were escorted under heavy guard to the Luneta. A vast crowd,
consisting of Filipinos and foreigners, witnessed the execution. Zaldua, who testified
falsely against the martyrs, was executed first. Apparently, the Spanish promise of a
pardon and a sum of gold, which he was supposed to receive for testifying falsely against
the three priests, were not fulfilled.

Of the three priest-martyrs, Father Gomez, aged 84, was the first to be garroted.
As he dignifiedly walked towards the garrote (strangulation machine), his spectacles
accidently fell to the ground. He picked them up, calmly put them on, and said: "Let us
go where the leaves never move without the will of God." These were his last words. He
was followed by Father Zamora, aged 37, who was unaware of his fate, for he had lost his
mind.

The last to be executed was Father Burgos, aged 35, youngest and most brilliant
of the martyred triumvirate. The executioner knelt before him and said: "Father, forgive
me, for I'm going to kill you." Calmly, Father Burgos replied to him: "You are forgiven,
my son. I know you are complying with your duty. Proceed then with your work." As he

16
was being strangled, Father Burgos prayed: "My Lord, Father of mine, receive into Your
Bosom the soul of an inno..." Death cut short his last prayer.

Significance of Gom-Bur-Za's Martyrdom. The execution of Fathers Gomez,

Burgos, Zamora (Gom-Bur-Za) was a great blunder on the part of the Spanish officials in
the Philippines. Fortunately, the Church was not a party to the injustices committed by
the State. Prior to the execution Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez was requested
by Governor Izquierdo to degrade the three priests by taking off their priestly habits, but
he refused. On the day of the execution, the church bells of the city tolled a funeral dirge
as Christendom's farewell salute to the departing souls of the martyrs.

The Filipino people deeply resented the execution of Father Gomez, Burgos, and
Zamora. They knew that the three priests were innocent and that they were killed
because they championed the rights of the Filipinos. Thus they came to regard the
executed priests as true martyrs of their fatherland. In their indignation, the people forgot
their tribal differences and regional barriers and joined together as one people to fight for
their common cause. The execution of Gom-Bur-Za hastened the growth of Philippine
nationalism, which ultimately brought about Spain's downfall.

17
History 1
Module I

Lesson 1

SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Multiple Choice: Write the letter representing the correct answer on the blank
before the number.

_____ 1. The governor-general of the Philippines who was liberal and democratic was
Governor (a) Izquierdo (b) de la Torre (c) Blanco.
_____ 2. The opening of (a) the Suez Canal (b) Manila (c) Barcelona shortened the route
from the Philippines to Spain.
_____ 3. The abuses and immoralities of the (a) priests (b) Governor-General (c) friars
was one of the grievances against Spanish rule.
_____ 4. Under Spanish rule (a) many (b) not one (c) only a few Filipinos were appointed
to some positions of prestige.
_____ 5. The unjust execution of the three priests led to the rise of Philippine (a)
revolution (b) independence (c) nationalism.
_____ 6. One of the following did not contribute to Philippine nationalism (a) rise of the
middle class (b) tobacco monopoly (c) opening of Manila to foreign trade.
_____ 7. Real Filipino nationalism started after the (a) opening of the Suez Canal (b)
coming of liberal ideas (c) execution of Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora.
_____ 8. One of the reforms was to ask for Philippine representation in the Spanish (a)
constitution (b) Cortes (c) government.
_____ 9. Governor-General Carlos Maria de la Torre (a) gave (b) did not give (c) partly
gave the Filipinos the freedom of speech, press, and assembly.
_____ 10. The governor-general who arrived in the Philippines very poor and became
very rich at the end of his term was (a) Izquierdo (b) Weyler (c) de la Torre.

(SEE NO. 4 OF "INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT")

18
History 1
Module III

Lesson 2. PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT AND THE KATIPUNAN

Lesson Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
1. know the nature and purpose of the Propaganda Movement;
2. understand the reforms asked by the propagandists from the Spanish
government in Spain;
3. appreciate the efforts and sacrifices made by the propaganda leaders at home
and abroad;
4. know the aims of the La Liga Filipina organized by Dr. Jose Rizal and the
Katipunan organized by Andres Bonifacio;
5. know the immediate results brought about by the discovery of the Katipunan.

The martyrdom of Gom-Bur-Za in 1872, instead of frightening the Filipino

patriots, made them more determined to fight the evils of Spanish rule. The ilustrados,
led by Dr. Jose Rizal, M. H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena organized the
Propaganda Movement which was a peaceful crusade for reforms. These patriots were
called propagandists because they waged their movement by means of pen and tongue to
expose the defects of Spanish rule in the Philippines and the urgency of reforms of
freedom and justice which it sowed, paved the ground for the Philippine Revolution that
the Katipunan and Andres Bonifacio began in the hills of Balintawak in August 1896.

Rise of the Propaganda Movement. After 1872, Philippine conditions went

from bad to worse. The deportation of Filipino leaders to Spanish penal colonies, the
persecution of the intellectuals, and the abuses of the Spanish masters continued
unabated.

The Filipino exiles of 1872 and many patriot students abroad met in Hong Kong,
Singapore, Barcelona, Madrid, Paris, London, and other foreign cities. Inspired by a
common cause, they banded together and consecrated themselves to the work of
promoting the welfare and happiness of their fatherland. Aggressively but peacefully, by
means of their writings and speeches, they crusaded for reforms to rectify the evils of the
Spanish colonial system. This peaceful campaign for reforms was known in Philippine

19
history as the "Propaganda Movement". It began in 1872, when Gomez, Burgos, and
Zamora were executed at Luneta, and ended in 1896, when Rizal was exiled to Dapitan.

Reforms Desired by the Propaganda Movement. The Propaganda Movement

was not a revolutionary or seditious affair. The men who led it were loyal to Spain; they
asked merely for reforms, not independence. The reforms, which they asked, were as
follows:
1. Equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the laws.
2. Assimilation of the Philippines as a regular province of Spain.
3. Restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes.
4. Filipinization of the Philippine parishes and expulsion of the friars.
5. Human rights for Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press,
and freedom to meet and petition for redress of grievances.

The Propagandists. The propagandists were the scions of good families, highly
intelligent, educated, patriotic, and courageous, who symbolized the flower of Filipino
manhood. Of these propagandists, one of the greatest was Marcelo H. del Pilar of
Bulacan, lawyer and journalist, beloved by the masses for his eloquent Tagalog and
fearless defense of the poor against friar abuses.

Other Filipino propagandists worthy of mention were Jose Rizal, physician-

novelist and a many-splendored genius; Graciano Lopez Jaena, the greatest orator of the
Propaganda Movement; Mariano Ponce, medical student and biographical writer; Juan
Luna and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, masters of the brush; Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, lawyer
and man-of-letters; Antonio Luna, pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano Laktaw,
teacher-tutor of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later King Alfonso XIII of Spain); Jose Ma.
Panganiban, linguist and essayist; Fernando Cannon, engineer and musician; Jose
Alejandrino, engineer and political writer; Isabelo de los Reyes, folklorist,
newspaperman, and scholar; and Dominador Gomez, physician and orator.

Foreign Friends of the Propaganda Movement. The Filipino propagandists

were not alone in their campaign for reforms. They were supported by foreigners who
were lovers of freedom and justice. Foremost among them were Ferdinand Blumentritt,
Austrian professor, scholar, and Dr. Rizal's best friend. He praised Rizals' two novels
(Noli and Fili) and wrote the "Prologue" to Rizal's annotated edition of Morga's Sucesos
de las Islas Filipinas (Paris, 1890).

20
 Among the liberal Spaniards who aided the Filipino propagandists was Don Juan
Atayde, who was born in Manila and was a retired army officer. In September 1882 he
founded a civic association of Spaniards and Filipinos in Madrid called Circulo Hispano-
Filipino and published the newspaper Revista del Circulo Hispano-Filipino.
Unfortunately, both the association and newspaper did not last long.

Other Spanish friends of the Propaganda Movement were Miguel Morayta,

statesman, historian, journalist, and Rizal's professor at the Central University of Madrid;
Francisco Pi y Margall, statesman and former President of the First Spanish Republic
(1873 - 1875); Emilio Junoy, journalist and member of the Cortes and Manuel Ruiz
Zorilla, parliamentarian and leader of the Spanish Republican Party.

The Anti-Friar Manifesto of 1888. On March 1, 1888,Manila was rocked by a

tumultous event. This was the anti-friar demonstration of hundreds of Filipino patriots
led by the Manila patriotic lawyer, Doroteo Cortes, with the secret assistance of M. H. del
Pilar and Jose A. Ramos, a London-educated rich merchant and leading Masonic leader.

The demonstrators, including many gobernadorcillos of the towns around Manila,

marched through the city streets to the Ayuntamiento (City Hall) and formally submitted
to acting Civil Governor Jose Centeno of Manila Province an anti-friar manifesto
addressed to Queen Regent Maria Cristina. This manifesto, titled "Long Live the Queen!
the Army! down with the Friars!" was so well written in elegant Spanish that it must have
been written by either M. H. del Pilar or Jose A. Ramos

The "Anti-Friar Manifesto of 1888" denounced the anti-Filipino Archbishop,

Pedro Payo, and their bad friars for meddling in the movement, enriching themselves
contrary to theirmonastic vow of poverty, opposing theteaching ofSpanish language to
the Filipinos, and keeping the Philippines in obscurantism. It requested the expulsion of
the friars from the Philippines.

As a result of the anti-friar demonstration and manifesto of 1888, the powerful

friars avenged themselves by persecuting the leaders and signers of the manifesto, having
them arrested and thrown into prison. Fortunately, the Spanish Queen Regent issued an
amnesty in 1889 pardoning the patriotic demonstrators.

21
 La Solidaridad, Organ of the Propaganda Movement. Realizing the
importance of mass media to propagate the Propaganda objectives, Graciano Lopez Jaena
founded a fortnightly newspaper, La Solidaridad, in Barcelona on February 15, 1889. In
its first issue on this date, Jaena boldly stated in his editorial that the aims of La
Solidaridad, were as follows: (1) to portray vividly the deplorable conditions of the
Philippines, (2) to work peacefully for political and social reforms; (3) to combat the evil
forces of medievalism and reaction, (4) to advocate liberal ideas and progress, and (5) to
champion the legitimate aspirations of the Filipino people for democracy and happiness.

La Solidaridad was printed in Barcelona from February 15 to October 31, 1889,

after which it ws moved to Madrid, where it was printed from November 15, 1889 until
its last issue on November 15, 1895. On December 15, 1889, M. H. del Pilar replaced
Jaena as its editor, remaining as such until the demise of La Solidaridad on November
15, 1895, after an existence of seven years.

The contributors of La Solidaridad were mostly Filipinos such as M. H. del Pilar,

(Plaridel), Dr. Rizal (Laon Laan), Mariano Ponce (Naning Kalipulako or Tigbalang),
Antonio LUna (Taga-ilog), Jose Ma. Panganiban (Jomapa), Dr. Pedro A. Paterno,
Antonio Ma. Regidor, Isabelo de los Reyes, Eduardo de Lete, Jose Alejandrino, etc.
some foreigners (Friends of the Propaganda Movement) also contributed articles to La
Solidaridad, particularly Professor Blumentritt, Austrian ethnologist, and Dr. Morayta,
Spanish historian, university professor, and statesman.

In the last issue of LaSolidaridad (November 15, 1895), M. H. del Pilar wrote his
farewell editorial saying: "WE are persuaded that no sacrifices are too little to win the
rights and the liberty of a nation that is oppressed by slavery."

Literature of the Propaganda Movement. Despite its political spirit, the

Propaganda Movement produced certain meritorious literary works which contributed to
the blossoming of Filipino literature. It gave birth to the friars Filipino novel, Ninay,
which was written by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, doctor of laws and man-of-letters, and
published in Madrid in 1885. He also wrote a volume of melodious poems Sampaguitas
(Madrid, 1880) and a historical book, La Antiuga Civilizacion Tagalog (Madrid, 1887).

Gregorio Sanciangco, economist and also doctor of laws, authored the book
entitled El Progreso de Filipinas (Madrid, 1881), and treaties on colonial economics and

22
politics in the Philippines. M. H. del Pilar, lawyer and journalist, excelled as a political
pamphleteer. His pamphlets were classics of satire, notably "Dasala at Tuksohan"
(1880)," La Soberania Monacal en Filipinas"(1888), and "La Frailocracia
Filipina"(1889). Lopez Jaena, the greatest orator of the Propaganda, was also a gifted
writer. In his satirical novellette, Fray Botod (Fat Friar), he ridiculed the Spanish friars
who became very fat for eating too much and living in luxury at the expense of poor
Filipinos, whom they abuse. In one of his articles published in La Solidaridad entitled
"En Tinieblaz" (In Utter Darkness), he lambasted the biased Spanish writers for their
absurdities.

Other Filipino writers of the Propaganda were Antonio Luna, who wrote the book,
Impressions, a collection of essays describing the customs of the Spaniards in Madrid;
Jose Ma. Panganiban, author of the critical essay "La Universidad de Filipinas: Plan de
Estudios" (published in La Solidaridad) which exposed the defects of the Church-
dominated education in the Philippines; Isabelo de los Reyes, folklorist and historian.
who authored El Folk-Lore Filipino (1887) and Historia de Ilocos (1890, 2 volumes); and
Mariano Ponce, biographer, who wrote the series "Celebres Filipinos" in La Solidaridad.

Dr. Rizal, of course, was the greatest writer of the Propaganda Movement. Aside
from his famous novels (Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo), he wrote many essays
and poems of literary merit. He was also a formidable polemist, as evidence by his
satirical replies to his detractors, notably "La Vision del Fray Rodriguez" (1889), in
which he exposed the stupidities and imbecilities of Fray Jose Rodriguez, first friar to
attack the Noli; and "Por Telefono" (1891), in which he lampooned Fray Salvador Font,
who wrote the report of the censorship commission banning the Noli.

Masonry and the Propaganda Movement. Masonry played a significant role in

the Propaganda Movement. Many Filipino patriots turned Masons, including Marcelo H.
del Pilar, G. Lopez Jaena, Rizal, Ponce, and others, because they needed the help of the
Masons, in Spain and in other foreign countries in their fight for freedom. The first
Filipino Masonic Lodge called Revolution was founded by Lopez Jaena in Barcelona and
was recognized on April,1889 by the Grande Oriental Español headed by Don Miguel
Morayta. Unfortunately, this first Filipino Masonic lodge did not last long. It died out
after Lopez Jaena resigned as Worshipful Master on November 29, 1889.

23
 The following month, M. H. del Pilar, with the help of Julio Llorente, organized
Lodge Solidaridad in Madrid. It was recognized in May 1890 by the Grande Oriente
Expañol. Its first Worshipful Master was Llorente. In due time Lodge Solidaridad
prospered so that other Filipinos joined it, including Dr. Rizal, Pedro Serrano,
Baldomero Roxas, Galicano Apacible, etc.

Towards the end of 1891, M. H. del Pilar, with the consent of the Grande Oriente
Español, sent Serrano Laktaw to the Philippines to establish the first Filipino Masonic
lodge in Manila. In compliance with his mission, Serrano Laktaw founded in Manila on
January 6, 1892, Lodge Nilad, the first Masonic lodge in the Philippines.

All the Filipino Masonic lodges in Spain and in the Philippines became centers of
the Propaganda. They raised the needed funds to finance the campaign for freedom in
Spain.

Association Hispano-Filipina. The Filipino propagandists and their Spanish

friends organized the Association Hispano-Filipina (Hispano-Philippine Association) in
Madrid in January 12, 1889, for the purpose of securing reforms for their Philippines.
The president was Don Miguel Morayta, Spanish professor at the University of Madrid.
The vice president was General Felipe de la Corte, who had resided in the Philippines.
Dominador Gomez was the secretary. All Filipinos in Europe were considered active
members, and prominent scholars and statesman of other nationalities were mad honorary
members.

To facilitate its work, the association was divided into three sections: (1) Political
Section headed by M. H. del Pilar; (2) Literay Section headed by M. Ponce; and (3)
Recreation Section, headed by Thomas Arejola. The members met once a month to
discuss Philippine-Spanish questions. They drew up petitions and passed resolutions.

Liga Filipina. While living in Hong Kong, Rizal conceived the idea of
establishing a civic association composed of Filipinos. He called it the Liga Filipina
(Philippine League). He wrote its constitution with the help of Jose Ma. Basa, an exile of
1872. After finishing the constitution, he returned to Manila.

24
 Shortly after arriving in Manila on June 26, 1892, Rizal conferred with Govenor-
General Despujol. He succeeded in obtaining a pardon for his family, but failed to secure
sanction for his project to establish a Filipino colony in Borneo.

On the night of July 3, 1892, Rizal founded the Liga Filipina, (Philippine League)
in a house at Ilaya Street, Tondo. According to its constitution, the aims of the League
were the following:
1. Union of the Archipelago into a compact, vigorous and homogenous body.
2. Mutual protection in all cases of pressing necessity.
3. Defense against all violence and injustice.
4. Encouragement of education, agriculture, and commerce.
5. Study and application of reforms.

The motto of the Liga Filipina was Unus Instar Omnium (One Like All). The
officers were as follows: Ambrosio Salvador, president; Agustine de la Rosa, fiscal;
Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Deodato Arellano, secretary. Among the members
were Andres Bonifacio, Apolinario Mabini, Mamerto Natividad, Ambrosio Rianzares
Bautista, Moises Salvador, Jose A. Dizon, Domingo Franco, Timoteo Paez, Arcadio del
Rosario, Numeriano Adriano, Timoteo Lanuza, and Doroteo Ongjunco.

The Liga Filipina was a civic association of Filipinos. Its constitution provided
for the establishment of a supreme council for the whole country, a provincial council in
every province, and a popular council in every town. Every Filipino who had at heart the
best interest and welfare of the fatherland was qualified to be a member.

However, three days after founding the Liga, Rizal was arrested by order of
Governor-General Despujol. On July 14, 1892, Rizal was exiled to Dapitan, Mindanao,
until 1896.

End of the Propaganda Movement. Rizal's deportation to Dapitan proved to be

the swan song of the Propaganda Movement. The Liga Filipina collapsed. The radical
Andres Bonifacio and other radical members separated from it, for they were
disenchanted by the peaceful campaign. The conservative Liga members, including
Domingo Franco, Numeriano Adriano, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Timoteo Paez, and
Apolinario Mabini, organized themselves into a new group called Los Compromisarios

25
because each member pledged or promised to contribute money for the financial aid of
the Propaganda Movement in Spain.

For some months the Compromisarios sent funds to M. H. del Pilar in Madrid to
keep going the printing of La Solidaridad. But time came when many members of the
Compromisarios stopped paying their contributions so that the flow of funds to Spain
ceased. And for lack of funds, La Solidaridad died out after its last issue on November
15, 1895.

With the demise of La Solidaridad, the Propaganda Movement came to a futile

end.

The Founding of the Katipunan. Andres Bonifacio, a member of the Liga

Filipina, did not join the Compromisarios, who were conservative intellectuals (like
Mabini and Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista) and affluent merchants (like Domingo Franco)
because he was both poor and a man of action and radical views. He firmly believed that
the happiness and welfare of the Filipino people could not be achieved by peaceful
request for reforms, but by violent revolution.

On the night of July 7, 1892, he and some patriotic friends who were radicals like
him, met secretly in the house occupied by Deodato Arellano (brother-in-law of M. H.
del Pilar) at No. 72 Azcarraga Street, Tondo, Manila. At this secret meeting, they
founded the secret revolutionary society called Kataastaasan Kagalanggalangang
Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Respected Society of the Sons of the
People), otherwise known as K.K.K. or simply Katipunan.

The aims of the K.K.K. were (1) to unite the Filipinos and (2) to fight for
Philippine independence.

The emergence of the Katipunan was significant in the history of the Philippines.
First, it marked the end of the peaceful campaign for reforms and the beginning of a
military revolutionary movement. And second, the Filipino people, in despair no longer
aspired for mere reforms, but for complete independence.

The Katipunan Government. More than a mere secret society, the Katipunan
was a government by itself. It had two constitutions, the first one promulgated in 1892

26
and the second (replacing the first one) in 1894. The central government of the
Katipunan was vested in a Supreme Council (Katastaasang Sanggunian) with a president,
a fiscal, a secretary, a treasurer, and a comptroller. In each province, there was a
Provincial Council (Sangguniang Bayan), and in each town a Popular Council
(Sangguniang Balangay).

The first president of the Katipunan was Deodato Arellano. He was the brother-
in-law of Marcelo H. del Pilar and a friend of Bonifacio.

The judicial power of the Katipinan resided in a secret chamber, called Judicial
Council (Sangguniang Hukuman), which passed judgment over those members who
violated the secrets of the society and decided differences arising among the brethren.

On the eve of the revolution in August 1896, the Supreme Council of the
Katipunan was composed of the following: Andres Bonifacio, Supreme; Emilio Jacinto,
Secretary of State; Teodoro Plata, Secretary of War; Bricio Pantas, Secretary of Justice;
Aguendo del Rosario, Secretary of the Interior (gobernacion); and Enrique Pacheco,
Secretary of Finance.

Katipunan Membership. Originally the Katipunan recruited members by means

of the "triangle system". Bonifacio formed the first triangle with his two comrades Plata
and Diwa. Each of them "katipunized" two converts forming other triangles. The
founder of the triangle knew the other two members but the latter did not know each
other. The triangle system proved to be clumsy and complicated, so that it was abolished
after December, 1892, and new converts were initiated into the secret society by the use
of secret rites borrowed from Masonry. After testing the neophytes' courage and
patriotism, he was made to swear to guard the secrets of the society, and he signed his
name in the Katipunan registers in his own blood taken from his arm (The ceremony was
called blood compact). He also adopted a Katipunan name.

There were three grades of membership within the Katipunan ranks. A member
of the first grade was called a katipunan (associate). At the Katipunan meetings he wore
a black mask with a triangle formed by white ribbons and letters. He carried side arms,
revolver or bolo. His password was Anak ng Bayan (Son of the people). A member of
the second grade, called Kawal (soldier), wore a green mask and a sash of the same color.
Suspended from his neck was a green ribbon with a medal on which was inscribed the

27
Malayan letter K. His password was Gom-Bur-Za, the first syllables of Gomez, Burgos,
Zamora. A member of the third grade called bayani (patriot), worn at the meeting were
mask and sash, both bordered with green. His password was Rizal, the name of the
greatest Filipino hero and honorary president of the Katipunan.

The Women in the Katipunan. At first the Katipunan was purely an association
for men. Because the women were becoming suspicious of the nocturnal absences of
their husbands and the reduction of their earnings, the door of the Katipunan was opened
to them, thereby bringing them into the confidence of their menfolk. To be admitted in
the women's section, one had to be a wife; daughter, or a sister of a Katipunero (male
member). It is estimated that about 25 women became members of the secret society.

Among the women members of the Katipunan were Gregoria de Jesus,

Bonifacio's wife, who was called the Lakambini of the K.K.K.; Maria Dizon, wife of
Katipunero Jose Turiano Santiago and cousin of Emilio Jacinto; Benita Rodriguez, who
made the Katipunan flag and was the wife of Katipunero Restituto Javier; Simeona de
Remigio, wife of Katipunero Tomas Remigio; Josefa and Trinidad Rizal, sisters of Dr.
Rizal; Delfina Herbosa and Angelica Lopez, Dr. Rizal's nieces; and Marta Saldaña.

The women rendered valuable services to the Katipunan. They guarded the secret
papers and documents of the society at the risk of their lives. When the Katipunan held a
session in a certain house, they usually made merry singing and dancing with some of the
men in the living room so that the Civil Guards were misled to believe that there was
merely a harmless social party going on. Moreover, they were helpful in recruiting more
members of the Katipunan.

Literature of the Katipunan. The three writers of the Katipunan were

Bonifacio, Jacinto, and Dr. Pio Valenzuela. They wrote stirring literature to excite the
people's patriotism and to arouse their patriotic spirit. Their writings also served to
spread the ideals of the society, and paved the way for the revolution.

Bonifacio, a self-made writer in Tagalog, wrote Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Bayan

(Love of Fatherland), a mediocre poem ofpatriotic sentiment. His prose writings were
"Katungkulang Gagawinng mga Z. Ll.B." (Duties of the Sons of the People), a decalogue
of the Katipunan, and Ang Mabatid ng mga Tagalog (What Tagalog Should Know), a
politico-historical essay.

28
 Emilio Jacinto, a young law student at the University of Santo Tomas, and the
youngest (19 years old) and the most intellectual katipunero, was also their greatest
writer. He became the adviser of Bonifacio and penned most of the Katipunan
documents, hence he became known as the "Brains of the Katipunan". He wrote the
Kartilla or the teachings of the Katipunan. Another of his prose work was Liwanag sa
Dilim (Light and Darkness), a series of articles of human rights, liberty, equality, labor,
love of country. Before his death in 1897, he wrote a poem in Spanish, "A la Patria,"
which echoed the same sentiments of Rizal's last farewell.

Dr. Valenzuela helped Bonifacio and Jacinto in editng the Kalayaan (Liberty), the
Katipunan newspaper. He also wrote "Katwiran?" (Is It Right?) an essay addressed to the
motherland. He also collaborated with Bonifacio in the article "Sa Mga Kababayan" (To
My Countrymen).

"Kalayaan," Organ of the Katipunan. In 1894 the Katipunan bought an old

handpress with the money generously donated by two patriotic Filipinos from the Visayas
-- Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban -- who had worked for some years in Australia
and won a lottery prize in that country. The types used in printing were purchased from
Isabelo de los Reyes, and manywere stolen from the press of the Diario de Manila
(Manila Daily) by Filipino employees who were members of the Katipunan.

The existence of the press was kept in utmost secrecy. Under Jacinto's
supervision, two patriotic printers, Faustino Duque and Ulpiano Fernandez, printed the
Kalayaan, the organ of the Katipunan. This revolutionary newspaper was founded by
Jacinto to disseminate the ideals of the society. The first issue came out in January 1896.
To deceive the Spanish authorities,it carried a false masthead stating that it was being
printed in Yokohama with Marcelo H. del Pilar as editor. About 1,000 copies were
issued, some of which fell into the hands of the Spanish authorities.

First Cry of Philippine Independence. During the Holy Week in 1895,

Bonifacio and a party of katipuneros reconnoitered the mountains of Montalban in search
of a good hideout where they could hold their secret meetings. Among these Katipuneros
were Emilio Jacinto, Aurelio Tolentino, Francisco Castillo, Candido Iban, Guillermo
Masangkay, Francisco Mañalac and Pedro Zabala.

29
 On April 10, 1895, Bonifacio and his companions entered the Cave of Bernardo
Carpio (also known locally as Pamitinan Cave), where they held a secret session. After
the session, Aurelio Tolentino (Pampagueño writer in Tagalog and Pampagueño
literature) picked up a piece of charcoal and wrote on the cave wall in Spanish: "Viva la
Independencia" in Philippine history.

Dr. Rizal and the Katipunan. In June, 1896, Dr. Pio Valenzuela, acting as
Bonifacio's emissary, sailed for Dapitan to solicit Rizal's support for the coming
revolution. To cover the real mission from Spanish authorities, he brought with him a
blind man who was then in need of Dr. Rizal's professional services. Immediately upon
his arrival at Dapitan, he lost no time in conferring with the exiled hero.

According to Valenzuela, in his Memoirs, Rizal did not agree to the Katipunan
plan of starting a rebellion because the people were not ready for it. Rizal was also
opposed to the plan of the Katipunan to rescue him because he had given his word to the
authorities that he would not try to escape, and he meant to keep his word.

Valenzuela, failing in his mission to secure Rizal's support of the revolutionary

plot, returned to Manila. When Bonifacio heard his emissary's report, he flared up and
exclaimed "Thunder!" Where did Rizal read that for a revolution you must first have
ships and arms? Where did he read that?"

The Katipunan and Japan. In planning the revolution, the Katipunan casts its
eyes on Japan, which loomed then as the probable champion of Asian liberties against
Western oppression. In May 1896, a delegate of katipunan members, headed by Jacinto
and Bonifacio, conferred with a visiting Japanese naval officer and a Japanese consul at a
Japanese bazaar in Manila. The Interpreter was Moritaro Tagawa, who was married to a
Filipina. He was a friend of Valenzuela.

After the usual exchange of courtesies, Jacinto submittedthe Katipunan memorial

for the Emperor of Japan in which the Filipinos prayed for Japanese aid in their projected
revolution "so that the light of liberty that illumines Japan may also shed its rays over the
Philippines."

It was with good reason that the Katipunan solicited Japan's aid and alliance.
That country had been friendly to the Filipino people. Many Filipinos who had fled from

30
Spanish persecution were welcomed there and were given the full protection of the
Japanese law. Bonifacio tried to purchase arms and ammunition in Japan, but failed for
lack of funds.

The Katipunan Prepares for War. By the middle of 1896 the Katipunan was
preparing to strike for freedom. Its members had increased since its foundation, and by
1896 they were estimated to have reached about 20,000. The exact number of members
could not be ascertained.

The Katipunan flag had been made to be the symbol of a new nation. It consisted
of a red piece of cloth with three letter K.K.K. arranged in a row in the center. These
letters represented the initials of the Katipunan. Sometimes they were placed in such a
way as to form a triangle.

A war plan was also prepared by Bonifacio and Jacinto to be the strategy of the
Katipunan military operations. According to this war plan, the headquarters of the
patriots would be established at a site near the sea, or in a region near the mountains,
preferably a town in Laguna. Bolos and daggers were made and stored up. Money and
other supplies were collected. Secret meetings were held frequently to put the finishing
touches to the war plan.

Discovery of the Katipunan. As the Katipunan was busy preparing for the
revolution, various denunciations regarding the existence reached the Spanish authorities.
On July 5, 1896, Manuel Sityar, the Spanish lieutenant of the civil guards stationed at
Pasig, reported the mysterious activities of certain Filipinos who were gathering arms and
recruiting men for some unknown purpose. On August 13, 1896, Fr. Agustin Fernandez,
Augustinian curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuel Luengco, Civil governor
of Manila, denouncing the anti-Spanish meetings in his parish.

The Katipunan was finally discovered by the Spanish authorities on August 19,
1896. At 6:15 p.m. of that day Teodoro Patiño, a member of the Katipunan and an
employee of the Diario de Manila, upon the advice of the mother portress of
Mandaluyong Orphanage and of his sister, Honoria Patiño, went to the convent of Tondo
and revealed the secrets of the Katipunan to Father Mariano Gil, Augustinian parish
curate. Among other things, he told the friar that a lithographic stone was hidden in the
press room of the Diario de Manila and was used by the society in printing the receipts,

31
and that several daggers had been made by the employees. Alarmed at such startling
information, Father Gil, accompanied by Spanish witnesses, searched the printing shop of
the Diario de Manila and found the incriminating evidence. He rushed to the authorities
denounced the revolutionary plot of the Katipunan.

That night Manila did not sleep. The forces of Spanish law pounced upon the
homes of the suspects and locked them up in jail. Those who were warned in time,
notably Bonifacio, Jacinto and others, fled into hiding. Through the dark hours of the
night, many Filipino families in the city prayed and awaited, in suspense, the red dawn of
the following day.

32
History 1
Module II

Lesson 2

SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Fill in the blanks: On the blank space before each number, write the word/s that
would best answer the following:

__________ 1. The newspaper of the Katipunan was called _____.

__________ 2. The peaceful crusade for reforms of pen and speech was called the _____
movement.
__________ 3. The immediate cause for the founding of the Katipunan was the exile of
_____.
__________ 4. The mouthpiece of the propaganda in Spain was the newspaper called
_____.
__________ 5. The organizer of the Katipunan was _____.
__________ 6. The aims of the Katipunan was to _____ the
__________ 7. Filipinos and to fight for Philippine _____.
__________ 8. The _____ was a civic association of Filipinos to encourage education,
agriculture and commerce.
__________ 9. Emilio Jacinto was known for his literary work entitled _____.
__________ 10. The unjust execution of the three priests led to the rise of Philippine
_____.

33
History 1
Module III

Lesson 3. THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

Lesson Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
1. know the plight and activities of the Katipuneros immediately after the
discovery of the Katipunan;
2. realize how inferior were the weapons of war and the leadership of Bonifacio
as commander of the rebels;
3. consider the success of Aguinaldo's battle against the Spaniards in Cavite;
4. understand why the Bonifacio brothers had to be court martialed by
Aguinaldo's court in Cavite;
5. understand the causes of the rivalry between Andres Bonifacio and Emilio
Aguinaldo;
6. understand why the Pact of Biac-na-Bato failed.

The Philippine Revolution (1896 - 1898) was a national struggle of the Filipino
people for freedom. This was the culmination of more than 100 uprisings against Spain,
all of which were tribal uprisings, which simply fizzled in failure. The Philippine
Revolution began in the hills of Balintawak on August 26, 1896 as a Katipunan revolt of
the Tagalog masses underSupremo AndresBonifacio, which failedlargelybecause of
Bonifacio's successive defeats due to his military incompetence. With his replacement by
General Emilio Aguinaldo as suprememilitary leader, andthe establishment of the
Revolutionary Government, together with the dismantling of the Katipunan at the Tejeros
Assembly, the revolutionary movement gained new momentum. Under Aguinaldo's able
leadership it became a national revolution of the Filipino people (intellectuals, middle
class, and masses) for freedom, which proclaimed Philippine Independence at Kawit and
established the First Philippine Republic of Malolos.

The Cry of Balintawak. After the tragic discovery of the Katipunan on August
19, Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and many Katipuneros from Manila, had to elude the
dragnet of Spanish law and flee to Caloocan and its neighboring barrios. On August 26,
Bonifacio rallied the katipuneros to an emergency meeting at Balintawak ( a barrio of

34
Caloocan). These katipuneros were poorly-armed with bolos, bamboo spears, antings-
antings (amulets), paltiks (crude homemade guns) and a few old Remington rifles.

The meeting started in good order, Supremo Bonifacio welcomed the attendance
of the patriots and informed them of the urgency of beginning the revolution in view of
the discovery of their secret society. Some katipuneros (including his brother-in-law,
Teodoro Plata) objected because of lack of arms and their unpreparedness for war. Their
opposition produced a heated debate between those who favored the uprising and the
oppositionists, thus plunging the meeting into turmoil. Angered by the raging debate
among his men, Bonifacio thundered: "Brothers, you know the tragic fate of our
compatriots who fell into the clutches of the Spaniards. We are doomed men, we cannot
return to our homes, for we would be arrested and executed. Now what shall we do?"

"Fight!" shouted the majority of the patriots. Bonifacio then dramatically took
out his cedula certificate (symbol of vassalage to Spain), tore it to pieces and shouted
"Long Live the Philippines!" Following his example, the katipuneros tore their cedula
certificates, echoing the cry.

This stirring episode has become a cherished tradition of the nation, like the fall
of the Bastille in France (July 14, 1789), the Battle of Bunker Hill in the United States
(June 16, 1775), and the "Cry of Dolores" in Mexico (September 15, 1810).

First Shots of the Revolution. After the stormy meeting in the morning of
August 26, 1896, Bonifacio and the katipuneros, hungry and tired proceeded to the farm
of Tandang Sora (Melchora Aquino, widow of Fulgencio Ramos) at Gulod ng Banilad
near the sitio of Pasong Tamo. This patriotic old woman hospitably fed the famished
patriots, for which she was later arrested by the Spanish authorities and exiled to Guam.

After eating their lunch, the patriots stayed at the farm for several hours to rest. In
late afternoon Bonifacio was warned by his sentries that the Guardia Civl (Civil Guards)
were coming. Immediately he deployed his men around a broken bridge spanning a
brook in Pasong Tamo. As the Guardia Civil under the command of Lt. Manuel Ross
approached, the patriots attacked them. Their inferior weapons and lack of military
discipline were no match to the Mauser and Remington guns of the enemy. A valiant
katipunero, Simplicio Acabe, with his long bolo assaulted a Guardia Civil soldier, who
shot him dead. This Katipunero was the first casualty of the revolution.

35
 Bonifacio, with his surviving men, fled under cover of the gathering twilight
darkness toward Balara in Diliman, where he established his headquarters.

The Battle Of San Juan. At dawn of Sunday, August 30, 1896, Bonifacio
leading his ragtag army of poorly armed and untrained Katipuneros rashly attacked the
polverin (powder depot) of San Juan, which was defended by 100 well-armed and trained
artillerists and infantrymen. It was woefully an unequal combat -- Spanish artillery and
modern rifles against Filipino bolos, bamboo spears, anting-antings (amulets), and some
old firearms. Without any military tactic nor strategy, Bonifacio hurled his men in a
suicidal frontal attack against a sweeping rain of artillery salvos and rifle bullets. To
aggravate Bonifacio's predicament, the Spanish reinforcements from Manila under the
command of General Bernardo Echaluca arrived in time as the battle was raging. The
battle turned out to be a massacre.

Demoralized by his heavy casualties, Bonifacio and his surviving men fled in
disarray across the Pasig River, leaving 153 dead comrades on the bloody battlefield.
More than 200 katipuneros were taken prisoners by the victorious Spaniards.

The Battle of San Juan (Pinaglabanan) was the first pitched battle which
Bonifacio fought and where he met his Waterloo. He proved to be an inept military
commander, although he was a great organizer of a revolution and courageous fighter.
But courage alone cannot win a battle. He was thus not qualified to be the leader of the
revolution. As two perceptive Jesuit writers, Father Pedro S. de Achutegui and Miguel
A. Bernad, commented: "Had Bonifacio remained the sole leader of the revolt, it would
have been patered out, and the insurrection of August 1896 would have ended as quickly
and as tragically as the lives of those untrained and poorly-armed men who died in the
first battle, in the fields between San Juan and the Pasig". Altogether, Bonifacio fought
in twenty-nine battles and lost all of them.

Martial law Proclaimed by Governor Blanco. In the afternoon of August 30,

1898, afternoon of the morning battle at San Juan, Governor General Blanco issued a
proclamation declaring a state of war in eight Luzon provinces -- Manila, Cavite, Laguna,
Batangas, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija and Tarlac. They represent the eight golden rays of
the sun in the present Filipino flag.

36
 In the same proclamation, Blanco promised pardon for any Filipino rebel who
would surrender to the Spanish authorities. Many patriots surrendered, including Dr. Pio
Valenzuela who fled in Biñan, Laguna after the "Cry of Balintawak". The amnesty
proclamation, like other Spanish promises, was not fulfilled. Those who peacefully
surrendered were thrown into prison.

Spread of Armed Resistance. After Bonifacio's disastrous defeat at San Juan,

the flames of revolution spread like forest fire, to the towns around Manila and other
places. Armed uprisings erupted in Pasig, Pateros, Taguig, Mandaluyong, Montalban,
San Mateo, and other towns in the Politico-Military District of Morong (now Rizal
Province). All these uprisings under the direction of Bonifacio were suppressed by
Spanish arms. In Cavite province, however, the uprisings were more successful because
the patriots there had able military commanders, notably Emilio Aguinaldo, who led the
revolt in Kawit on August 31, 1896, and Mariano Alvarez, who liberated Noveleta on the
same day. These two revolutionists proved to be better combat generals than Supremo
Bonifacio. Other able military leaders in Cavite who rose to prominence were the three
teachers, Artemio Ricarte, Tomas Mascardo and Juan Cailles; and Vito Belarmino,
Mariano Trias, and Marcelino Aure (popularly known as "General Alipaap"). In due
time, Cavite Province became the center of the revolution.

In the north, General Mariano Llanera raised the "Cry of Nueva Ecija" and
attacked the Spanish garrison in San Isidro (capital of Nueva Ecija) on September 2,
1896. He captured the town, but evacuated it four days later because of the arrival of
Spanish reinforcements.

Other disturbances were registered in Bulacan, Pampanga, Batangas, Laguna,

Tayabas, (now Quezon Province), in Passi (Iloilo Province), and even in faraway
Mindanao. On the night of December 5, 1896, the Christian-Filipino soldiers of the 42nd
Company, Regiment No.69, having learned of the raging revolution in Luzon, mutinied
under the leadership of Corporal Felipe Cabrera de los Reyes and Bugler Protasio
Añonuevo. Unfortunately, the mutiny was suppressed and the patriotic corporal Cabrera,
Bugler Añonuevo, and five other comrades were executed in Iligan on December 26,
1896.

Spanish Reign of Terror. The Spanish authorities, in their desperate efforts to

quell the rising tides of revolution, pursued a reign of terror. In Manila and the

37
provinces, hundreds of Filipinos, including prominent intellectuals and industrial barons,
were arrested and put to prison. The cells of Fort Santiago, Bilibid Prison, and the
dungeons under the city walls were crowded with these innocent victims. For instance,
169 of them were imprisoned in a small dungeon beneath the Bastion of San Diego. This
dungeon had only one little air hole for ventilation. One rainy night, a stupid sentry
closed the air hole to keep out the rain. The following morning 54 prisoners were found
dead due to asphyxzation. This horrible incident was reminiscent of the infamous "Black
Hole" tragedy of Calcutta in 1758.

On September 6, 1896, the four Katipunan leaders who were taken prisoners in
the battle of San Juan-- Sancho Valenzuela, Ramon Peralta, Modesto Sarmiento, and
Eugenio Silvestre -- were executed by a firing squad at the Luneta, Manila. They were
the first Katipunan martyrs.

On September 12, 1896 the "Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite" were shot to death in
front of San Felipe Fort in the Cavite Arsenal.

The following year, on January 4, 1897, eleven of the "Fifteen Martyrs of

Bicolandia" were executed at Bagumbayan, Manila. Seven days later (January 11, 1897)
the "Thirteen Martyrs of Bagumbayan" died before a firing squad at Bagumbayan. And
on March 23, 1897, the "Nineteen Martyrs of Aklan" were executed in Kalibo, Aklan.

About 1,000 patriots saved from the firing squad were exiled to Guam, Fernando
Po (Africa), and other Spanish penal colonies.

The Spanish policy of terrorism failed to stop the revolution. The imprisonment,
torture, exile, and execution of the patriots simply fanned the flames of the revolution.
Numerous Filipinos, enraged by the brutal reign of terror, joined the fighting
revolutionists to overthrow Spanish tyranny.

Twin Battles of Binakayan and Dalahican. Of the early victories of the

revolutionary arms against Spain's forces, those of Binakayan and Dalahican were
decidedly brilliant. These twin battles, simultaneously fought on November 9 - 11, 1896,
saw the first humiliating defeat of the Spanish regular army, and also for the first time the
proud flag of Spain hit the Philippine dust.

38
 Binakayan, a barrio of Kawit, was defended by the Magdalo forces under General
Emilio Aguinaldo, aided by General Crispulo Aguinaldo (his brother), Candido Tirona
(his compadre and intimate friend), Pio del Pilar, Vito Belarmino, and Pantaleon Garcia.
Dalahican, a barrio of Noveleta, is located near Binakayan. It was defended by a
Magdiwang forces under General Mariano Alvarez, aided by Santiago (his son), Pascual
Alvarez, (his nephew), Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano Riego de Dios.

The twin battles began in the morning of November 9, 1896, when the Spanish
invading troops under the personal command of Governor General Ramon Blanco
(Marques de Peña Plata), under cover of heavy naval bombardments by Spanish warships
landed at Dalahican shore where he established his command post. Immediately he
divided his army into two columns -- the first column under the command of General
Diego de los Rios (who later became the last Spanish governor-general of the
Philippines) attacked Dalahican while the second column assaulted Binakayan. Both
Magdiwang and Magdalo forces, in their respective trenches in Dalahican and Binakayan
built by General Edilberto Evangelista (patriot-engineer), fought furiously like enraged
lions. For three days the battle raged with the fury of a terrific hurricane, with both
combatants suffering heavy casualties.

In the late afternoon of November 11, Blanco, seeing that he could not win the
twin battles ordered a general retreat, evacuated his vanquished troops on board the
waiting warships, and sailed away with empty laurel of war. Both Magdalo and
Magdiwang victors celebrated with great jubilation their brilliant victories. Among the
patriots who perished in action in the twin battles were General Candido Tirona ("Hero of
Binakayan") and Gregoria Montoya ("Cavite's Joan of Arc").

The Rise of General Aguinaldo. Out of the din and battles of the revolution
arose a new leader who was destined to replace Bonifacio. He was the youthful capitan
municipal of Kawit, Emilio Aguinaldo, a fighting patriot and a college dropout.

The seventh child of middle-class parents, he possessed a God-given military

talent, cool courage, charisma, gentle manners, and a keen judgment of men, which
eminently qualified him for leadership.

Aguinaldo first attracted public attention when he beat the sergeant of the Guardia
Civil in single combat and led the successful uprising in his hometown of Kawit. Later,

39
on September 3, 1896, he defeated the Spanish forces under the command of General
Ernesto Aguirre in the battle of Imus. In the early part of November 1896, he crossed
over to Batangas and liberated the town of Talisay from the Spanish soldiers. What
impressed most the revolutionists, including many Magdiwang katipuneros, were his
exploits as a commanding general.

As his star was soaring high, that of Bonifacio's was fading. Bonifacio lost all his
battles at San Juan, Langka River (San Mateo), and Balara (where he barely escaped with
his life). "He was not even capable of commanding a regiment," said Clemente J.
Zulueta, an eyewitness of the Revolution.

Bonifacio Goes to Cavite. Upon invitation of the Katipunan Magdiwang

Provincial in Cavite, Bonifacio left his hideout in Morong and went to Cavite Province,
arriving there on December 1, 1896, according to Aguinaldo's Memoirs. He was
accompanied by his wife (Gregoria de Jesus), his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio),
General Lucino, and 20 soldiers.

Bonifacio, despite his tattered reputation as a military leader who never won a
battle against the Spanish enemy, was welcomed by both Magdalo and Magdiwang
factions. Aguinaldo, who was fighting the Spanish forces in Zapote, Las Piñas, and
Bacoor, left his troops and entertained him at Imus, capital of the Magdalo Council. The
following day Bonifacio was visited by the officers of the Magdiwang Council and was
brought to San Francisco de Malabon, then capital of the Magdiwang Council, where he
was greeted with cries of "Long Live the King of the Philippines!"

Shortly afterwards, the Magdiwang Council held an emergency session and

conferred on Bonifacio the title of "Hari" (King), which he liked very much. General
Mariano Alvarez, founder and president of the Magdiwang Council was demoted to vice-
king.

The Magdiwang and the Magdalo Councils. It should be noted that at the
outbreak of the revolution there were two rival Katipunan provincial councils in Cavite --
the Magdalo Council headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio Aguinald's cousin) and
with its capital at Imus, and the Magdiwang Counci, with Mariano Alvarez (uncle of
Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife) as president and with Noveleta as capital.

40
 Shortly after Bonifacio's arrival in Cavite, the Magdiwang council was
reorganized with the following officers:
King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andres Bonifacio
Vice-King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariano Alvarez
Minister of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ariston Villanueva
Minister of the Interior . . . . . . . . Jacinto Lambreras
Minister of Finance . . . . . . . . . . Diego Mojica
Minister of Natural Resources . . Emiliano Riego de Dios
Captain General . . . . . . . . . . . . Santiago Alvarez

The capital of the Magdiwang Council was moved from Noveleta to San
Francisco de Malabon. The 12 towns under its jurisdiction were San Francisco de
Malabon, Noveleta, Rosario, Ranza, Naic, Ternate, Maragondon, Magallanes, Bailen,
Alfonso, Indang, and San Roque.

Not to be outdone, the Magdalo Council likewsie organized itself with the
following officers:
President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baldomero Aguinaldo
Vice-President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edilberto Evangelista
Secretary of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel Tirona
Secretary of the Interior . . . . . . . . Felix Cuenca
Secretary of Natural Resources . . Glicerio Topacio
Secretary of Agriculture . . . . ….. Cayetano Topacio
Lieutenant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emilio Aguinaldo

The capital of this council was Imus. The nine troops under its jurisdiction were
Imus, Dasmariñas, Silang, Amadeo, Mendez, Nuñez, Bacoor, and Carmen.

Before the coming of Bonifacio in Cavite, these two katipunan councils, although
rivals, cooperated with one another against the common enemy. As General Ricarte
narrated: "These two insurgent governments progressed well, enlightened by the spirit of
patriotism, having in view nothing but the attainment of the purpose for which the
Katipunan was created. Thus, what one lacked the other supplied: and when one found
itself in a tight situation in any skirmish, the other hastened with its forces to assist it."

41
 With the arrival of Bonifacio in Cavite the good relations between the Magdalo
and Magdiwang Councils ended, and the resulting disunity weakened the libertarian
cause.

Polavieja Succeeds Blanco as Governor-General. On December 13, 1896,

General Camilo Polavieja (Marques de Polavieja) became governor general of the
Philippines, replacing General Blanco who was recalled to Spain for failing to stop the
Philippine Revolution. He was accompanied by General Jose de Lachambre, one of
Spain's best combat commanders, and brought reinforcements of 12,000 regular troops
from Spain.

Polavieja was an able general, but a bigoted, autocratic and blundering chief
executive. He cancelled all municipal elections in the provinces, as prescribed by the
Maura Law of 1893 and ordered the arrest, imprisonment, exile, and executed hundreds
of Filipino patriots. His greatest blunder was the signing of the death sentence of Dr.
Jose Rizal.

The Execution of Dr. Rizal. Since 1892, Rizal had lived in exile at Dapitan,
lonely Spanish outpost in Mindanao, where he practiced medicine, built the town's
waterwork, opened a school for boys, and carried on with his literary writings and
scientific researches.

After four years of quiet life, he applied for a position surgeon in the Spanish
army in Cuba, where a revolution was then raging. His petition was granted, so that he
sailed for Manila where he arrived in August, 1896. The Philippine Revolution then
broke out. After a short delay, he was allowed to proceed to Spain. At the Suez Canal
the ship captain received a cable message from Manila ordering him to place Rizal under
arrest. Upon reaching Barcelona, Rizal was kept a prisoner and shipped back to Manila,
where he was incarcerated at Fort Santiago.

Rizal was tried by a military court on the charge of "rebellion, sedition and illicit
associations". His trial was a farce, for there was no positive evidence to prove his guilt.
Nonetheless the military court sentenced him to death.
Governor General Polavieja confirmed the death verdict of the military court and ordered
Rizal's execution in the morning of December 30. On December 29, 1896, he wrote his
last letter to his best friend, Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt (Austrian) declaring his

42
innocence as follows: "I am innocent of the crime of rebellion. I am going to die with a
tranquil conscience."

At dawn of December 30, 1896, a few hours before his execution, Rizal married
Josephine Bracken, his Irish sweetheart from Hong Kong, under Catholic rites in the
chapel of Fort Santiago. The wedding ceremony was performed by Father Vicente
Balaguer (Jesuit).

At 6:00 A.M. Rizal was ready to have his rendezvous with death at the Luneta.
Thirty minutes later the death march from Fort Santiago to the Luneta began. Rizal,
dressed in black suit and with arms tied behind from elbow to elbow, marched under
heavy guard to the muffled sounds of the drums. A huge crowd of Filipinos and
foreigners watched the death march. Upon reaching the Luneta, Rizal walked serenely to
the place, where he was told to stand with his back toward the firing squad. At exactly
7:03 A.M., the firing squad shot him at the back. With superhuman effort, he turned his
bullet riddled body and fell dead to the ground -- his face turned upwards to the rising
sun. Thus he died as he described in his farewell poem:
I die when heaven purples in the dawn
And day at last is risen on the night.
If morning would a deeper crimson own,
Take my lifeblood, and may the color strewn
Catch but a glimpse of the wakening light.

Significance of Rizal's Martyrdom. The execution of Rizal was one of Spain's

greatest blunders in the Philippines. The Filipino people acclaimed him as a martyr of
freedom so that he has become the national hero of the Philippines.

The bullets of Spain's firing squad ended Rizal's life, but not his nationalist ideas,
which destroyed the Spanish Empire. Thus rhapsodized Cecilio Apostol, greatest
Filipino epic poet in Spanish:
Oh, Redeemer of an enslaved country!
In the mystery of the grave, do not cry
Heed not the brief triumph of the Spaniards;
Because if a bullet destroyed your cranium,
Likewise your idea destroyed an empire.

43
 The Imus Assembly. The enmity between the Magdalo and the Magdiwang
Councils proved disastrous to the revolutionary cause because their divided forces met
reverses against Polavieja's troops. To reconcile their differences and unite their forces
under one revolutionary government, the Magdalo hosted a general assembly of both
factions in Imus on December 31, 1896 -- a day after Rizal's execution. At this assembly,
Haring Bonifacio, head of the Magdiwang Council, arrogantly took the presiding officer's
chair, which rightly belonged to General Baldomero Aguinaldo, as host and head of the
Magdalo Council. Bonifacio assigned seats of importance to all officers of the
Magdiwang Council.

To avoid any trouble, the Magdalo officers and men did not protest Bonifacio's
autocratic behavior. They simply occupied whatever seats were vacant on the hall.

Also present in the assembly were the patriots from Manila, Batangas, and other
places, who were neutral, forthey were neither Magdalos nor Magdiwangs. They were
called alsa balutan (refugees or outsiders). Among them were Edilberto Evangelista,
FelicianoJocson, Clemente J. Zulueta from Manila, and Mamerto Natividad from Nueva
Ecija.

The issues discussed in the assembly were (1) the establishment of a revolutionary
government under new elected officers and (2) uniting the Magdiwang and Magdalo
forces under a single command. Heated debates rocked tha hall. The Magdiwang
insisted that there was already a Katipunan government headedby Bonifacio, the Haring
Bayan.

Nothing definite was accomplished by the Imus Assembly because it suddenly

ceased its proceedings due to the arrival of Josephine Bracken (Dr. Jose Rizal's widow),
accompanied by Paciano Rizal. It was however agreed to have another joint assmebly at
another place and date.

Polavieja's All-Out-Offensive. With the objective of crushing the revolution,

Governor General Polavieja launched an all-offensive on February 15, 1897. On this
day, General Francisco Galbis, one of Polavieja's combat generals, attacked Zapote,
while General Lachambre, with two brigades, crossed the Laguna-Cavite border,
marching toward Silang. On February 17, General Evangelista, one of General
Aguinaldo's bravest generals, was killed by a Spanish sniper. Two days later (February

44
19), Silang was captured by Lachambre. General Aguinaldo, aided by Generals Vito
Belarmino and Artemio Ricarte, mounted a counter-offensive, but failed to retake Silang.

On February 25, 1897, the town of Dasmariñas was taken by the Spanish troops
led by General Antonio Zabala. Flushed with victory, Zabala attacked on March 1, the
rebel stronghold of Saltiran (barrio of Dasmariñas), which was defended by the valiant
General Flaviano Yengko, who was mortally wounded in action and died on March 3,
1897 at Imus Military Hospital. Yengko was the youngest general of the Philippine
Revolution, being younger than General Gregorio del Pilar, the "Hero of Tirad Pass," by
one year, 2 months and 7 days. In the bloody war of Salitran, General Zabala was killed
by Yengko's troops.

The Tejeros Assembly. On March 22, 1897, while the tide of war was turning
against the revolutionists, Haring Bonifacio's Magdiwang Council hosted a general
assembly at Tejeros, barrio of San Francsico de Malabon (now General Trias), the capital
of the Magdiwang Council. The majority of those attended to assembly were
Magdiwang, including the entire Magdiwang officialdom. Many were alsa balutan
patriots from Manila and other provinces. Few Magdalo's, including eight top Magdalo
officials, were present.

General Aguinaldo and other Magdalo officials and generals were absent because
they were then defending the Magdalo towns which were under Spanish attacks.

The session was held at the Recollect estate-house. It began at past 2:00 P.M.,
with Jacinto Lumbreras, Magdiwang minister of the interior, acting as temporary
chairman and Teodoro Gonzales, another Magdiwang, as secretary. Severino de las Alas,
a Magdiwang from Indang took the floor, speaking in favor of a new revolutionary
government. Antonio Montenegro, an alsa balutan patriot from Manila, endorsed de las
Alas' idea. Taking the floor, Santiago Alvarez, Magdiwang captain-general angrily
answered Montenegro that they, Caviteños, recognized theKatipunanas the government
and insultingly declared to Montenegro: "If you want to set up another form of
government, go back to your province and organize it. We of Cavite do not need your
advice."

The explosive Alvarez-Montenegro conflict threw the assembly into tumult. To

avoid a free-for-all fight, Lumbreras called for a recess. An hour later, after hot passions

45
cooled, the session was resumed -- this time Bonifacio as presiding officer and General
Ricarte as secretary.

Since it was the desire of the majority that a new revolutionary government
should be established, Bonifacio was forced to call for the election of the officials of this
government. He was, however, able to secure the majority verdict that whoever would be
elected must be recognized without any protest.

The election by means of secret ballot, amazingly resulted in the following:

President . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emilio Aguinaldo
Vice-President . . . . . . . . . Mariano Trias
Captain General . . . . . . . . Artemio Ricarte
Director of War . . . . . . . . Emiliano Riego de Dios
Director of the Interior . . . Andres Bonifacio

The election was, unfortunately, marred by the protest of Daniel Tirona regarding
Bonifacio's capability as Director of the Interior. "The position of Director of the
Interior," he said, "is very great and should not be occupied by one who is not a lawyer.
We have in our province, a lawyer, Jose del Rosario, who should be declared elected."

Bonifacio, enraged by this protest, exclaimed: "Have we not agreed to follow the
majority will of this assembly?" He drew his revolver to shoot Tirona, but Ricarte and
cooler heads intervened and prevented a tragedy. Not knowing parliamentary rules and
decorum, Bonifacio angrily declared the election null and void, dissolved the session, and
walked out of the hall with his bodyguards.

The majority of the patriots, however, recognized the results of the election and
the establishment of the new Revolutionary Government, which replaced the Katipunan.
A special committee headed by Col. Vicente Riego de Dios was dispatched to inform
General Aguinaldo in Pasong Santol of his election as president and to come to Tejeros
for oath taking. Aguinaldo refused to abandon his post at Pasong Santo, for he was
expecting a Spanish attack. He was, however, persuaded to go to his brother General
Crispulo, who promised to defend Pasong Santol. He said: "The Spaniards can only take
this place over my dead body."

46
 General Aguinaldo, with his staff, went to Tejeros arriving there at twilight of
March 23, 1897, but he could not enter the Recollect estate-house because the entrance
was guarded by Bonifacio's soldiers, who refused to let him enter. Realizing that he was
on hostile territory, he proceeded to Santa Cruz de Malabon (Tanza), where he was sworn
to office inside the Catholic church, together with Mariano Trias (vice-president),
Emiliano Riege de Dios (director of war), and Artemio Ricarte (captain-general).

Efforts to Overthrow the New Government. The frustrated Bonifacio, refusing

to accept the loss of his leadership in good grace, exerted efforts to overthrow the newly
established Revolutionary Government. Even before the Tejeros Assembly, it should be
noted, Bonifacio, with the connivance of General Ricarte, sabotaged Aguinaldo by
intercepting his troop reinforcements from the Magdalo towns to the war front of Pasong
Santol (Barrio Dasmariñas), ultimately causingthe Spanish capture of Pasong Santol and
the death of General Aguinaldo on March 24, 1897. Truly this valiant brother had kept
his words that the Spaniards could only take Pasong Santol over his dead body.

In the afternoon of March 23, a day after the Tejeros Assembly, Bonifacio
gathered his followers in a secret meeting at the Recollect estate-hosue in Tejeros and
drafted a document called Acta de Tejeros, which was signed by Bonifacio and 44 other
plotters (total of 45). The signers, aside from Bonifacio, included Ricarte, Mariano
Alvarez and his nephew Pascual Alvarez, Jacinto Lumbreras, Diego Mojica, Luciano San
Miguel, Ariston Villanueva, and Father Manuel P. Trias (parish priest of San Francisco
de Malabon). This document, which was definitely seditious, rejected the Revolutionary
Government headed by General Aguinaldo on the following grounds: (1) the Tejeros
Assembly "lack legality", (2) there was a Magdalo conspiracy to oust Bonifacio from
leadership, and (3) the election of officials was fraudulent, for "the ballots have been
prepared by one sole individual and have been issued to unqualified person in order to
secure a majority," and (4) "actual pressure has been brought to bear upon our
presidency."

In another secret meeting convened by Bonifacio at the friar estate-house in Naic

on April 19, 1897, he and his con-conspirators drew up another document, called the
Naic Military Pact, which created an army corps under the command of General Pio del
Pilar, a valiant general of President Aguinaldo. It was signed by 41 men, including
Bonifacio, Artemio Ricarte, Pio del Pilar, and Severino de las Alas.

47
 While Bonifacio and his companions were busy discussing their nefarious plot,
Major Lazaro Makapagal, who was held prisoner downstairs managed to escape. Being a
loyal Magdalo officer, he rushed to the house in Naic, where President Aguinaldo was in
bed suffering from malaria and informed him of the secret meeting of the Bonifacio
clique. Immediately Aguinaldo rose from his sickbed and, accompanied by General
Baldomero and Tomas Mascardo and soliders, he rushed to the friar estate-house to
confront the conspirators. He was surpised to see his two generals, Pio del Pilar and
Mariano Noriel, among the conspirators. Bonifacio and his Magdiwang conspirators
seeing that the estate-house was surrounded by Aguinaldo's soldiers scampered to safety
like frightened rats fleeing from a sinking ship. Both del Pilar and Noriel remained in the
room and apologized to their President, saying: "We were blinded by the false promises,
sir. We own our mistake." Aguinaldo, being a compassionate and chivalric commander-
in-chief, forgave the erring generals and only admonished them: "Go back to your
soldiers and do your duty as officers."

Bonifacio's plan to build an army to overthrow Aguinaldo and the Revolutionary

Government burst like a child's pricked balloon.

The Naic Revolutionary Assembly. Shortly after aborting Bonifacio's Naic

Military Pact, President Aguinaldo convoked a revolutionary assembly in Naic on April
17, 1897. A man of magnanimity, he had forgiven the Magdiwang officials who
conspired with Bonifacio against him and invited them to attend the assembly.

At this Naic Assembly, President Aguinaldo completed his Cabinet. It should be

recalled that the election of the officials of the Revolutionary Government was unfinished
because of the abrupt dissolution of the Tejeros Assembly by Bonifacio. He gave the
vacant Cabinet positions -- four to former Magdiwang officials and one to a Magdalo.
He appointed Mariano Alvarez (founder and first president of the Mgdiwang Council) as
secretary of fomento; (commerce and industry), Pascual Alvarez (Magdiwang and
nephew of Mariano Alvarez) as secretary of the interior, to which Bonifacio was elected
previously by the Tejeros Assembly; Jacinto Lumbreras (Magdiwang) as secretary of
state: Baldomero Aguinaldo (Magdalo president and his cousin) as secretary of finance.
As fully constituted, the first Cabinet of the Revolutionary Government was composed of
the following:
President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emilio Aguinaldo
Vice-President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariano Trias

48
 Captain General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artemio Ricarte
Secretary of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pascual Alvarez
Secretary of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jacinto Lumbreras
Secretary of Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baldomero Aguinaldo
Secretary of Commerce and Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariano Alvarez
Secretary of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Severino de las Alas
Secretary of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emiliano Riego de Dios

Among the important matters taken up and approved in the Naic Assembly were:
(1) adoption of a new flag of red and white and blue with a sun at the center of a white
triangle, replacing the red flag of the Katipunan; (2) reorganization of the revolutionary
army with new fighting units added to it; (3) adoptionof standard uniform for the soldiers
-- the rayadillo; and (4) adoption of new rules fixing military ranks and their insignias.

Bonifacio's Last Fight at Limbon. After the collapse of his subversive efforts,
Bonifacio, with his wife (Gregoria de Jesus), his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio), and
loyal soldiers, fled to Limbon (barrio of Indang), where he established his camp. He still
cherished his impossible dream of being the supreme leader of the revolution.

Upon learning of Bonifacio's presence at Limbon and the vandalic acts committed
by his soldiers in Indang, including the looting of foodstuffs and stealing of carabaos
belonging to the townpeople, Aguinaldo summoned Colonels Agapito Bonzon, Felipe
Topacio Paua (a Chinese who later became brigadier general) to go to Limbon, with
some troops, and arrest Bonifacio and his men.

Bonifacio resisted and a furious fight ensued. As usual Bonifacio lost. It was in
fact his last fight -- and his last defeat in combat. Ciriaco Bonifacio and two soldiers
were killed and Bonifacio himself was wounded in the left arm and neck during the fray.
Procopio, Gregoria de Jesus, the wounded Haring Bonifacio (in a hammock), and the
surviving Bonifacio soldiers were taken prisoners and brought to Naic in April 29, 1897.

The Court-Martial of the Bonifacio Brothers. Immediately upon the arrival of

the prisoners in Naic, the investigation began. It was conducted by Col. Jose Lipana as
judge advocate and Col. Jose Elises as fiscal (prosecuting attorney). On the third day
(May 1), the investigation was transferred to Maragondon because the government was
transferred to that town on account of the approaching Spanish attack launched by

49
Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera (Marques de Estela), successor of General
Polavieja.

After finishing the investigation in Maragondon, Judge Advocate Lipana

recommended the trial of the accused on the following charges: (1) treason, (2)
conspiracy to assassinate President Aguinaldo, and (3) bribing government soldiers to
join the seditious plot. Aguinaldo created a Council of War composed of General
Manuel Noriel, as president; Col. Tomas Mascardo, Col. Mariano Riego de Dios, Col.
Crisostomo Riel, Col. Esteban Ynfante, Sulpicio Antony, and Placido Martinez.

The trial was held on May 5, with Placido Martinez as defense attorney for
Haring Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzales for Procopio. The Council of War, after hearing
the pleas of the defense attorney, gave Bonifacio a chance to explain his side.

The following day (May 6), the Council of War gave its decision, declaring the
Bonifacio brothers guilty as charged and recommended the penalty of death. Upon
receiving the court decisions, President Aguinaldo referred it to Judge Advocate General
Baldomero Aguinaldo who, after a thorough review, approved the court verdict.

Instead of implementing the death sentence, Presidnet Aguinaldo, out of

compassion, issued an order dated May 8, 1897, commuting the death penalty to
banishment to an "isolated place." He, however, enforced the court decision on the
accused soldiers of Bonifacio -- "assignment to army headquarters as servants for one
year."

Upon learning of the commutation order, Generals Noriel and Pio del Pilar rushed
to President Aguinaldo, imploring him to withdraw the order, for "to keep Bonifacio alive
is to endanger the cause of the revolution." Other prominent persons (not Caviteños),
such as Clemente J. Zulueta and Feliciano Jocson of Manila and General Mamerto
Natividad of Nueva Ecija, exerted pressure on Aguinaldo to implement the death
sentence. Convinced by their argument, President Aguinaldo canceled his commutation
order.

Execution of the Bonifacio Brothers. Tragically, Andres Bonifacio and his

brother Procopio, guilty of treason, had to die. In the morning of May 10, 1897, Major
Lazaro Makapagal upon orders of General Noriel took command of the firing squad and

50
executed Andres Bonifacio and his brother Procopio at Mount Hulog, located about four
kilometers west of Maragondon.

Retreat to Biak-na-Bato. On the same day (May 10) when the Bonifacio
brothers were executed, the Spanish army attacked Maragondon. Aguinaldo and his
revolutionary forces defended the town with ferocious courage. On May 12, after two
days of terrific fighting, they were compelled to evacuate the town.

Undaunted by the lost home province, Aguinaldo, with five generals and 500
soldiers began his strategic retreat to Biak-na-Bato, a rocky and mountainous barrio of
San Miguel, Bulacan. First he crossed the mountains to Batangas and aided General
Miguel Malvar in a skirmish against the Spaniardsin Talisay; afterwards; he and his party
took a circuitous route in order to avoid contact with the Spanish troops, safely reaching
Malapad na Bato (now Fort Bonifacio), where they rested. On June 10, they crossed the
Pasig River and bivouacked at Mount Puray, Montalban. Two days later the Morong
freedom fighters under the command of General Licerio Geronimo arrived and reinforced
them.

June 14, the Spanish toops led by Colonel Dujiols attacked the rebel camp.
Aguinaldo, with the help of General Geronimo fought bravely and routed the enemy after
six hours of bloody fighting. This victory at Mount Puray enhanced Aguinaldo's prestige
as a combat general, which was then rather low because of his defeats in Cavite.

After the Battle of Mount Puray, President Aguinaldo organized the Departmental
Government of Central Luzon under the jurisdiction ofthis Revolutionary Government.
This Departmental Government was headed by the fighting priest-patriot, Father Pedro
Dandan, canonist of the Manila Cathedral, as president, with Dr. Anastacio Francisco,
vice-president; Paciano Rizal, secretary of finance; Cipriano Pacheco, secretary of war;
Teodoro Gonzales, secretary of the interior; and Feliciano Jocson, secretary of fomento.

Then President Aguinaldo decamped and continued his trek northward, finally
arriving at Biak-na-Bato on June 24, 1897, and there he established his permanent
headquarters.

The Revolution Goes On. Contrary to Governor General Primo de Rivera's

premature proclamation of May 17, 1897 that the "revolution is over," the Filipino

51
struggle for freedom continued. On July 7, two weeks after his arrival at Biak-na-Bato,
Aguinaldo issued a stirring proclamation to the Filipino people giving a literacy of
Spanish scandalous misdeeds and urging them to carry on the revolution. Galvanizing the
people to action, this proclamation declared: "Enough of scandal. To arms, Filipinos,to
arms, my brothers!"

In response to the stirring proclamation, new uprisings burst in the provinces of

Southern Tagalog and Central Luzon. On September 4, for instance, the revolutionary
forces of Generals Natividad, Llarena, and Tinio attacked the Spanish occupied town of
Aliaga, Nueva Ecija. During the first days of October, General Makabulos' forces
assaulted the Spanish garrisons in Concepcion, Tarlac and San Quintin, Pangasinan. And
on October 9, General Malvar, with the aid of a courageous woman general, Agueda
Kahabagan (native of Santa Cruz, Laguna), attacked the Spanish forces in San Pablo
(now San Pablo City). For the military exploits of this woman general in this battle and
other battles in Laguna and Batangas, she was hailed by historians as the "Tagalog Joan
of Arc."

The Biak-na-Bato Republic. Toward the end of October, 1897, during a lull of
hostilities, President Aguinaldo convened an assembly of revolutionary generals and
leaders at Biak-na-Bato. This assembly decided to continue the libertarian war at all cost
and established the Biak-na-Bato Republic.

On November 1, 1897, the Biak-na-Bato Republic was inaugurated under a

constitution written by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer. This constitution was patterned
closely after the Cuban Constitution of 1895. The officials of the Biak-na-Bato Republic
were:
President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emilio Aguinaldo
Vice-President . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariano Trias
Secretary of the Interionr . . . . . Isabelo Artacho
Secretary of Foreign Affairs . . . Antonio Montenegro
Secretary of Treasury . . . . . . . . Baldomero Aguinaldo
Secretary of War . . . . . . . . . . . Emiliano Riego de Dios

The Biak-na-Bato Constitution was to take effect for only two years. It declared
that the aim of the Revolution was "the separation into an independence state." It vested
the government in a Supreme Council composed of a President, a Vice-President, and

52
four Secretaries (foreign relations, war, interior and treasury). This council "give orders
with the force of law, impose and collect taxes, and supervise and direct military
operations."

The executive power resided in the President, and in his absence, in the Vice-
President. The judicial power was vested in a Supreme Council of grace and justice. The
official language of the Republic was Tagalog.

The Biak-na-Bato Constitution also contained a Bill of Rights to safeguard the

human rights of the people.

Peace Policy of Primo de Rivera. As the war dragged on, Governor Primo de
Rivera realized the impossibility of quelling the revolution by force of arms. "I can take
Biak-na-Bato," he reported to the Spanish Cortes, "Any military man can take it.
But I cannot answer that I could crush the rebellion."

Accordingly, he desired to make peace with Aguinaldo. As early as March 1897,

he enocuraged two prominent Spaniards, Father Pio Pi (Jesuit priest) and Rafael
Comenge (Spanish writer), to contact General Aguinaldo for a peaceful settlement of the
conflict. Nothing substantial was accomplished until Pedro A. Paterno, distinguished
Manila lawyer, volunteered to act as peacemaker. With the consent of Governor Primo
de Rivera, he journeyed to Biak-na-Bato and appeared before General Aguinaldo on
August 9, with a proposal for peace on the basis of reforms and amnesty. In the
succeeding months he journeyed back and forth between Manila and Biak-na-Bato
carrying proposals and counter-proposals.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato. At last, Paterno succeeded in negotiating the peace

agreement, known as the Pact of Biak-na-Bato". This pact consisted of three documents,
the first two of which were signed on December 14, and the third on December 15, 1897.
These documents were complementary to one another. Contrary to popular belief, there
was no single document that embodied the whole pact.

The first document called "program," provided that Governor Primo de Rivera
would pay P 800,000 to those in arms and would let Aguinaldo and his companions go
int ovoluntary exile in Hongkong. The payment was to be made in three installments: (1)
P 400,000 on the departure of Aguinaldo and his companions from Biak-na-Bato; (2) P

53
200,000 when the number of arms surrendered exceeded 700; and (3) the remaining P
200,000 when the general amnesty was proclaimed.

The second document, called "Act of Agreement", reiterated the granting of

general amnesty to those who would lay down their arms and privilege to live freely in
the Philippines and abroad. It also repeated the financial arrangement made in the
"Program" and hinted at the desire of the Filipinos for reforms, but contained no definite
provision that Spain had agreed to grant such reforms.

The third document discussed the question of indemnity. It stated that Spain
would pay a total indemnity of P 1,700.00 of which the sum of P 800,000 was to be paid
to those who would lay down their arms, as mentioned in the first document, and the
remaining P 900,000 was to be distributed among the civilian population who suffered
from the ravages of war.

There was nothing written in any of the three documents of the "Pact of Biak-na-
Bato" regarding the government's promise to grant reforms. These reforms, which
Genreal Aguinaldo demanded and which he thought had been promised by Spain, were
the following: (1) restoration of Philippine parishes and expulsion of the religious order'
(2) restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes; (3) equality before the
law between Spaniards and the Filipinos; (4) adjustment of property, taxes, and parishes
in favor of the Filipinos; and (5) guarantee of human rights, liberty of the press, and right
of association.

Aguinaldo Goes on Exile. The document pertaining to the "Pact" having been
signed on December 14 and 15, 1897, General Aguinaldo prepared to leave Biak-na-Bato
for his voluntary exile in Hongkong. On the evening of December 23, 1897, two Spanish
generals, Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet, arrived in Biak-na-Bato and remained
there as hostages. On December 27, Aguinaldo and 28 companions sailed for Hongkong
on board the steamer Uranus. They were accompanied by Lt. Col. Miguel Primo de
Rivera (nephew of Governor Primo de Rivera and later Director of Spain) and Captain
Celestino Espinosa. General Artemio Ricarte was left at Biak-na-Bato to supervise the
surrender of arms.

In Hongkong, General Aguinaldo continued the Revolutionary Government by

reorganizing the so-called "Hong Kong Junta" and enlarging it into the "Supreme Council

54
of the Nation". He and his companions watched closely the developments in the
Philippines and kept the P 400,000 representing the first installment of the Biak-na-Bato
indemnity, in the Hong Kong banks.

Violation of the Pact. Both Spanish and Filipino authorities failed to follow
faithfully the terms of the "Pact of Biak-na-Bato". Of the total war indemnity of P
1,700,000 only P 600,000 was actually paid by Spain -- P 400,000 was given to
Aguinaldo and P 200,000 was distributed among the revolutionary leaders in the
Philippines. The rest of the indemnity, amounting to P 1,100,000 was never paid. Many
Filipino patriots who had surrendered their arms and returned to their homes were
arrested, imprisoned, and persecuted, contrary to the amnesty proclamation; and not one
of the reforms which were believed to have been promised by the governor general was
granted.

The Filipinos, on their part, were equally guilty of breaking the terms of the pact.
They accepted Spanish gold, yet they continued their plan to overthorw Spanish rule.
Aguinaldo kept the money in the banks of Hongkong to be used in a future struggle
against Spain. Moreover, the revolutionists in the Philippines did not surrender all their
arms.

No Peace After Biak-na-Bato. The peace, which had been bought by Spain in
Biak-na-Bato, proved to be illusory. Sporadic outbreaks flared up at various times in
different regions. On March 7, 1898, the revolutionists at Zambales besieged the cable
station at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line between this town and Manila. On March
25, Isabelo Abaya and his men captured Candon, Ilocos Sur. On the same day the
Spanish soldiers massacred many Visayan sailors in Camba Street, Manila. In retaliation
for the butchery, the fiery Leon Kilat incited an uprising in Cebu on April 8 -- the
"Bloody Holy Thursday of 1898". A pharmacist, Feliciano Jocson, incited the patriots
around Manila, to continue the struggle against the Spanish rule. In Central Luzon,
General Francisco Makabulos established a provincial revolutionary government under a
constitution, written by him. The government according to this constitution would "exist
until the general government of the Republic in these Islands shall again be established."
Not only Luzon was drifting swiflty to revolt, but also Bohol, Cebu, Panay, Negros
Occidental, Negros Oriental and other islands.

55
 Such was the situation in the Philippines when war broke out on the other side of
the world between Spain and America. The "Pact of Biak-na-Bato" brought only a short
respite, an ephemeral truce. The Revolution took only a little holiday, a holiday cut short
by the arrival of a new power -- the United States of America.

56
History 1
Module III
Lesson 3

SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Multiple Choice: Write the letter representing the best answer on the blank before
each number.

__________ 1. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato was betrayed by (a) the Filipinos (b) the
Spaniards (c) both.
__________ 2. The execution of Andres Bonifacio was (a) not necessary (b) necessary
(c) partly necessary for the success of the revolution.
__________ 3. The most significant event during the first week after the discovery of the
Katipunan was (a) the capture of Cavite Arsenal (b) Cry of Balintawak
(c) capture of San Juan del Monte.
__________ 4. The faction of the Katipunan led by Aguinaldo was called (a) Magdalo
(b) Magdiwang (c) Cavite faction.
__________ 5. Andres Bonifacio was (a) defeated (b) victorious (c) winning in the first
Battle of San Juan.
__________ 6. The Cavite Katipuneros were (a) more successful (b) less successful (c)
not successful compared to Bonifacio's Katipunan.
__________ 7. The reign of terror (a) encouraged (b) discouraged (c) stopped the
Filipinos to revolt against the Spaniards.
__________ 8. Governor General (a) Primo de Rivera (b) Blanco (c) Polavieja confirmed
the death sentence of Dr. Jose Rizal.
__________ 9. After retreating from Cavite, President Emilio Aguinaldo established his
permanent headquarters in (a) Tejero (b) Imus (c) Biak-na-Bato.
__________ 10. Aguinaldo agreed to go on exile to (a) Guam (b) Hong Kong (c)
Singapore in the famous Pact of Biak-na-Bato.

57
History 1
Module III

Lesson 4. RISE AND FALL OF THE FIRST PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC

Lesson Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
1. know the background of America's coming to the Philippines;
2. understand the significance of the United State's victory in the Battle of Manila
Bay to Philippine history;
3. familiarize the students with the structure of the Philippine government and
society under the first Philippine Republic or the Malolos Republic;
4. understand the status of the Philippines as provided in the Treaty of Paris 1898;
5. trace the course of the Filipino-American War up to the end of the war;
6. make the students realize the importants role played by the Filipinos of Visayas
and Mindanao in the revolution against Spain;
7. know how the Filipino-American War finally came to an end.

While the Philippine Revolution was raging with fury, the Cubans halfway round
the world were also fighting for their freedom against Spain. America's sympathy with
the Cubans and her vast investments in Cuba's sugar industry dragged her into war with
Spain. The Spanish-American War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1898),
whereby Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. The Filipinos, who had
expected the Americans to champion their freedom, instead were betrayed and reluctantly
fell into the hands of the American imperialists.

The Spanish-America War (1898). The immediate cause of this war was the
blowing up of the U.S. battleship Maine at the harbor of Havana, Cuba, on the night of
February 18, 1898. It was however generally believed that the Maine had been blown up
by American spies in order to provoke the war, Americannewspapers stirred the war
spirit of the Americans and blamed Spain. The war cry, "Remember the Maine!" swept
the United States.

On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several resolutions demanding that Spain
evacuate Cuban soil. Spain did not want war because at that time she was harassed by
domestic trouble and two revolutions in her previous colonies -- Cuba and the

58
Philippines. To save her honor,however, she declared war against the United States, on
April 24. This was what the American government was waiting for. On the following
day (April 25), the Congress declared war on Spain. Thus began the Spanish-American
War.

The Battle of Manila Bay. Commodore George Dewey, who had been waiting
in Hong Kong with the American Asiatic Squadron, was ordered to proceed at once to the
Philippines and destroy the Spanish fleet.

The Battle of Manila Bay began at 5:41 a.m. and ended at noon, May 1, 1898.
The surprise attack, superior ships and expert gunnery of the Americans were too much
for the Spanish fleet. Dewey sank the Spanish fleet without losing a ship or a man. The
Spanish casualties of Admiral Patricio Montojo were 167 killed and 214 wounded.
Never in the annals of naval warfare had a victory been won so easily.

The news of Dewey's victory caused jubilation in the UnitedStates. People

looked over maps and books to locate Manila, which they hardly heard of before. Dewey
became a popular hero, and Congress promoted him to rear admiral and later admiral.

Dewey's victory marked the end of Spain as a world power and heralded the rise
of America as a global power.

Spanish Efforts to Win Filipino Support. After winning the Battle of Manila
Bay, Dewey blockaded the city. Because he had no land forces he could not attack it
until the arrival of the American troops which were being assembled in California.

Meanwhile, Governor General Basilio Augustin appeal to the Filipino people to

help Spain in the hour of her need. To conciliate them he announced the establishment
of a Consultative Assembly composed of prominent Filipinos. He also created a Filipino
Militia under Filipino oficers. On May 28, the Consultative Assembly met for the first
time. Governor Augustin addressed it and promised to grant reforms. It adjourned on
June 13, 1898 without accomplishing anything.

All efforts of Spain to gain support failed. The Filipinos no longer desired
reforms. They wanted freedom.

59
 Filipino-American Collaboration. The outbreak of the Spanish-American War
caught General Aguinaldo in Singapore. There he had several secret interviews with the
American consul general, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, regarding Filipino-American
collaboration against Spain. Mr. William Gray, a British businessman who had lived in
Manila, acted as interpreter during the Aguinaldo-Pratt interviews.

Aguinaldo rushed to Hong Kong, but missed Dewey who had already sailed to
Manila. He held several conferences with the American consul general, Mr. Rounceville
Wildman. He gave money to Consul Wildman for the purchase of arms for the Filipinos.

The Return of Aguinaldo. Upon the advice of the Hong Kong Junta, General
Aguinaldo left on board the McCulloch, Dewey's dispatch vessel. He arrived at Cavite
on May 19, 1898.

Immediately after his arrival, Aguinaldo conferred with Dewey. Dewey was
delighted to see him, because he needed Filipino assistance against the Spaniards.
Aguinaldo was equally pleased, for he needed American help to win Philippine
independence.
In the belief that the American had come as liberators, Aguinaldo urged his
people to rise in arms and help America against Spain.

Renewal of the Revolution. In response to Aguinaldo's call, our patriots

everywhere rushed to arms. Within a short time, Aguinaldo was once more at the head of
a large army. In the province his former officer raised troops and attacked Spanish
garrisons.

On May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo's new army repulsed the Spanish marines at
Alapang, near Kawit. This initial success inspired our people to rally to the cause of
liberation. During the ensuing days the Spanish forces were routed in Bataan, Cavite,
Bulacan, Pampanga, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, (now Quezon), Tarlac and other
provinces.

Manila Besieged by Filipinos. The capture of Manila was the chief objective of
Aguinaldo. His troops, commanded by General Gregorio del Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio
Ricarte, Antonio Montenegro, Pantaleon Garcia, and Mariano Noriel, surrounded the

60
city. Dewey's squadron dominated the bay. The Spaniards were trapped within the city
walls.

The people of Manila suffered terribly during the siege. The supply of foodstuffs
and potable water had been cut off by Aguinaldo's men. The city populace had to drink
rainwater and even water from the Pasig River. Food became scarce. The prices of
prime commodities soared sky high. The hungry people had to eat horseflesh, dogs, cats,
and rats.

Aguinaldo offered Governor General Augustin terms for an honorable surrender.

The latter, however, rejected them. He was waiting for reinforcements from Spain. But
the reinforcements never came.

Dewey and the Germans. After Dewey's victory the neutral powers -- England,
Germany, France, and Japan -- sent their fleets to Manila Bay in order to protect their
respective interests in the Philippines. The German squadron, commanded by Vice-
Admiral Von Diedrichs, had a fighting strength stronger than Dewey's.

At that time Germany was seeking colonies in the Orient and was eager to grab
the Philippines if it were possible to do so. Von Diedrichs, knowing his country's policy,
did everything to embarass Dewey. He ignored the blockade rules. He landed officers
and men at Manila. He supplied the besieged city with flour and other provisions. And
he entertained the Spanish officials and ladies on board his ships. In direct contrast to the
German squadron's unfriendly behavior, the English, French and Japanese fleets
respected the blockade.

Soon Dewey became angry at the arrogant attitude of the Germans. He sent an
ultimatum to Von Diedrichs to behave or else fight. The situation was tense. At the
critical moment Captain Edward Chichester of the English fleet came to Dewey's support.
Von Diedrichs, fearing to risk battle with the combined Anglo-American fleets, ceased
his hostile activities. A second Battle of Manila Bay -- between Dewey and the Germans
-- was then narrowly averted.

The Aguinaldo Dictatorship. Aguinaldo had brought with him from Hong Kong
constitution providing for a federal republic. This constitution was written by Mariano
Ponce. His adviser, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, convinced him that the country was

61
not ready for a republic and that a dictatorship was needed to prosecute the war
successfully.

Accordingly, on May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial

Government, with himself as dictator. He proclaimed that this Dictatorial Government
was temporary and was to last to only until a republic could be established.

Proclamation of Philippine Independence. The most significant achievement

of the Dictatorial Government was the proclamation of Philippine Independence at
Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898. The day wasdeclared a national holiday. Thousand of
people from the provinces gathered in Kawit to witness the historic event. The ceremony
was solemnly held at the balcony of General Aguinaldo's residence. The military officers
and civilofficials of the government were in attendance.

A dramatic feature of the ceremony was the formal unfurling of the Filipino flag
amidst the cheers of the people. At the same time the Philippine National Anthem was
played by the band. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista solemnly read the "act of the
Declaration" which was signed by 98 persons. One of the signers was an American --
L.M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery.

The Filipino Flag. The Filipino flag has an interesting story. It was made in
Hong Kong by Mrs. Marcela de Agoncillo, wife of Don Felipe Agoncillo.

During his exile in Hong Kong General Aguinaldo designed the Filipino flag as it
looks today. Mrs. Marcela de Agoncillo sewed it with the help of her daughter Lorenza
and Mrs. Josefina Herbosa de Natividad (niece of Dr. Rizal). It was made of silk with a
white triangle at the left containing a sunburst of eight rays at the center, a five-pointed
star at each angle of the triangle, and upper stripe of dark blue, and a lower stripe of red.
The white triangle stands for equality; the upper blue stripe for peace, truth, and justice;
and the lower red stripe for patriotism and valor. The sunburst of eight rays inside the
triangle represented the first eight provinces that took up arms against Spain. The three
stars symbolized Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao.

The flag, which Mrs. Agoncillo made in Hong Kong, was taken to the Philippines
by General Aguinaldo. It was hoisted officially at Kawit on June 12, 1898, in connection

62
with the proclamation of Philippine Independence. From that date it had served as the
national flag of the Filipinos.

The Philippine National Anthem. The Philippine National Anthem was

composed by Julian Felipe, a Filipino music teacher and composer of Cavite. He finished
it on June 11, 1898, and showed it to General Aguinaldo, who instantly liked it because
of its stirringg melody. The following day the music band of San Francisco de Malabon
played it for the first time during the unfurling of the Filipino flag at Kawit. The
beautiful melody of the anthem stirred the people's patriotic fervor.

For more than a year the anthem remained without words. Toward the end of
August 1899, a young poet-soldier named Jose Palma (younger brother of Dr. Rafael
Palma) wrote a poem entitled Filipinas. This poem expressed in elegant Spanish verses
the ardent patriotism and fighting spirit of the Filipino people. It became the words of the
anthem. At last the national anthem was complete -- with music and words.

The Revolutionary Government. After the proclamation of Philippine

Independence, Apolinario Mabini, the "Sublime Paralytic" became the adviser of General
Aguinaldo. He was a lawyer, philosopher, and patriot. Because of his great intellectual
gifts he came to be called the "Brains of the Philippine Revolution," just as Emilio
Jacinto, also known for his intellectual talents, was called the "Brains of the Katipunan."

Upon Mabini's advice, General Aguinaldo changed the Dictatorial Government to

the Revolutionary Government on June 23, 1898. Aguinaldo gave up his title of
"Dictator" and assumed a new one -- "President of the Revolutionary Government."

On July 15, 1898 he appointed his first Cabinet consisting of the following:
Baldomero Aguinaldo, Secretary of the Interior; and Mariano Trias, Secretary of Finance.
Later, on September 26, Gregorio Araneta was appointed Secretary of Justice and Felipe
Buencamino, Secretary of Promotion (fomento). Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera was
appointed Director of Diplomacy.

By a decree of June 18, 1898, President Aguinaldo provided for the election of
representatives to a "republican assembly" which was to constitute the lawmaking body
of the nation. This assembly was the "Malolos Congress."

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 The municipal and provincial governments were organized in the towns and
provinces throughout the country as soon as they had been liberated by Filipino arms. On
August 1, 1898, a convention of town presidents was held in the town of Bacoor, Cavite,
then the capital of the Revolutionary Government. This convention ratified the
Declaration of Philippine Independence.

Secret Negotiation for Manila's Surrender. Meanwhile, as Aguinaldo was

laying down the foundations of an independent government, troops were coming from the
United States to reinforced Dewey. By the end of July 1898 the American troops had
totalled nearly 11,000 men, under the overall command of Major General Wesley Merrit.

The city of Manila was doomed. It was cut off from the sea by Dewey's fleet and
hemmed in on land by Filipino and American forces. The Filipino troops numbered
12,000. They were entrenched beyond the city walls -- at Malate, Paco, Sampaloc, San
Juan, and La Loma.

On August 5, 1898, General Fermin Jaudenes succeeded General Basilio

Augustin as governor general of the Philippines. Three days later Dewey and Merrit
warned Jaudenes to evacuate the civilian population from Manila. This warning was
followed by another message demanding the surrender of the city.

Jaudenes, through the Belgian consul, Edouard Andre, secretly told Dewey and
Merrit that he would surrender after a little fight to save Spain's honor. The arrangement
was agreeable to both American commanders. The rank and file of the Spanish,
American, and Filipino troops, however, knew nothing of this secret meeting.

The Capture of Manila. At 9:30 in the morning of August 18, 1898, the so-
called "Battle of Manila" begun. The day was cloudy and rainy. Dewey's naval guns
shelled Fort San Antonio Abad near Luneta. The Filipino and American troops, fighting
side by side, rushed to the attack. General F. V. Greene's brigade captured Ermita and
Malate, including Fort San Antonio Abad, General MacArthur's troops took Singalong.
General Gregorio del Pilar's brigade captured Tondo. General Mariano Noriel's column
defeated the Spaniards at Paco. General Pio del Pilar's troops advanced through
Sampaloc. And General Artemio Ricarte's men captured Santa Ana.

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 At one o'clock in the afternoon, General Greene saw the Spanish white flag flying
above the city walls, symbolic of Manila's surrender. Immediately all hostilities ceased.
The American troops triumphantly entered the city gates, after which they closed the
gates to prevent the Filipino forces who had helped them in the capture of the city from
entering. Naturally the Filipino generals and their soldiers resented their exclusion in the
joyous celebration of the taking of Manila.

End of the Filipino-American Collaboration. The capture of Manila marked

the end of Filipino-American collaboration. The Filipino troops deeply resented the
American action of preventing their entry into the city. They had fought hard in the
battle and had aided the Americans in capturing Manila. They naturally felt themselves
entitled to some share in the victory celebration. Speaking of this unfortunate turn of
events, Harry B. Hawes wrote: "The insurgents (Filipino patriots -- Z.), who had fought
long and bravely and who felt thereforethat to their energies and sacrifices victory was
mostly due were naturally indignant at the refusal to permit them to enter the city and
participate in at least some of the pageantry. Then began the friction that begot first
unfriendliness and ultimately open hostility."

End of Spanish Rule. After the fall of Manila, General Diego de los Rios
became governor general, succeeding Jaudenes. He was the last Spanish governor
general of the Philippines. On August 28, 1898, he transferred his headquarters to Iloilo
and took command of the Spanish forces in the south. But Visayan patriots led by
General Martin Delgado forced him to leave Iloilo on December 24, and move to
Zamboanga. On May 19, 1899, the American troops occupied Jolo, displacing the
Spanish garrison in Zamboanga as a foreign base in the region. All Spanish forces from
the south were gathered in Zamboanga, and in November 1899 they were shipped to
Spain.

The little town of Baler, Tayabas (now Quezonprovince) played an epic role in
the Spanish-American War because it was the last outpost to surrender to the Filipino
freedom fighters. For almost a year from July 1, 1895, its small Spanish garrison led by
Lt. Saturnino Martin Cerezo and his men valiantly repulsed the repeated Filipino assaults.
At last, on June 2, 1899, the 31 survivor surrendered to Lt. Simon Tecson, the Filipino
commander. In recognition of the heroism of the Spaniards, General Aguinaldo
permitted them to march out with full military honors and to return safely to Manila.

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 The Treaty of Paris. Spain and the United States sent delegates to the Paris talks
to draw up the peace treaty ending the Spanish-American War. After two months of
discussion, the peace delegates signed the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. The
main provisions of the treaty were as follows: (1) Spain ceded the Philippines, Guam, and
Puerto Rico to the United States; (2) the U. S. paid the sum of $20 milllion to Spain; (3)
Spain withdrew from Cuba; and (4) the civil and political status of the inhabitants in the
ceded territories would be determined by the U. S. Congress.

Felipe Agoncillo, Filipino lawyer, had been sent by General Aguinaldo to the
peace negotiation as his emissary. But Agoncillo pleaded the cause of the Filipino people
in vain. The revolutionary government, which he represented, was not given recognition
by the other countries. Hence, he was not even permitted to attend the conference. From
Paris he went to Washington, where he worked against the ratification of the treaty by the
U.S. Senate. When this move failed, too, Aguinaldo prepared the ground for the
Philippine Republic.

The Filipino under the leadership of General Aguinaldo rejected American

annexation of the Philippines. They were determined to defend their freedom, which
they had won from Spain, by feat of arms, even to the extent of fighting the powerful
American invaders. In defiance of America -- the First Philippine Republic was
established in 1899. This -- the first Republic in Asia -- lasted only for two years, one
month and ten days because of the capture of Aguinaldo.

The Malolos Congress. On the sunny morning of September 15, 1898, the
Malolos Congress was inaugurated at the Barasoain Church, Malolos, Bulacan, amidst
colorful festivities. In his presidential message, Aguinaldo paid tribute to the patriotism
of the people and called on history to witness the work of the delegates in writing a new
constitution.

The members of the Malolos Congress represented the cream of Filipino society.
Among them were lawyersm physicians, pharmacists, teachers, engineers, businessmen,
farmers, army officers and writers. Many were college graduates and also educated in
European universities. According to U.S. correspondent Francis D. Millet, the delegates
to the Congress "were exceptionally alert, keen and intelligent."

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 The next day, the officers of the Congress were elected by majority vote. They
were Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, president; Benito Legarda, vice-president; and Gregorio
Araneta and Pablo Ocampo, secretaries.

Among the achievements of the Malolos Congress were: (1) the ratification of
Philippine independence on September 29, 1898; (2) the floating of a domestic loan of P
20,000,000, redeemable in 40 years after the date of issue; and (3) the promulgation of
the Malolos Constitution.

The Making of the Malolos Constitution. The committee to draft the

Constitution was composed of 19 members, namely, Felipe G. Calderon (chairman),
Higinio Benitez, Mariano Abella, Jose Albert, Jose Alejandrino, Albert Barretto, Felipe
Buencamino, Joaquin Gonzales, Antonio Luna, Jose Luna, Arsenio Cruz Herrera, Juan
Manday, Pedro Ocampo, Tomas G. del Rosario, Basilio Teodoro, Aguedo Velarde,
Gregorio Araneta, Hipolito Magsalin, and Jose Ma. de la Viña. It studied the three
constitutional drafts submitted to it -- the Mabini Plan, Paterno Plan, and Calderon Plan.

The Mabini Plan was the Constitutional Program of the Philippine Republic. The
Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish Consitution 1898. The Calderon Plan was a
constitution written by Calderon, noted lawyer and social scientist, based on the
constitutions of France, Belgium, Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Brazil.

After a thorough examination, the committee chose the Calderon Plan as the best
and submitted it to the Malolos Congress for approval.

On November 29, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was approved by the members
of the Congress and then forwarded to President Aguinaldo for his approval. On January
3, 1899, President Aguinaldo's message was read to the Congress. Evidently written by
Mabini it was hostile to the Calderon draft, the message expressed reluctance to approve
the draft unless certain amendments were included.

The members of the Congress angrily spurned the request for amendments, and
for almost a month, the Congress, led by Calderon, waged a cold war with Aguinaldo and
Mabini. Fortunately, cooler heads prevailed, and a compromise was devised.

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 On January 21, 1899, President Aguinaldo finally proclaimed the Malolos
Constitution as the fundamental law of the land.

Birth of the First Philippine Republic. On the sunny morning of January 23,
1899, the First Philippine Republic, popularly known as the Malolos Republic, was
inaugurated amidst colorful ceremonies at Barasoain Church. This was also the first
Republic in Asia.

In his inaugural address, President Aguinaldo expressed his congratulations to the

members of the Malolos Congress for drafting the Malolos Constitution, to the armed
forces for winning the country's freedom by force of arms, and to the Filipino people for
their cooperation and sacrifices in the struggle for independence. He stated the aspiration
of the nation "to live under the democratic regime of the Philippine Republic, free from
the yoke of any foreign domination." In connclusion, he declared: "Great is this day,
glorious this date, and forever memorable this moment in which your beloved people are
raised to the apotheosis of Independence."

Financing the Republic. The Republican adopted the Spanish financial system
with some modifciations. All taxes levied by Spain were retained, except those on
gambling and cockfighting. New sources of government revenues were tapped, such as
(1) war tax, (2) national loans, (3) voluntary contributions, (4) postage and documentary
stamps, and (5) municipal and provincial licenses.

On November 26, 1898, the Malolos Congress authorized thegovernment to issue

paper money in the denominations ofP1, P2, P5, P10, P20, P25, P50, and P100. Actually
the Republic printed and circulated only the one-peso and five-peso paper bills. These
bills bore the signature of Pedro A. Paterno, Mariano Limjap, and Telesforo Chuidian.
The Republic also issued two kinds of copper coins, each worth two centavos. These
coins were minted at the Army Arsenal in Malolos.

The budget of the Republic for the year 1899 was drafted by the Assembly and
approved by President Aguinaldo. It appropriated P 6,324,380 for national expenditures
and P 704,602 for local expenditures. The estimated revenues were P 6,342,707
(national) and P 826,900 (local).

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 Newspapers of the Republic. The official organ of the First Philippine Republic
was El Heraldo de la Revolucion (Herald of the Revolution). Its first issue came out in
Malolos on September 29, 1893, about four months before the emergence of the
Republic.

Many privately owned newspapers existed during the days of the First Republic.
One of them was La Independencia (Independence), which was founded and edited by
General Antonio Luna. Its first issue appeared in Manila on September 3, 1898. After
Luna's death on June 5, 1899, Rafael Palma became its editor. Anotherinfluential private
newspaper was La Republica Filipina (Philippine Republic), founded and edited by Dr.
Pedro A. Paterno. Its first issue appeared in Cebu on April 16, 1900.

Literature under the Republic. During the stirring days of the First Philippine
Republic the Filipino men-of-letters used their pens to awaken the nationalist sentiments
of the people. With patriotic fervor and literary eloquence, they extolled the
heroes,scenic beauties, traditions, and ideals of the fatherland.

Three leading poets of the time were Jose Palma (1876 - 1903), Fernando Ma.
Guerrero (1873 - 1929), and Cecilio Apostol (1877 - 1938). Jose Palma's famous poem
Filipinas became the lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem. The well-known poem of
Guerrero was Mi Patria (My Country), which was a poetical masterpiece ofexquisite
beauty. Cecilio's famous poem, "A Rizal" (To Rizal), was the finest tribute to the
Filipino hero in Spanish verses of epic grandeur.

The paralytic Apolinario Mabini was the greatest political writer of the period.
Among his writings are: (1) Constitutional Programme of the Philppine Republic, (2)
"The True Decalogue", and (3) "The Philippine Revolution."

Music of the Revolution. The greatest musical legacy of the revolutionary era
was the Philippine National Anthem. As already mentioned before, it was composed by
Julian Felipe, patriotic music teacher. He also composed other musical compositions
such as "Un Recuerdo", a song dedicated to the "Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite"; Response,
a chorale in honor of the first victims of the Revolution; and Heneral Luna, a march in
honor of General Antonio Luna.

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 Another great musician of the revolution was Julio Nakpil, a friend of Andres
Bonifacio. He later married Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's widow. In November 1896,
three months after the "Cry of Balintawak", he composed the Katipunan Hymn entitled
Marangal na Dalitang Katagulan. His other compositions were "Pahimaks" (1897), a
farewell songdedicated to the members of the Liga Filipina; "A Patriotic March" (1897),
dedicated to General Teodoro Sandiko; "Toques Corneta" (1898), a stirring trumpet piece
which was adopted by the Revolutionary Army; and "Kabanatuan" (1899), a funeral
march dedicated to General Luna who was assassinated in Cabanatuan.

The most popular song which the Filipino soldiers and people sang during the
revolutionary era was Joselyang Baliwag. This song was popularly known as the
Kundiman ng Himagsikan. Its composer was not known because his name did not appear
on the only copy, which Dr. Antonio Molina (eminent Filipino composer and music
teacher) discovered, in an old trunk. It was dedicated to Miss Pepita Tiongson y Lara of
Baliwag.

Education under the Republic. A system of free and compulsory elementary

was provided for by the Malolos Constitution. The Republic appropriated the sum of
P35, 380 in its budget for public instruction.

A college for boys called Burgos Institute was establihed in Malolos under
Enrique Mendiola. It gave a regular academic course leading to the degree of Bachelor
of Arts and special vocational courses in agriculture, commerce, and surveying. There
was no college for girls. The girls studied at home under private tutors. They were
conferred the degree of Bachelor of Arts after passing the government examination.

Military training for officers in the Army of the Republic was given in the
Military Academy of Malolos. The director of this academy was Major Manuel Sityar,
former officerin the Spanish Guardia Civil. The instructorswere Major Jose Reyes,
Major Candido Reyes, and Captain Antonio Costosa -- all graduates of the Military
Academy of Toledo, Spain.

The highest seat of learning in the Republic was the Literary University of the
Philippines. It was established in Malolos by President Aguinaldo's Decree of October
19, 1898. It offered courses in law, medicine, pharmacy, and notary public. The first
rector was Dr. Joaquin Gonzales. The second and last rector was Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero.

70
 Diplomacy of the Republic. One of the executive departments of the First
Philippine Republic was the Department of Foreign Affairs. Aguinaldo's chief adviser,
Mabini, was concurrently Secretary of Foreign Affairs was in charge of the relations of
the Republic with other countries. Its most immediate task was to secure recognition of
Philippine independence abroad.

Various Filipinos were named diplomatic agents to represent the Republic in

foreign countries. They were Felipe Agoncillo and Sixto Lopez in the United States,
Mariano Ponce and Faustino Lichauco in Japan, Antonio Ma. Regidor in England, Juan
Luna and Pedro P. Roxas in France, and Eriberto Zarcal in Australia.

Armed Forces of the Malolos Republic. At the time the first Philippine
Republic was born, the Filipino army in Luzon had numbered about 50,000. Almost
20,000 of them were armed with various kinds of rifles -- Mausers, Muratas, and
Remingtons. The patriot forces in the Visayas and Mindanao number about 20,000 and
only 8,000 of them had rifles. There were, therefore, more soldiers than rifles in the
armed forces of the Republic. Those without rifles were armed with bolos, bamboo
spears, anting-anting (native amulets), and bows and arrows.

Attached to the Filipino Army in Luzon were a battalion of Igorot lancers and a
company of Negrito archers. These non-Christian warriors fought for the Republic
against the American invaders.

The Artillery Corps of the Army used all sorts of artillery. Some canons were
captured from the Spaniards. Others were manufactured out of church bells and
plowshares. Still others were made of big bamboo tubes, reinforced by iron wires.

The Republic had a mosquito navy. It consisted of eight steam launch captured
from the Spaniards and several small steamers donated by rich families in Batangas. The
"Flagship" named Filipinas was an interisland steamer which belonged to the Compania
General de Tobaccos and was captured by the patriots. It was captained by a Cuban
named Vicente Catalan, who called himself "Admiral of the Filipino Navy."

Outbreak of the War of Philippine Independence. The rise of the Republic

worsened relations with America. The Filipinos resented the American treachery in

71
depriving them of entering Manila after its capture. For their part, the Americans used
another incident to hasten their annexation of the Philippines.

On Saturday night, February 4, 1899, an American soldier named Private Robert

W. Grayson shot and killed a Filipino soldier who was crossing San Juan bridge. By
firing the first, unprovoked shot, the Americans ignited the War of Philippine
Independence. To add insult to injury, the Americans called the war a Filipino
"insurrection."

News of the outbreak of hostilities was telegraphed to President Aguinaldo in

Malolos. Immediately he declared war on America, whose forces had drawn the first
blood.

Early Battles of the War. At daybreak of February 5, the American fleet

bombarded the Filipino fort north of San Juan del Monte, causing much havoc on the
Filipino troops. In the afternoon a fierce battle raged in La Loma, where the valiant
Major Jose Torres Bugallon, one of General Luna's gallant officers, fell mortally
wounded. The Filipino defenders avenged Torres Bugallon's death by killing Major
McConville of the Idaho Battalion in a skirmish at Pandacan.

On February 6, the Americans captured the waterworks pumphouse in Marikina.

On February 8, they took Pateros and Guadalupe. The next day they captured Pasig. On
February 10, they attacked Caloocan and captured it after a bloody fight.

Luna's Daring Attack on Manila. Undaunted by the initial reverses of Filipino

arms, General Luna, European-trained militarist, boldly attacked the Americans in
Manila on the night of February 22, 1899, Washington's birthday. His men set fire to
American-occupied houses in Tondo and Binondo. As the flames soared, the city was
thrown into near chaos. American fire brigades rushed to the burning areas and fought
the flames. During the excitement Luna's bolomen cut down the firemen's hoses while
his fighting troops advanced, reaching as far as Azcarraga Street, where they were finally
stopped by the Americans.

The Fall of Malolos. After the repulse of the Filipino troops in Manila, the
American troops under General Arthur MacArthur began their offensive north of the city.

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Their prime objective was the capture of Malolos, capital of the Philippine Republic.

The Filipinos bravely resisted the advancing foe, but were overwhelmed by
superior odds. They fought with fierce valor near Malinta, where Colonel Harry O.
Egbert of the 22nd U.S. Infantry died in action. Fighting as they retreated, the Filipinos
burned Polo and Meycauayan and demolised the railway bridges in order to delay the
enemy advance.

On March 31, 1899, General MacArthur captured Malolos. Aguinaldo fled and
transferred the capital of the Republic to San Fernando, Pampanga. On hearing of the fall
of Malolos, General Elwell S. Otis (Meritt's successor as commander-in-chief of the
American forces) was jubilant, thinking that Filipino resistance had been crushed. He
was wrong because the loss of Malolos only served to intensify the determination of the
Filipinos to resist American invasion to bitter end at any cost.

American Drive to the North. After resting in Malolos, for a few weeks,
General MacArthur continued his northward campaign. On April 25, the fierce Battle of
Bagbag River was fought. The next day Calumpit fell into the hands of the Americans.
On the night of April 26, Colonel (later Brigadier General) Frederick Funston and his
brave Kansans crossed the Rio Grande de Pampanga.

After a rest of one week, the Americans resumed their drive to the north. On May
4, Santo Tomas was taken, despite its gallant defense by General Luna, who was
wounded during the fray. The following day, San Fernando, in flames, was occupied by
the enemy. Aguinaldo transferred his capital to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.

The Death of General Luna. The best of the Philippine Republic was Antonio
Luna, younger brother of the famous painter Juan Luna. A doctor of pharmacy, brilliant
writer, master swordsman, a dead shot, and fearless patriot, he studied military tactics and
strategy in Europe during the early days of the Revolution. His able strategy and his
valor won the admiration of the Americans. After the fall of Malolos, he organized the
Filipino army and made a reconnaisance of Benguet highlands where he hoped to make
his last stand against the enemy. A born fighter, Luna was, however, a poor politician.
Lacking patience and tact in dealing with his fellowmen and possessing an ungovernable
temper and fiery tongue, he created many enemies. His enemies, fearing him, plotted his
death.

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 On the afternoon of June 5, 1899, General Luna, together with his aide-de-camp
Colonel Francisco Roman, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija.
His death was a blow to the Filipino cause. In his will he expressed a true patriots' last
words: "Should I be killed enshroud me in a Filipino flag with the same clothes in which
I die and bury me in the ground."

The War in Southern Luzon. The flames of war rolled over the provinces to the
south of Manila. General Henry C. Lawton headed the campaign in Laguna, capturing
the towns of Santa Cruz, Pagsanjan, Lumban, Longos, and Paete. A bullet from one of
the insurgents cut his life. Shortly after his body was returned to Manila, these towns
were re-taken by the Filipino patriots led by General Juan Caoilles.

In January 1900 General Theodore Schwann campaigned in Laguna, Batangas,

and Tayabas. At the same time General Wheaton's brigade invaded Cavite and came to
blows with General Trias' troops.

The American expedition to the Bicol region was commanded by General

William Kobbe. On January 20, 1900, the town of Sorsogon was taken, and later Bulan
and Donsol were occupied. At Legazpi (Albay), the Filipino patriots under Generals Vito
Belarmino and Jose Ignacio Paua fought hard, and Kobbe had to exert all his efforts to
capture the town. It is interesting to know that Paua was a Chinese. He was the only
full-blooded Chinese general of the Philippine Revolution. On February 8, Tabaco fell
into American hands, and on February 22, Naga fell. General Paua surrendered on
March 27, 1900. Belarmino carried on the fight for another year.

The War in the Visayas. Not only Luzon but also the Visayas and the other
islands were up in arms against the United States. On December 24, 1898, the Spanish
forces under General Diego de los Rios evacuated Iloilo City and the following day the
Visayan patriots under General Martin Delgado occupied it. On February 9, 1899,
General Marcus P. Miller, commanding an American expedition from Manila, appeared
at the Iloilo harbor, but the Visayans refused to permit his landing without authorization
from Aguinaldo. After a delay of more than a month, Miller attacked Iloilo City and took
it by storm on February 11.

74
 On February 22, 1898, Cebu City was taken by the Americans. The following
year, Samar, Leyte, Marinduque, Masbate, Palawan and the Calaminaes fell into
American hands.

Since January 1, 1890 Negros island had been divided into two provinces; Negros
Oriental with its capital Dumaguete facing the east, and Negros Occidental with its
capital Bacolod on the west. The Filipinos on the Occidental side were led by Juan
Araneta and Aniceto Lacson. They raised the cry of Philippine Independenceat Silay on
November 5, 1898 and entered Bacolod victorious the following day.

In the Oriental side, Diego de la Viña led his revolutionary forces in liberating the
towns from the Spaniards. They started from the town of Vallehermoso onNovember
17th and entered Dumaguete on November 24, 1898 in triumph. The Spanish authorities
had left for Cebu the day before on a ship. Like Juan Araneta on the Occidental side he
established a provincial revolutionary government the next day. This government was
under the Malolos Republic of Emilio Aguinaldo. Diege de la Viña hesitated to join Juan
Aranete when the Occidental officers voluntarily accepted American rule. But the
Oriental delegates to the conference in Bacolod agreed to join the Cantonal government
of the island, Diego de la Viña resigned. A constitution for the "Republic of Negros" was
made with Governor James Smith being the fianl authority. Before this constitution
could be signed by the United States' president the two provinces were absorbed into the
Civil Government of W. H. Taft.

The War in Mindanao and Sulu. In April 1899 the Filipino patriots of
Zamboanga captured a large store of machine guns and rifles from the Spanish gunboats
in Basilan. With these arms, they attacked the Spaniards in Basilan and Zamboanga. In
Misamis, Surigao, and Cotabato, the Christian Filipinos also adhered to the cause of
Philippines independence. Because Spain then no longer ruled the Philippines, the
Spanish troops evacuated their outpost in Mindanao. They were later on occupied by the
American troops.

To bring the Muslim Filipinos (Moros) of the Sulu Archipelago within the orbit of
American sovereignty, two American battalions landed in Jolo on May 19, 1899 and
replaced the Spanish troops. On August 20, General John C. Bates, who was sent to Jolo
early in July by General Otis, concluded with Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of Sulu an
agreement, known as the "Bates Treaty", which established amicable relationsbetween

75
theAmericansand the Sultananddefinedthe status of the Sulu Sultanate as an American
protectorate. This agreement was approved by President McKinley, but was abrogated
by Congress in 1904.

Filipino Victories. The war was not a record of continuous American victories,
for there were cases in which the Filipinos registered military triumphs. On April 23,
1899, in Quingua (now Plaridel) Bulacan, the Filipino troops of the youthful General
Gregorio del Pilar repulsed the cavalry charge of Major J. Franklin Bell and killed
Colonel John M. Stotsenburg.

American prestige suffered a serious blow in December 19, 1899 when General
Lawton, splendid soldier and veteran of the American Civil War, was killed by General
Licerio Geronimo's men in the Battle of San Mateo.

In the year 1900, the Americans suffered several defeats at the hands of the
Filipino guerrillas. On January 17, 1900, the Filipinos captured an American pack
trained in Alaminos, Laguna, killing some guards and chasing the survivors. On
September 13, Colonel Maximo Abad and his guerillas routed the American troops in the
battle of Pulang Lupa near the town of Santa Cruz, Marinduque, and captured their
commander, Captain James Cailles and his Lagunese forces decisively defeated Colonel
Cheatman's troops in Mabitac, Laguna.

The worst military disaster of the U.S. Military forces in the Visayas was the
annihilation of the American garrison in Balangiga, Samar, on September 28, 1901, by
General Vicente Lukban's bolomen. Of the 74 American officers and soldiers composing
the garrison, 50 were slaughtered (including the commander Captain Thomas O'Connel)
and only 24 survived the Filipino bolos by running away during the bloody fight. The
victorious patriots captured a rich booty of war -- 100 Krag rifles and 25,000 rounds of
ammunitions. American writers called this U.S. military debacle the "Massacre of
Balangiga."

Filipino Women and the War. The Filipino women contributedtheir share to
the cause of their fatherland. A few days after the outbreak of the war many prominent
women under the leadership of Mrs. Hilaria de Aguinaldo, wife of General Aguinaldo,
founded the Filipino Red Cross in Polo, Bulacan. Patriotic women everywhere collected
funds, bandages, medicines and other materials for the base hospitals of the Republic.

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Some of them won fame as war nurses, notably: Cresencia San Agustin de Santos, the
first Filipino woman to volunteer as nurse at the war hospital of Imus, Cavite; Josephine
Bracken-Rizal, Irish wife of Jose Rizal, who nursed the wounded Filipinos in Cavite's
warfront and Trinidad Tecson, called "Mother of Biak-na-Bato", because of her
remarkable nursing services in Biak-na-Bato. Other women served the cause by inspiring
their fighting husbands, particularly the wife of General Aguinaldo and the wives of
Generals Pantaleon Garcia and Artemio Ricarte.

Several women actually fought on the battlefield first against Spain and later
against America. Among them were Agueda Kahabagan, woman general of Laguna
whose martial exploits won for her the title of "Tagalog Joan of Arc"; Trinidad Tecson,
fighting war nurse of Bulacan, who fought beneath the banners of Generals Mariano
Llanera, Gregorio del Pilar and Tomas Mascardo; and Teresa Magbanua, commonly
called Nay Isa, college-bred woman of Pototan, Iloilo, who became famous as the
"Visayan Joan of Arc" because of her military exploits on Panay's battlefields.

Guerilla Warfare. After Luna's death, General Aguinaldo took personal

command of the Filipino army. Without the military expertise of Luna, the Filipino
forces encountered disaster everywhere. In the war sectors of Central Luzon, Generals
Mascardo, Maximo Hizon, Servillano Aquino, and other commanders suffered defeats.
Pressing northward, the Americans captured San Isidro on October 11, 1899. Aguinaldo,
with his Cabinet and shattered forces, fled to the town of Tarlac, and then to Bayambang.

In Bayambang on November 12, 1899, Aguinaldo disbanded the regular army.

He instituted guerilla warfare, and divided the country into military zones, each zone
under a guerilla commander. The Filipino patriots excelled in this method of fighting.
Knowing the terrain of their country very well, they fought in scattered bands, harassing
the American outpost at night and ambushing enemy patrols in the hills. After their
surprise attacks, they would return to their homes and mized with the peaceful
inhabitants; later, at a secret signal of their warlord, they would reassemble to raid the
enemy garrisons. The guerilla warfare was successful, and it kept the war going on until
1902.

The Flight of General Aguinaldo. Fleeing from the advancing Americans,

General Aguinaldo left Bayambang by railway on the night of November 13, 1899 with
his staff and bodyguard under the command of General Gregorio del Pilar. At Calasiao,

77
he detained and marched all night toward Manaoag, which he reached in the afternoon of
November 14. After a brief rest, he went to Pozurrubio, closely pursued by Genral
Samuel B. M. Young's cavalry. He spent the night at Pozurrubio, leaving the town the
next morning. He was almost captured there, for the pursuing Americans entered the
town as he was leaving it.

Marching northward from Pozurrubio, Aguinaldo led the Americans to a wild

chase across rugged land of hills and valleys, rivers and ravines, coastal roads and
mountain trails. General Young, wearied by the chase, gave up the pursuit, and sent
Major Peyton G. March with a battalion of soldiers to go after the elusive Aguinaldo.

Through the mountains of Northern Luzon, Aguinaldo hurried on, passing

through Candon, Tirad Pass, and Cervantes (capital of Lepanton), and crossed the
Cagayan Valley to Palanan, Isabela, where he established his headquarters -- unknown to
the Americans.

The Battle of Tirad Pass. At Tirad Pass, the 24-year-old General Gregorio del
Pilar, with 60 picked riflemen, stood guard to intercept the American pursuers and give
Aguinaldo sufficient time to escape. At sunrise of December 2, 1899, Major March and
300 American troopers stormed the Pass but they were repulsed by the deadly fusillades
of del Pilar's men. Baffled by the Filipino resistance, the Americans retreated to plan
another method of attack. Unfortunately, a Filipino guide named Januario Galut betrayed
the existence of a lonely path at the other side of the Pass. He led a company of American
soldiers along this path, who attacked del Pilar in the rear, while Major March charged in
front. Caught between two fires, the gallant defenders resisted, with the fury of cornered
lions. In the midst of the combat, General del Pilar, mounted on a white horse, was
struck by an American bullet. With him died 52 other defenders. Only eight men
escaped alive to relate the tragic news of the battle to Aguinaldo.

Thus died the young general, Gregorio del Pilar. The night before the battle, he
wrote in his diary: "I am surrounded by fearful odds that will overcome me and my
gallant men, but I am pleased with the thought that I die fighting for my beloved
country."

The Capture of Aguinaldo. For a year after the fight at Tirad Pass, the
American authorities lost track of Aguinaldo. On January 8, 1901, Cecilio Segismundo,

78
Aguinaldo's messenger, fell into the hands of General Funston in Nueva Ecija. He was
carrying important dispatches to Baldomero Aguinaldo (cousin of General Aguinaldo),
General Urbano Lacuna, and other guerrilla leaders. The dispatch to Baldomero
Aguinaldo directed the sending of reinforcements to Palanan, Isabela, last capital of the
fugitive republic. This dispatch gave Funston a clue to the whereabouts of Aguinaldo.

With the approval of General MacArthur, who had succeeded Otis as military
general, Funston secretly prepared in Manila an expedition for the capture of Aguinaldo.
The expedition consisted of five American officers (including Funston), one Spanish
interpreter (Lazarom Segovia), four Tagalogs (including Hilario Tal Placido, former
officer of Aguinaldo), and 80 Macabebe scouts. On the night of March 6, Funston's party
quietly slipped out of Manila Bay at Casiguran Bay. From here they marched overland
through the forests and reached Palanan in the afternoon of March 23, 1901.

Disguised as Filipino soldiers and pretending to be the much-awaited

"reinforcement" with five American prisoners, the Macabebes were able to enter
AGuinaldo's camp. Tal Placido and Segovia ascended the house where Aguinaldo,
unaware of treachery, welcomed them. At a given signal, the Macabebes suddenly
opened fire on the guards who, caught by surprise, were easily overpowered. On hearing
the gunshots, Aguinaldo rushed to the window, shouting" "Stop firing". Before he could
turn around, he was grabbed from behind by Tal Placido, a fat powerful man, rendering
him helpless until General Funston and the four American officers entered the room and
arrested him in the name of the United States.

Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to Manila. He was
graciously received by General MacArthur at Malacañang Palace. On April 19, 1901, he
took the oath of allegiance to the United States.

End of the War. The capture of Aguinaldo marked the end of the First Republic,
but not of the War. The fiery and fearless General Miguel Malvar continued the hopeless
fight. In a stirring manifesto to the Filipino people, dated July 31, 1901, he urged the
continuation of resistance to American invasion. "Forward, without ever turning back!"
he said, "All wars for independence have been obliged to suffer terrible tests!"

But further resistance to the much stronger foe was futile. The American military
commanders in the provinces took ruthless measure, such as concentrating civilians

79
within military zones, burning the hostile villages, and destroying the crops and work
animals with the primary objective of starving out the guerillas.

The remaining revolutionary leaders in the devastated provinces were either

captured or forced to surrender. On October 4, 1901, Colonel Quintin Salas surrendered
in Iloilo nine months after the surrender of his commander-in-chief, General Martin
Delgado. That same month General Pedro Sanson and Miguel Valmoria surrendered in
Bohol. On February 18, 1902, General Vicente Lukban was captured in Catubig, Samar.

General Malvar, the guiding spirit of the flickering libertarian cause, surrendered
in Lipa, Batangas, on April 16, 1902, followed by General Nicolas Gonzales "a few days
later."

While the Filipino revolutionary generals in Luzon and the Visayas were
surrendering or were captured by the American invaders, those in Mindanao kept the
torch of freedom aglow. Two of these Christian Filipino generals were Vicente Alvarez
and Nicolas Capistrano. After the American troops occupied Zamboanga on November
16, 1899, and liberated the Spanish Alvarez, who had previously defeated the Spanish
forces led by General de los Rios (last Spanish governor general of the Philippines),
continued resisting the Americans. In one of the skirmishes against the invaders, his
guerilla forces routed the American troops and killed their commanding officer, Col.
James A. Petitt (after whom the military barracks outside Fort Pilar were named). This
military disaster and death of Petitt enraged the Americans who intensified their
campaign against the patriots. Hard-pressed by the enemy, General Alvarez brought his
forces to Misamis Occidental, where he joined General Capistrano. These two generals
fought their last battle in March 1902 at Aloran, 20 kilometers south of Oroquieta. Their
joint forces were beaten and both Alvarez and Capistrano were taken prisoners.

The last revolutionary general to surrender to the Americans was General Simeon
Ola. He surrendered to Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz in Guinobatan, Albay, on September
25, 1903 -- one year, 5 months, and 9 days after General Malvar's surrender. Like
Malvar, he took the oath of allegiance to the United States.

Only one revolutionary general refused to take the oath of allegiance to the U.S.
He was General Artemio Ricarte. He lived in exile in Hong Kong and later in Japan.

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 Results of the War. The superior arms of Uncle Sam crushed theshort-lived First
Filipino Republic, the same arms, which strangely enough, helped to establis the Cuban
Republic. In forcing her sovereignty upon the Filipino people, the United States crossed
7,000 miles of ocean, using 126,468 men, of whom 4, 234 died; she spent the vast sum of
$600,000,000 and engaged in 2,811 recorded fights. On the other hand, the Filipinos, in
the defense of their independence, suffered greater losses -- 16,000 died in action,
200,000 civilians perished from famine and pestilence, and untold millions of pesos
worth of property were destroyed.

Although beaten in war, the Filipinos did not give up their independence ideal.
They lost the war but continued the good fight with their wits and their hearts set on
liberty.

81
History 1
Module III

Lesson 4

SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

True or False: On the blank before each number, write the word true if the
statement is true and false if the statement is otherwise.

_________ 1. The surrender of Manila marks the beginning of United States colonial
rule.
_________ 2. Upon the arrival of Aguinaldo in Cavite from Hong Kong he established a
dictatorial government.
_________ 3. The chief adviser of Emilio Aguinaldo during the short-lived Philippine
Republic was Apolinario Mabini.
_________ 4. To compensate Spain for her losses, the United States agreed in the Treaty
of Paris, 1898, to pay Spain $ 20,000,000.
_________ 5. During the Filipino-American War the Filipinos of Negros fought against
the Americans.
_________ 6. The Americans negotiated a treaty with the Sultan of Sulu in the Bates
Treaty.
_________ 7. The capture of Aguinaldo marked the end of the First Philippine Republic.
_________ 8. The Americans were defeated in the Battle of Tirad Pass.
_________ 9. The worst disaster of the United States forces in the Visayas was in the
island of Leyte.
_________ 10. The Malolos Constitution provided for a free and compulsory elementary
education.

82
History 1
Module III

Lesson 5: AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

Lesson Objectives:
After the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. know and evaluate the policies of the United States in taking the Philippines as
a colony;
2. familiarize yourselves with the recommendation of the Schurman Commission;
3. know the accomplishments of the Second Philippine Repoublic headed by
William H. Taft;
4. understand the provisions of the Spooner Amendment and the Philippine Bill of
1902;
5. know the various ways by which the Americans suppressed nationalism among
the Filipinos;
6. trace the steps in the Filipinization of the government under Governor Francis
B. Harrison;
7. know the provisions of the Jones Law of 1916, and how it made the Philippines
more democratic;
8. evaluate the achievements of Governor Taft's successors as governors general
of the Philippines.

The American occupation of the Philippines was the first experience of the United
States at colonization. Unlike Britain, Holland, and other imperialist powers, America
adopted a relative altruistic colonial policy, giving the Filipinos as much self-government
as they could possibly exercise and train them in democracy. The outcome was
progressive. The Filipinos gave thanks to American tutelage that made the Philippines
anenlightened and democratic nation of the Orient. The Filipino generations who lived
through the American rule fully repaid America with affection and loyalty, as shown by
their spontaneous contributionsin terms ofmen andmoneyto the American
causeduringWorldWarI (1914- 18) and by theirgreat sacrifices for democracy's sake
during the War with Japan (1941- 45).

American Policy in the Philippines. It was neverthe statedintentionofAmerica to

occupy the Philippines forever as a colony. In his 1899 message to the U.S. Congress,

83
President McKinley declared an apparently altruistic policy for the Philippines: "The
Philippines are ours, not to exploit, but to develop, to civilize, to educate, to train in the
science of self-government."

However, he did not state the other motives for colonizingthe country which were
not so altruistic after all. These other colonial objectives were: (1) to pursue "manifest
destiny" for America as a world power; (2) to use the Philippines as a source of raw
materials for U.S. industries and as a market for U.S. manufactured products; (3) to use
the Philippines as a military and naval base; and (4) to have a refueling port for American
ships servicing their interests in China.
To the Filipinos, the Americans were forcibly taking the Philippines when the
Filipinos did not want them to stay. Fortunately, American rule proved more beneficial
than Spanish colonization, and the U.S. kept its word about training the Filipinos for
democracy and granting them full independence.

Military Government. Owing to the exigencies of war, a military government

was established on August 14, 1898, the day following the capture of Manila, with Gen.
Wesley Merrit as first Military Governor. The authority of the Military Governor came
from the powers of the President as Commander-in-chief of the United States Armed
Forces. During the military rule (1898 - 1901), the American military commander
governed the Philippines for the President of the United States.

General Merrit was succeeded by Gen. Elwell S. Otis (1898 - 1900). The Military
Government lasted only three years (1898 - 1901).

The greatest achievement of the military government in the Philippines was the
pacification of the country and the laying down of the foundation of the civil regime. It
introduced the American school system, with soldiers as the first teachers. It organized
the civil courts, including the Supreme Court. The first Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court was Cayetano Arellano, learned Filipino jurist. Local governments were
established in towns and provinces, which came under the control of the American
troops. The first local election under the American flag was conducted by General Henry
W. Lawton in Baliwag, Bulacan, on May 7, 1899.

First Philippine Commission (1899). In order to make a survey of Philippine

conditions and to achieve the peaceful extension of American sovereignty over the

84
archipelago, President McKinley appointed, on January 20, 1899, the First Filipino
Commission, otherwise known as the "Schurman Commission." The Commission was
composed of Dr. Jacob G. Schurman (chairman), President of Cornell University; Major
Gen. Elwell S. Otis, Military Governor; Rear Admiral George Dewey, former American
Minister of China; and Dr. Dean C. Worcester, professor at the University of Michigan.

The Schurman Commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after

the outbreak of the war. It failed to accomplish its mission owing to the exigencies of
war. It conducted some hearings in Manila, received the emissaries of General
Aguinaldo, after which it returned to the United States. On January 31, 1900, it
submitted its report to President McKinley with the following recommendations: (1) the
establishment of a territorial form of government with a legislature of two houses -- the
lower house to be elective and the upper house to be half-elective and half-appointive; (2)
withdrawal of military rule in the pacified areas; (3) the conservation of the natural
resources of the Philippines for the Filipinos; (4) the organization of autonomous local
government; (5) the opening of free elementary schools, and (6) the appointment of men
of high ability and good character to important government offices.

Second Philippine Commission (1900). In order to initiate some sort of civil

government in war-ravaged Philippines, President McKinley appointed on March 16,
1900, the Second Philippine Commission, also called "Taft Commission". It was
composed of Judge William H. Taft (chairman), Dr. Dean C. Worcester, Mr.Luke E.
Wright, Mr. Henry C. Ide and Prof. Bernard Moses.

On April 7, 1900, the President issued his famous "Instructions" (written by

Secretary Elihu Root) for the guidance of the Second Philippine Commission. This
document contained the basic democratic principles underlying the American policy;
hence, it was called the "Magna Carta of the Philippines". It reminded the Commission
that the government, which was being established in the Philippines "is not designed for
our satisfaction or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness,
peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippines."

The Taft Commission arrived in Manila on June 3, 1900. It was more successful
than the Schurman Commission. On September 1, it began to exercise legislative
functions. The first law, which it passed, was an act appropriating P 2,000,000 for the

85
construction and repair of roads and bridges in the PHilippines. From September, 1900
to August, 1902, it enacted a total of 499 laws.

Movement for Peace. The year 1900 saw the emergence of the peace
movements among the Filipino people, because of the hopelessness of further resistance.
Aguinaldo was in hiding in the jungles of the Sierra Madre. One by one the
revolutionary generals had fallen into the hands of the Americans.

General MacArthur, wishing to prevent further ravages of war, issued on June 21,
1900, a general amnesty to the patriot in arms. Many took advantage of this amnesty.
They laid down their arms and returned to their homes and families.

A number of prominent Filipinos favored peace and worked with the Taft
Commission to bring about the cessation o the hopeless resistance. Among them were
Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Cayetano Arellano, Felipe Buencamino, Dr. Pedro A. Paterno,
and Florentino Torres. On December 23, 1900, they established the Federal Party, which
was the first political party in the Philippines. This party worked for the restoration of
peace, for collaboration with America, and for the future admission of the Philippines as
a state in the American Union.

Exile of the Filipino Leaders. There were, however, some leaders who remained
resolutely loyal to the cause of the Revolution. They repudiated the Federal party and
refused to collaborate with the Americans and accept any office under the new
government. Foremost among them was the paralytic Mabini. Although he had fallen a
prisoner of the Americans, he continued to crusade for the lost cause and advocated in his
writings that only immediate independence would bring lasting peace to the country.

To stop the vigorous opposition to the peace movement, MacArthur rounded up

the irreconcilable patriots, including Mabini, Artemio Ricarte, General Maximiano
Hizon, Pio del Pilar, and Pablo Ocampo, and exiled them to Guam. It was during his
exile that Mabini studied English and wrote his revolutionary memoir. The Rise and Fall
of the Philippine Republic, in both English and Spanish.

The Spooner Amendment. On March 2, 1901, the Congress of the United States
passed the Spooner Amendment to the Army Appropriation Act. Spooner Amendment
by Senator John C. Spooner of Wisconsin, was an amendment authorizing the President

86
of the United States (who up to that time had been administering the Philippines by virtue
of his war powers) to proceed with the establishment of a civil government in the
Philippines. Thus the authority to govern the Philippines passed from the President to
Congress. Hence, the Spooner Amendment marked the beginning of civil regime in the
Philippines.

Inauguration of the Civil Government. On July 4, 1901, the Civil Government

was inaugurated in Manila with William H. Taft as Civil Governor. To him was
transferred the executive powers hitherto exercised by the Military Governor. On
October 29, 1901, the position of Vice-Governor was created. Later, on February 6,
1903, Congress changed the title of Civil Governor to Governor-General.

Governor Taft continued to be the head of the Philippine Commission. The Civil
Government exercised jurisdiction over the pacified provinces. The military rule
remained in the unpacified Christian regions until 1902, and in the Moroland until 1914.

The Commission continued to be the legislative body. Its members became the
first secretaries of departments; Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the Interior; Henry D.
Ide, Secretary of Finance and Justice; Luke E. Wright, Secretary of Commerce and
Police; and Bernard Moses, Secretary of Public Instruction.

Filipino Participation. Unlike in Spanish times, the Filipinos were now given
greater participation in the government of their own country. The local government was
completely controlled by Filipinos. The municipal and provincial executive were elected
by qualified voters.

Various key positions in the insular government were opened to Filipinos. The
learned jurist, Cayetano Arellano, was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
being the first Filipino to occupy such exalted office. On September 1, 1901, two months
after the inauguration of the Civil Government, three prominent Filipinos, Dr. T. H.
Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, Sr., and Jose Luzuriaga, became members of the
Commission. On July 6, 1908, one more Filipino (Rafael Palma) was added to the
Commission. In the same year Gregorio Araneta was appointed Secretary of Finance and
Justice. He was the first Filipino to become head of an executive department. In the civil
service, Filipinos were given more and more appointments, in accordance with the policy
enunciated in the first Civil Service Law (1900).

87
 Administration of Taft. The government of Taft (1901 - 1904) was beset with
immense difficulties. After the capture of Aguinaldo and the deportation of the
irreconcilable patriots to Guam, the flames of war continued to blaze in the provinces of
Luzon and pulahanes (anarchists) in the Visayas. Some of them became well-known,
such as Macario Sakay, a friend of Bonifacio; Julian Montalon and Cornelio Felizardo,
former officers of General Trias; and Otoy, dreaded leader of the pulahanes in the
Visayas. One after another, these patriots were either captured or killed.

Governor Taft also had to face the deplorable economic situation of the people,
which was an inevitable aftermath of the war. The people suffered from epidemic,
drought, and ravages of locusts. Agriculture and commerce were ruined. The silver
Mexican currency, which was in general circulation in the country, had depreciated in
value. Thousands of people were jobless because the industries had been destroyed by
war. To aid the suffering poeple, the United States Congress voted in 1903 a relief fund
of $ 3,000,000 (P 6,000,000).

Governor Taft visited the United States in 1902. He worked for the passage of the
Philippine Bill of 1902 and the purchase of "Friar Lands". On his way back to Manila, he
visited Rome and told Pope Leo XII (1878 - 1903) of the government's plan to purchase
the lands in order to settle the agrarian unrest in the Philippines. In December 1903, the
Philippine government purchased the Friar Lands, a total of 423,000 acres belonging to
the Augustinian, Franciscan, Dominican, and Recollect Orders, for $ 7,327,000.

Another great achievement of Taft was to win Filipino sympathy. His genial
personality and his policy of "the Philippines for the Filipinos" erased the hostility of the
Filipinos to Uncle Sam and captivated their admiration and confidence. The people came
to regard him as their friend, and they sadly saw him leave Manila in December, 1903, to
assume the portfolio of Secretary of War in President Theodore Roosevelt's Cabinet.

Taft Successors. Taft was succeeded by able men who carried on his
magnificent work in the Philippines. They were Luke E. Wright (1904 - 06), Henry C.
Ide (1906), James F. Smith (1906 - 1909), and W. Cameron Forbes (1909 - 13). Wright
was the first American to enjoy the title of Governor-General of the Philippines.

Philippine Bill of 1902. The first Congressional law about the government of the
Philippines was the Cooper Act, better known as the Philippine Bill of 1902. It was

88
passed by Congress on July 1, 1902. Among its provisions were: (1) extension of the Bill
of Rights to the Filipino people, except the right of jury trial; (2) appointment of two
Filipino resident commissioners to Washington; (3) establishment of an elective
Philippine Assembly, after the proclamation of complete peace and two years after the
publication of a census; (4) retention of the Philippine Commission as the upper house of
the legislature, with the Philippine Assembly acting as the lower house; and (3) the
conservation of the natural resources of the Philippines for the Filipinos.

First Philippine Census. On July 4, 1902, one year after the inauguration of the
Civil Government, President Roosevelt proclaimed the end of the war and the existence
of complete peace in the Philippines. Shortly thereafter, preparations were made for the
taking of the first census under the United States.

General J. P. Sanger was appointed director of the census. Governor Taft

proclaimed March 2, 1903, as "Census Day". The census was published in four volumes
in Washington, D. C.,andreported a totalPhilippine population of7,635,426. It was the
first official census of the Philippinesduring the American period.

Suppressed Nationalism. While the ground was being prepared for the
establishment of the Philippine Assembly and the political training of the people under
American tutelage, the aggressive spirit of Filipino nationalism which had not been
crushed by American arms surged everywhere. In Cebu the youthful nationalist Sergio
Osmeña edited, in 1900, a pro-Filipino newspaper El Nuevo Dia (New Day). Twice the
paper was suspended by American censors, and Osmeña and his associates (Rafael Palma
and Jaime C. de Veyra) were threatened with deportation because of the publication of
patriotic articles.

Other Filipino newspapers with nationalistic tendencies appeared in Manila.

Among them were El Grito del Pueblo (Cry of the People), founded and edited by
Pascual H. Poblete in 1900, and El Renacimiento (Resurgence) in 1901, edited by Rafael
Palma.

Nationalistic plays were staged portraying American aggression. Worthy of

mention were "Walang Sugat" (Not Wounded) by Severino Reyes; "Malaya" (Free) by
Tomas Remigio; "Tanikalang Ginto" (Gold Chain) by Juan Abad; and "Kahapon, Ngayon
at Bukas" (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow) by Aurelio Tolentino.

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 Alarmed by the rising tide of nationalism, the American authorities tightened the
censorship of the press and the stage. In 1901 the American Controlled Commission
enacted the Sedition Law which declared that during the duration of the war it was an act
of treason for any Filipino to advocate independence. Six years later the Commission
passed the Flag Law which banned the public display of the Filipino flag.

Emergence of Nationalist Parties. In 1902, after the official proclamation that a

state of complete peace existed in the Philippines, the nationalists organized political
parties. Two objectives of these early nationalist parties were: (1) to keep alive the
independence sentiments of the people and (2) to counteract the pro-American activities
of the Federal Party. Among these parties were the Partido Independista (Independence
Party) founded by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno; the Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist Party)
founded by Pascual H. Poblete; and the Partido Democrata (Democratic Party) founded
by Alberto Barretto, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Justo Lukban and Jose de la Viña.

Rise of the Nationalist Party. In August 1905, Secretary of War William H.

Taft accompanied by his daughter and a party of American senators and congressmen
visited the Philippines for the first time since his departure in 1903. He was flooded with
petitions advocating Philippine Independence.

In July 1906, Governor Ide lifted the ban against the independence political
parties. The radical nationalists, notably Macario Adriatico, Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio
Osmeña, Teodor Sandiko, and Isauro Gabaldon, founded the Partido Independista
Inmediatista (Immediate Independence Party). The conservative nationalists, including
Felipe Agoncillo, Rafael Palma, Leon Ma. Guerrero, and Pablo Ocampo. preferring
"early independence" to "immediate independence", organized the Union Nacionalista
(Nationalist Union).

As the 1907 elections for the First Philippine Assembly approached, both radical
and conservative nationalists saw the need for fusion in order to defeat the well-organized
Partido Nacional Progresista (National Progressive Party), which was formerly the pro-
American Federal party. Accordingly, the two nationalist parties were united on March
12, 1907, under the name Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist Party). Thus was born a
mighty political party in the political annals of the Philippines.

90
 The Philippine Assembly. The two new political parties; namely, Partido
Nacionalista and Partido Nacional Progresista, clashed for the first time in the elections
of July 30, 1907 for 80 seats in teh First Philippine Assembly. The burning issue was
immediate independence. The Partido Nacionalista electrified the country with its
stirring slogan "immediate, absolute, and complete independence", and won by a
landslide majority. It elected 59 representatives to the Assembly as against 16 out of the
Progresista and 5 of the Independente.

The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera House, Manila, on
October 16, 1907. The 20-year-old governor of Cebu, Sergio Osmeña, was chosen
speaker of the Assembly. His friend and former classmate Manuel L. Quezon, became
the majority floor leader. Altogether, there were 80 members, representing the best
brains of the nation.

The first bill passed by the Philippine Assembly was the Gabaldon Law
(sponsored by Assemblyman Isauro Gabaldon), which appropriated one million pesos for
barrio schools. At the end of the session, on June 19, 1908, Speaker Osmeña delivered a
brilliant address expressing the national ideal of independence. His view was put to a
vote by the Assembly and was approved.

The Resident Commissioner. Pursuant to the Philippine Bill of 1902, the

Filipino people were represented in the American Congress by the two resident
commissioners. The first Filipino resident commissioners were Benito Legarda (1907 -
12) and Pablo Ocampo (1907 - 09). In 1909, Quezon became resident commissioner
serving as such until 1916. Other Filipinos who served as resident commissioners until
1935, were Manuel Earnshaw, Jaime C. de Veyra, Teodoro R. Yangco, Isauro Gabaldon,
Camilo Osias, Pedro Guevara, and Francisco Delgado.

The resident commissioners were the defenders of Filipinointerests in America.

In Congress, theypleaded for the cause of their people, especially for independence, and
foughtany bill that would be harmful to the Philippines. They tookpart in the debates in
Congress, but had no vote.
Filipino Majority in the Commission. In November, 1912, the Democratic
Party, which was more sympathetic to the Filipino aspiration of independence, came into
power. The liberal-minded Francis Burton Harrison became the new governor-general of

91
the Philippines, succeeding Forbes. He arrived in Manila on October 6, 1913, and was
given a rousing welcome by the people.

A new era dawned upon the Philippines. With the Democratic Party in power in
the U.S., the Filipino people came to enjoy more autonomy. Shortly after assuming the
reins of American government, President Woodrow Wilson appointed five Filipinos to
the Commission: namely, Rafael Palma, Jaime C. de Veyra, Victorino Mapa, Vicente
Ilustre, and Vicente Singson Encarnacion. Thus, for the first time, the Filipinos obtained
control of the Commission, there being nine members in the body -- 5 Filipinos and 4
Americans.

Filipinization of the Government. Governor Harrison was an ardent champion

of Filipino rights and liberties. He adopted the policy of wider Filipinization of the
government service, that is, the replacement of American employees by Filipinos.
Americans who were retired were given gratuity under the Osmeña Act, which was
passed by the Philippine Legislature in 1916.

The Manila Americans, especially the job-seekers, resented Governor Harrison's

policy. They raised a storm of protest, but the pro-Filipino governor ignored them. Of
the 2,623 Americans in the Philippine civil service in 1913, only 11% were left in 1921.
In 1913 there were 6, 363 Filipinos in the government service, which number increased to
13,240 in 1921.

The Jones Law of 1916. To give the Filipinos as much self-government as they
could possibly enjoy, the U. S. Congress passed the Jones Law on August 19, 1916,
which was signed by President Wilson. This law was secured through the efforts of
Congressman William Atkinson Jones, Virginia Democrat, and Resident Commissiorner
Quezon. Governor Harrison strongly supported it while it was being debated in
Congress.

The Jones Law contained a preamble declaring that independence would be

granted to the Filipino people as soon as a stable government could be established in the
Philippines. The executive power of government was vested in an American governor-
generalassisted by the department secretaries. The American vice-governor -general
acted as Secretary of Public Instruction. The legislative power resided in a bicameral
Philippine Legislature consisting of an upper house called the House of Representatives

92
(with 93 members). The senators (except two appointive ones) were elected by the
Filipino electorate for a term of six years. The representatives (except nine appointive
ones) were elected for three years. The judicial power was exercised by the Supreme
Court and the lower courts. The chief justice (Filipino) and the associate justices
(Filipinos and Americans) were appointed by the President of the United States with the
consent of the United States Senate.
There was a Bill of Rights in the Jones Law which safeguardedthe right and
liberties of the people, such as freedom of speech and of the press, the right to meet
peacefully for redress of grievances, and the right to life, liberty, and pursuit of
happiness.

In accordance with the Jones Law, the Philippine was represented in the Congress
of the United States by two Filipino resident commissioners. These resident
commissioners could take part in the debates, but had no vote.

The new legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated on October 16, 1916,
with Quezon as President of the Senate and Osmeña as Speaker of the House of
Representatives. The Nacionalistas dominated both Houses of the Philippine Legislature.
The Progresistas had only one seat in the Senate and seven in the House of
Representatives.

Filipino Loyalty During First World War. The altruistic American policy was
appreciated by the Filipino people. When the United States entered the First World War
(1914 - 1918) to fight German autocracy and "make the world safe for democracy", the
Filipinos stopped their agitation for independence and cooperated with the American
government in its war efforts.

The Philippine Legislature organized the National Militia to train Filipino soldiers
for service in the war. It offered 25,000 men to fight in Europe. About 6,000 Filipinos
joined the United States Navy. In Hawaii more than 4,000 Filipinos, who could very well
have claimed exemption under the citizenship clause of the draft law, insisted on joining
the United States Army. Many Filipinos actually fought in France under the American
flag. One of them was Private Tomas Claudio, who died gallantly in the Battle of
Chateau Thierry, France, on June 29, 1918.

93
 The Filipino people contributed P 1,000,000 to the American Red Cross funds and
subscribed to about P 40,000,000 in Liberty Bonds. Moreover, they offered to the United
States government a submarine and a destroyer for use in the war. In every possible way,
they showed their loyalty to America. "No other American territory," said Governor-
General Harrison, "has been more loyal to the United States than the Philippines."

The Wood-Forbes Mission. In 1920 the Republican Party won the elections in
the United States and Warren G. Harding, became the President, succeeding Wilson. The
new president, wishing to know the conditions obtaining in the Philippines, appointed a
special mission composed of Major General Leonard Wood and Mr. W. Cameron Forbes.

A Wood-Forbes Mission arrived in Manila on May 4, 1921. It was cordially

received by the people, in accordance with the traditional spirit of Filipino hospitality.
For four months, it toured the archipelago, conducted conferences in 449 cities and
towns. It received numerous petitions and memorials from all classes of people.

After completing its work, the mission returned to the United States and
submitted a report to President Harding. When the report was published and its contents
made known to the public the Filipino leaders were highly displeased because it
recommended the postponement of the grant of independence owing to the poor financial
condition of the Philippines, the bankruptcy of the Philippine National Bank (for its fund
had been loaned for speculative purposes), and the stability of the government.

Wood's Administration. On October 5, 1921, General Wood returned to Manila

as the governor-general, replacing the popular Harrison. He was politely, but coldly,
received by the Filipino leaders because of his unfriendly attitude toward Philippine
independence. He was a man of stern discipline, high-minded, efficient, and honest, but
lacked the genial personality of Taft and the understanding heart of Harrison. He proved
to be an efficient administrator. He checked corruption and graft in the government,
stabilized the finances, and improved public sanitation.

But General Wood, brusque and tactless, antagonized the Philippine Legislature
and the Filipino leaders. In his first yearofadministration he vetoed 16 bills during his
whole term from 1913 to 1921. Wood interpreted the Jones Law to its very letter and
abrogated many privileges whichHarrisonhad given to the Filipino leaders. The latter

94
were alarmed, forthey feared that the autonomy they hadgainedduringtheHarrisonian era
might be lost.

The growing tension between Governor Wood and the Filipino leaders flared up
dramatically on July 23, 1923, when Senate President Quezon, Speaker Osmeña, and the
Filipino Department Secretaries resigned from the Council of State. This incident was
known as the "Cabinet Crisis of 1923". Governor Wood abolished the Council of State
and governed the country without the cooperation of the legislature. In 1926 he delivered
another blow to the Filipino leaders by abolishing the Board of Control. His action was
sustained by the Philippine Supreme Court and confirmed by the United States Supreme
Court. The Board of Control composed of the Governor-General, the President of the
Senate, and the Speaker of the House, was created by law to vote the stocks in the
government corporations. After its abolition, Governor Wood alone vetoed the
government stocks.

The fight between Wood and the Filipino leaders stirred the nationalistic spirit of
the people. The two traditionally opposing political parties, the Nacionalista and the
Democrata, joined forces in a common cause against the militaristic governor general and
to work for independence. In 1926 a coalition called Supreme Council, was formed.
While vacationing in the United States, Governor Wood died on August 7, 1927.

Restoration of Cooperation. General Wood was succeeded by three Republican

governors-general successively governed for short terms. They were Henry L. Stimson
(1928 - 29), Dwight P. Davis (1929 - 32), and Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., (1932 - 33). In
their administrations, they pursued a policy "between the liberalism of Harrison and the
conservatism of Wood" and restored the era of good feeling between Malacañang Palace
and the Philippine Legislature.

95
History 1
Module III

Lesson 5

SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Multiple Choice: Write the letter representing your answer on the blank before each
number.

_____ 1. The American occupation of the Philippines was during the U.S. presidency of
(a) Taft (b) McKinley (c) Harrison.
_____ 2. The first American Civil Governor of the Philippines was (a) Luke Wright (b)
Schurman (c) Taft.
_____ 3. The two Filipinos to represent the Philippines in the U.S. Congress were called
(a) delegates (b) resident commissioners (c) representatives.
_____ 4. The Philippine Bill of 1902 provided for the establishment of a Philippine (a)
Assembly (b) Cabinet (c) Legislature.
_____ 5. The (a) Jones Law (b) Bates Treaty (c) Philippine Bill of 1902 provided for the
granting of independence as soon as a stable government was formed.
_____ 6. On August 14, 1898 the Americans established a (a) dictatorial (b) democratic
(c) military government in the Philippines.
_____ 7. The Filipinization of the government officials was an achievement of Governor
(a) Wood (b) Harrison (c) Stimson.
_____ 8. In the early part of American rule the only political party allowed to exist was
the (a) Federal Party (b) Democratic Party (c) Republican Party.
_____ 9. The Philippine flag could not be displayed in order to suppress (a) human rights
(b) democracy (c) nationalism.
_____ 10. The first Speaker of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 was (a) Quezon (b)
Cayetano Arellano (c) Osmeña.

96
History 1
Module III

Lesson 6: AMERICAN HERITAGE

Lesson Objectives:
After completing the lesson, you will be able to:
1. realize the fact that the new American regime was faced with many economic
problems;
2. evaluate the good and bad results of free trade between the Philippines and the
United States;
3. understand the meaning of economic Filipinism;
4. realize the fact that two major contributions of America to the Filipino people
are popular education and public health;
5. know the various means of transportaion that improved travel in the
Philippines.

Under the new regime agriculture developed rapidly, commerce and trade soared
to unprecedented levels, transportation and communication were modernized, banking
and currency improved, and the manufacturing industries were transformed. As
compared with the Spanish era, economic progress of the Philippines during the Anerican
era forged ahead with great strides. However, the short-term benefits were not without
their price. The Philippine economy and consumers became dependent upon the
American economy and products, to the detriment of other markets and the development
of local products. American businessmen, executive and multinational companies
exerted a preponderant influence in the local economy, to the disadvantage of Filipino
talent.

Growth of Agriculture. At the beginning of the American regime, agriculture in

the Philippines was in a deplorable state. Owing to the ravages of the revolution and the
War of Philippine Independence, vast tracts of rich farming lands, were laid waste,
hundreds of work animals were gone, numerous farm implements were destroyed, and
agricultural production was at a standstill. To aggravate the situation, hunger, sickness,
and death stalked the ruined countryside.

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 The early American regime was faced with a disheartening task of healing the
wounds of war and rehabilitating the shattered economy. Undismayed by the magnitude
of the problem, the American administration, with the cooperation of the war-weary
people, exerted all efforts to revive and improve agriculture. In 1902 the Bureau of
Agriculture, the first bureau to be set up under the new regime, was established in order
to improve agriculture. Experimental and model farms were established to teach the
people the scientific methods of cultivation. Plant and animal pests were gradually
exterminated. In 1903, owing to the serious economic crisis brought about by drought,
locusts, and epidemics, the United States Congress voted a relief fund of $3,000,000
(P6,000,000) to help the suffering population. From this fund the Philippine government
purchased rice from Burma and Indochina to relieve the rice shortage and imported
carabaos from China and Malaya to restock the depleted animal resources. In the same
year the Friar Lands were purchased by the Philippine government, through the efforts of
Governor Taft and sold to Filipino tenants on easy terms of payment. The old Spanish
weights and measures were improved and standardized so as to avoid confusion in
business transactions. Modern types of farm machinery were introduced from the United
States. The first steam rice thresher came into the Philippines in 1904. More irrigation
systems were constructed; so that the 27,000 hectares of rice land under irrigation in 1900
increased to 175,000 hectares in 1935.

The agricultural progress of the Philippines during the American period was
remarkable, as revealed by statistics. The total area cultivated in 1903 was 1,267,600
hectares and this increased to 4,017,880 hectares in 1935. The livestock resources in
1903 were 640,781 hogs, 124,324 goats and 30,428 sheep. They increased in 1935 to
2,272,319 carabaos, 1,483,260 cattle, 400,250 horses, 3,018,758 hogs, 518,813 goats, and
140,041 sheep. During the American regime, the land under cultivation increased
threefold, the production of abaca and tobacco had more than doubled; corn production
increased fourfold, rice fivefold, lumber and forest products sixfold, and copra ninefold.

Defects of the American Agricultural Policy. American policy favored the rich
landowners and foreign corporations, especially American interests. Although the Friar
Lands Act of 1904 offered more land for Filipino citizens, the terms of the sale benefited
rich landowners more than small farmers. Secondly, the American procedure for the
acquisition by lanowners of Torrens Title to their property displaced and discouraged
small farmers who were too poor or ignorant to register their property. This was
especially a problem in non-Christian tribal regions where landgrabbers claimed the land

98
to which they had no ancestral right. Thirdly, the Homestead program of enabling
Filipinos to acquire 24 hectares of public land for his family proved a failure. Without
government assistance, poor farmers could not take advantage of the homestead offer.

Evidently, the Americans continued to favor the Filipino landed elite.

Agricultural lands were undertaxed and agricultural products exempted from taxes to
encourage export crop production. Rich hacenderos enlarged their holdings and became
the most stable allies of the American colonials.

The major agricultural export crops -- sugar, copra, and hemp were controlled by
American or foreign interests. By 1935, only 435 of the the total capital invested in the
sugar industry was Filipino; 33% was American and 23% Spanish. Most of the capital
invested in copra and dessicated coconut products was American. Of the production of
hemp, 53% was American-controlled. Thus, the American colonials played a
commanding role in the country's premier industry.

Free Trade with America. The greatest single factor factor that caused the
phenomenal development of Philippine economy was the free trade relations with the
United States. As early as 1902 Congress granted a 25% discount on the regular
American tariff in favor of Philippine exports. When the 10-year period of Spanish
preferential tariff as provided for in the Treaty of Paris (1898) expired, Congress passed
the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909 providing partial free trade between the Philippines
and the United States. All Philippine exports, except rice, were admitted free into
American ports within the quota limits; any amount in excess of these limits was subject
to the full rate of the tariff. On the other hand, all United States goods were admitted free
of duty into the Philippines without quota limits.

Full free trade between the Philippines and the United States was established in
1913 with the passage of the Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act by the Congress.

Commercial Expansion. With the tariff gates thus flung open, the foreign trade
of the Philippines rose to an unprecedented heights. From P68,079,136 in 1899, the total
volume of the Philippine overseas trade climbed higher annually, reaching the high
record of P623,214 in 1929, and declined subsequently ion account of the worldwide
depression to P359, 593,059 in 1935. Because of the free market of America, the annual
balance of trade was generally in favor of the Philippines.

99
 About 75% of the annual foreign trade of the Philippines was with the United
States. In 1899 the Philippine-American trade amounted to P10,576,682 the exports
being P7,870,510 and the imports P2,706,172. This soared in 1935 to P258,604,073 of
which P149,871,073 represented the exports to the United States and P108,733,000 the
imports, giving a favorable balance of trade of P41,138,073 to the Philippines.

Defects of Free Trade with the United States. The free trade relations between
the Philippines and the United States brought economic prosperity to the Filipinos which,
in turn, resulted in a higher standard of living, better health and sanitation, and social
advancement. But the Philippine economic prosperity was artificial, and hence basically
unsound. It depended almost entirely on the continuance of such preferential trade
relations. The moment America closes her markets to Philippine exports, the island
economy would collapse and the Filipinos would face their economic doom. It is
interesting to remember that in 1909 and 1913 the Filipino people, led by Quezon and
Osmeña and by the legislature and newspapers, vigorously opposed free trade, with
America because it would make the Philippines economically dependent on American
markets, and such economic subservience would be a menace to independence. Time has
truly shown them to be right. Unfortunately, the U.S. Congress, thinking otherwise,
imposed the Payne-Aldrich and the Underwood Simmons Acts on Filipinos, much
against their will.

Lured by the lucrative market of America, Filipinos neglected to develop other

markets in foreign countries. Consequently, their commerce with Great Britain, Spain,
China, France, Germany, Holland, and other nations decreased considerably.

Because of the free trade relations, Filipinos overdeveloped a few big-money

products, such as sugar, coconuts, tobacco and hemp, to the utter abandonment of other
crops, because these export products should find difficulty in entering the American
market, the island economy would topple to pieces.

Furthermore, free trade with America was really free trade for the Americans, but
not for the Filipinos, inasmuch as all American exports could enter the Philippines free of
duty and in unlimited quantities, whereas Philippine exports to America were subject to
various restrictions, such as the quotas imposed on sugar, coconut, tobacco, and hemp
exports.

100
 Industrial Development. The American period saw the advent of the industrial
age in the Philippines. Cigar and cigarette factories, coconut oil mills, sugar centrals,
cordage shops, and textile factories sprang up in cities and towns. In 1935 there were in
the Philippines 30 large companies devoted to the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes,
350 shoemaking shops, 114 sawmills, 40 coconut oil mills, 5 cordage factories, 45 sugar
centrals, and 15 alcohol distilleries. Fishing and fish canning became a major industry,
but the greater part of the deep-sea fishing industry was controlled by the Japanese.

The miracle industry in the Philippines was mining. Up to 1928, the annual
Philippine gold output had never exceeded P4,000,000. Since then gold mining boomed
into a hugh industry producing P6,740,781 in 1929, P10,200,167 in 1932, P23,823,355 in
1934, and P31,979,030 in 1935. Similar developments came also in the case of other
minerals, such as chromite, manganese, copper, iron, silver, asbestos, and oil.

The household industries expanded to new levels, as shown by the growth of the
hat and mat industry in Bulacan, Laguna, Tayabas, Boho, and Pangasinan; the cloth-
weaving industry in Ilocos, Iloilo, Capiz, and Batangas; the rattan and wood furniture
industry in Pampanga; the pottery and brick industry in Rizal, Laguna, and Albay; and
the slipper industry in Laguna, Manila, and the Bicol provinces. The Census of 1918
recorded 124,487 of these household industries, with an aggregate capital of P16,500,000
and 227,616 laborers.

Economic Filipinism. In line with their crusade for political independence, the
Filipinos tried to attain economic independence. Their movement toward this goal was
intensified because of the rising tides of economic nationalism that swept the shores of all
nations after the First World War and also because of the intensification of their
campaign for independence.

In 1903, the Honorable Manuel A. Roxas, the Speaker of the Philippine House of
Representatives, founded the Bagong Katipunan, a national society concentrated in the
promotion of economic nationalism among the Filipinos. Like Bonifacio's
Katipunan in 1892 - 96, this new society had an oath and a decalogue. After a brief and
colorful existence, it died a natural death.

The Philippine Chamber of Commerce, consisting of able Filipino businessmen,

carried on the movement after the Bagong Katipunan's demise. In August 1934, it

101
adopted an inspiring economic decalogue. It sponsored the "Made-in-the-Philippines
Week" to popularize the native products, and supervised the annual National Congress of
Filipino Businessmen to discuss matters affecting Philippine economics.

The greatest agency that fostered the spirit of economic Filipinism was the
National Economic Protectionism Association, popularly known as the NEPA. Founded
in Manila, on November 19, 1934, by a group of enterprising businessmen, it succeeded
in popularizing the use of native articles, such as piña and jusi cloths, Ilokano blankets
and towels, hemp slippers, Marikina shoes, buntal hats, Pagsanjan bakyas (artificially
carved wooden shoes). It revived the wearing of native costumes, notably the Barong
Tagalog (for men) and the Balintawak (for women), and inspired the nation by its stirring
slogan -- "Buy Philippines."

Improvement of Transportation. America modernized transportation facilities

in the Philippines. The first act of the Philippine commission was the appropriation of P
2,000,000 for the construction of roads and bridges. Governor W. Cameron Forbes came
to be known as "the American road-building governor general" because of the many fine
roads constructed during his administration. When the Commonwealth Government was
inaugurated in 1935, there were in the Philippines 20,826 kilometers of roads and 8,100
bridges.

America introduced the motor vehicles in the Philippines. The first automobile
arrived in Manila in 1903. In 1912 the motor vehicl registration law took effect, and in
that year there were 1,586 vehicles registered -- 947 automobiles, 180 trucks and 450
motorcycles. In1934, the number of motor vehicles increased to 42,909 -- 6,509
automobiles, 15,868 trucks and 534 motorcycles. In addition to these motor vehicles,
there were thousands of bicycles. Biking had become a popular sport among the new
generations.

On February 4, 1916, the Manila-Dagupan Railway, owned by the British

company, was purchased by the Philippine government. It became the Manila Railroad
Company, with lines extended to San Fernando, La Union, in the north and to Legazpi,
Albay, in the south. Earlier, in 1906, the Philippine Railway Company, a private
American concern, established railroads in Cebu and Panay. The railroad transportatipon
was developed owing to government encouragement. In 1903 there were 195 kilometers
of railroad in the whole Philippines, and this increased to 1,395 kilometers in 1934.

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 There was marked progress in water transportation during the American regime.
One of the first acts of the Philippine Commission was the opening of 196 ports to
shipping. Port works, breakwaters, and lighthouses were built to facilitate navigation. In
Manila several modern piers for ocean-going vessels were constructed, foremost among
which was Pier No. 7 said to be the largest in the Orient. In 1934, according to he Bureau
of Customs, 978 vessels were engaged in interisland shipping, of which 114 were
steamship and motorboats and the rest, sailboats.

The old Spanish horse-drawn streetcar line in Manila was purchased in 1903 by
the MERALCO (Manila Electric Railroad and Light Compnay), a private American
company organized by Mr. Charles M. Swift. The first electric streetcars were
introduced by this company in 1905. These American-imported streetcars furnished
Manila and the suburbs with cheap and fast means of transportation.

America introduced air transportation in the Philippines. The first airplane to

appear in the Philippines was piloted by and American stunt aviator named "Lucky"
Baldwin during the Manila Carnival in 1911. In the following year the first army planes
arrived in the Philippines. The first interisland air flight took place in 1919 when Major
J.E.H. Stevenot and Mr. A.J. Croft flew from Manila to the Visayas and back.
Commerical air transportation in the Philippines began in 1930 with the establishment of
the PATCO (Philippine Aerial Taxi Company) with Major Stevenot as president. It
started operations on February 16, 1931. In 1933 another commercial Air Company, the
INAEC (Iloilo-Negros Air Express Company) was established.

A red-letter day in Philippine aviation annals was that of November 9, 1935,

when the first giant airship China Clipper of the Pan-American Airways (PAA), landed at
Cavite from California. It flew across the Pacific Ocean in only five days thereby linking
America and the Orient closer together. Magellan crossed the Pacific in 1521 in three
and a half months, while the fastest modern trans-Pacific linercovered thesame distance
in 17 days. The Clippers, mighty lords of the air, made weekly flights from California to
Honolulu, Midway, Wake, Guam, Manila, Macao, and Hong Kong.

Manila was the key-point of all aviation routes in the Far East. Trailblazing
planes from Spain, Holland, Germany, Italy, China, Japan, East Indies, Singapore,
Burma, and Australia visited Manila.

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 Communications. The first modern telephone system imported from the United
States, was installed in Manila in 1935; it is now a part of the Philippine Long Distance
Telephone Company. In 1918 the first automatic central office equipment in the whole
Orient was established in the city. The radiophone service was inaugurated in 1933, and
because of this modern telephonic innovation Manila residents were able to communicate
with anybody in San Francisco, New York, Paris, Vienna, Rome, London, and other
cities of the world. By 1935 Manila outranked any other city in the Far East in the
number of telephones and telephone calls (averaging 200,00 a day). Other telephone
systems were established in Cebu, Iloilo, Negros, Davao, and other islands.

The old telegraph line, which Spain established in 1873, was improved during the
American regime. In 1898 there were 5,478 kilometers of telegraph offices under the
Bureau of the Telegraph Service.

Wireless telegraph was introduced by America in the Philippines. The U.S. Army
and Navy, the Bureau of Post, and several private wireless companies maintained
wireless communication with the outside world and with ships on the high seas. America
also introduced the radio as a new means of communication. Radio stations were
establisbed by the government and by private companies. In 1935 there were four
privately operated broadcasting stations in the Philippines (the KZRM, KZRH, and
KZRF in Manila and the KRC in Cebu), excluding the radio stations maintained by the
Bureau of Post and the U.S. Army and Navy.

During the American regime, the Philippines had one of the best mail services in
the world. Nearly every municipality had a post office, and letters of messages from any
part of the globe reached the remotest barrio. In 1935 there were over 1,000 post offices
throughout the archipelago.

Public Finance. The expansion of Philippine economy was reflected in the

increase of public finance. Exclusive of bond issues, the total revenue of the insular
government in 1902 amounted to P21,532,490; it rose to the peak of P92,783,173.00
during the boom year of 1929, and fell slightly to P78,674,751.33 in1934. Therevenue
of the provincial governments increased from P20,410,437.16 in 1901 to P24,385,978.07
in 1934, while the revenue of the city and municipal governments soared from
P10,059.58 in 1901 to P36,509,794.48 in 1934.

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 Financially speaking, the Philippine government was one of the soundest and
most stable goverment on earth. It enjoyed a balanced budget during the depression
period of the lean thirties, at a time when most governments of the world were harassed
by deficits. In 1935 it had a current suprlus of over P80,000,000, with a total bonded
indebtedness of less than P100,000,000 that could easily be paid off by the people.

Philippine Currency. One of America's major contributions to the economic

improvement of the Philippines was the establishment of a sound currency system. It
should be noted that in the early years of American occupation various kinds of money --
Mexican pesos, Spanish coins, Philippine coins (minted in Manila, since 1867), and the
coins of foreign nations -- circulated freely in the Philippines. The Spanish-Philippine
money was on the silver standard. The periodic fluctuations in the value of silver in the
world exchange created much confusion and uncertainty in business transactions, and
consequently impeded economic growth of the country.

To stabilize the currency, the Congress of the United States passed the Philippine
Currency Act on March 2, 1903. This law established a new currency system based on
the gold standard, as recommended by Charles A. Conant. It fixed the value of the
Philippine peso to one-half that of a United States dollar. The peso was then popularly
called the "Conant" after Mr. Conant. New Philippine coins, first minted in America and
later in Manila, were put into circulation, replacing the old coins of Spanish mintage.
These coins were thesilver peso, half-peso, one-centavo, and 10-centavopieces. They
were designed by Melecio Figueroa, noted Filipino artist.

The currency reform gave the country the most stable monetary system in the Far
East. It helped Philippine commerce, for gold was a better standard of value than silver.
In 1903 the currency circulation reached P8,910,393.00 and in 1935 it increased to
P116,722,287.00.

Establishment of More Banks. To foster the economic development of the

Philippines, the old banks were reopened and new ones were established. The first bank
to be established during the American regime was the American Bank. It was opened in
1901, but unfortunately it lasted only four years. Other banks arose in subsequent years,
and they also were short-lived.

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 In 1906, the Philippine Postal Savings Bank was organized by the government to
encourage the habit of thrift among our people and to help small business enterprises. It
was the first successful bank established during the American regime. It exists to the
present day.

Another government bank, the Philippine National Bank, was established in 1916.
In the same year the government established the rural credit association to help the small
farmers. In 1920 there were 57 rural credit associations in the Philippines. This number
increased to 569 in 1935.

Higher Standard of Living. Under America, the Filipino standard of living was
raised to a level than what it used to be during the Spanish times. The development of
natural resources, the increase in agriculture production, and the growth of commerce and
industry brought about greater material prosperity. The national wealth increased,
thereby enabling the people to live more comfortably and enjoy luxuries imported from
abroad.

During the American regime, things that accompany modern living were imported
into the country. Concrete edifices of modern architecture replaced the old-fashioned
Spanish homes. Electric lights took place of the antiquated oil lamps. Books and
newspapers, as well as pianos, phonographs, radios and fine pieces of furniture became a
common sight in many private homes. Schools, colleges, and playgrounds, hospitals,
puericulture centers, and bazaar rose in towns and cities. The cockpits and the moro-
moro plays declined in popularity, as new forms of amusements like the movies, athletic
competition, musical concerts, and school programs became the new forms of recreation.
Travel became pleasure, for there came the automobiles, buses, railways, steamships,
airplanes, and good roads. Modern postal system, the cable, the telegraph, the wireless
telegraph, and the teletype gradually improved communication. Laborsaving devices
such as the gas stove, the electric range, elevator, the washing machine, the frigidaire,
and the eletric fan made life more comfortable and enjoyable.

Generally, Filipinos who experienced life under the American era attest to their
satisfaction with their lives in that era as compared to the Spanish and Japanese regimes.
It was not until the late 20th century that Filipinos began to regret the cost of becoming
economically dependent on the United States.

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 Just as Spain Hispanized the Filipinos during her rule of more than three centuries
(1565 - 1898), so did the United States Americanized them during their occupation of
nearly five decades (1898- 1946). Almost every phase of Filipino life felt the imprint of
American influence. By acquiring first the Hispanic and Latin heritage, and later the
American heritage the Filipinos became quite a unique Asian people. Of all Southeast
Asian nations, we are now the most cosmopolitan in culture. Although westernized in
dress, manners, religion, education, politics, arts, science, and customs, we have however,
retined our Asian identity.

Democracy, America's Greatest Legacy. The greatest legacy of America to the

Filipino people is democracy, just as Christianity is Spain's greatest legacy to us. It is
true taht prior to the coming of the Americans, the Filipinos already had some ideas of
democratic political government which Aguinaldo established was "popular"
representative, alternative and responsible, based on the separation of powers --
executive, legislative, and judicial. It also safeguarded the rights and liberties of the
people. Unfortunately, the First Philippine Republic did not last long, having been
overthrown by American arms, so that the first experiment in democracy was nipped at
the bud.

The Americans came to train and the Filipinos proved to be avid learners in
democratic ways and institutions. Under American tutelage, the Filipinos were given
greater participation in government affairs and enjoyed more human rights. The bad
friars and officials who had oppressed the people under the union of Church and State
during the Spanish era were gone. After 1907, no Filipino was ever jailed or exiled for
criticizing the American authorities or advocating Philippine independence, and all
government officials from local to national level were elected by the people in free and
open elections. Multiple political parties were allowed to campaign for their candidates.

Other Asian countries did not enjoy such an extensive experiment in democracy
as the Philippines did under their new colonial masters.

Diet and Dress. The Westernization of Filipino diet and dress, which Spain
began, was further fostered by America. During the American era, Filipino diet was
enriched by delicacies such as ham and egg, oatmeal, sandwiches, hamburger, beefsteak,
vienna sausages, hot dogs, pan americano, tomato, catsup, spare ribs, etc. It became

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fashionable to drink whiskey, bourbon or other intoxicating spirits, and to smoke
American cigarettes.

The men adopted the American style of dressing, wearing their pants with
suspenders or belts, coat and tie, polo shirts for casual wear, straw or felt hats, and leather
or tennis shoes. The women imitated American females in wearing fanciful hats, long
(and later short) skirts, high-heeled shoes, nylon stocking, perfumes and lotions, artificial
eyelashes and cosmetics.

Americanization of Manners. Influenced by the casual boldness of Americans,

Filipinos soon lost their stiff and formal bearings inherited from Spain. Men and women
learned to address each other as "Mr." and "Mrs.". They no longer deferentially kissed the
hand of a priest or slouched when addressing a white man.

The younger generation lost some of the good manners of the past, such as polite
speech and courteous behavior. But they acquired some sterling qualities of the American
people, notably frankness, broadmindedness, sparkling humor and sportsmanship.

Family Life. The close family ties, which the people inherited from their pre-
Spanish ancestors and which were strengthened by Christian Spain, deteriorated to a
certain extent due to the impact of American influence. The old family custom of
praying together every night gradually disappeared. The beautiful tradition of kissing the
hands of parents and elders by the children as an expression of filial piety vanished. The
elder brother or elder sister was no longer respected by the younger children. Due to the
levelling influence of democracy, the younger brother regarded himself as the equal of
his elder brother, and so it was also in the relationship between the older sister and the
younger sister. The children thought that the tradition of kissing the hands of the parents
and elders was a relic of colonialism, an obsolete custom irrelevant to modern progress.

With the impact of democracy on their family life, the people lost some of the
beautiful family customs of their nostalgic past. The loss of these customs, particularly
the nightly family prayers, the kissing of the hands of the parents and elders, and the
breakdown of parental authority paved the way to present day family troubles, broken
homes, and juvenile delinquency.

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 Emancipation of Women. One good legacy of America to the Filipino is the
emancipation of women from the social and political restrictions of Spanish times. In the
first place, they were no longer secluded within the narrow confines of the homes and the
colegios for ladies. They acquired the freedom to go out alone and associate with men
and to attend social parties and offices, to attend political rallies and meetings, and to
participate in active sports.

In the second place, the women were free to acquire higher education to study in
universities which were formerly closed to them, and to choose and practice any
professional career that had been reserved only for men (medicine, liberal arts, law,
engineering, etc.) during the Spanish period.

And, finally the women began to participate in politics and eventually were given
the right to vote in elections and to be voted to public office.

Popular Education. Another major contribution of America to the people is

popular education. For the first time in history, education was no longer the privilege of
a few rich families. It became the right of all people. Rich and poor children were able
to become physicians, lawyers, engineers, etc., which could not have happened to them
during the Spanish times. Co-education, which was banned under Spain, was established
and boys and girls studied together in the same schools.

Popular education began in the country a few days after Dewey's naval victory in
Manila Bay (May 1, 1898) when the first school was opened by the Americans in
Corregidor Island. The American soldiers, setting aside their rifles, became the first
teachers of the Filipinos in English. On their laps, the Filipino children first learned the
rudiments of the English language.

On August 23, 1901, the U.S. Army transport Thomas arrived in Manila, bringing
600 American teachers from the United States. These "Thomasites" as they were
famously known, were the vanguard of American culture and democracy in the
Philippines. To them, the Filipino nation owes a lasting debt of gratitude.

Educational Progress under America. Philippine educational progress during

the American period (1898 - 1935) was amazing. For the first time, the blessings of
education were given to all people, irrespective of social position and wealth. Sons and

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daughters of the poor peasants and artisans attended classes in schools and universities
with the scions of wealthy hacenderos and industrial tycoons.

The phenomenal growth of education was shown by the unprecedented increase

in the number of schools, teachers, and students. The annual income of the government
would not cope with the soaring expenses of education. Thousands of children could not
be accommodated in the public schools for lack of schoolrooms, teachers, and funds. In
1935 there were 7,330 public schools with a total enrolment of 1,220,212 pupils and
teaching staff of 27,855. In the same year there wer about 400 private schools with a
total enrolment of 100,000.

At the beginning of the American occupation in 1898, there was only one
university in the Philippines. It was the Dominican-owned University of Santo Tomas,
which was 25 years older than Harvard, the oldest university in the United States. Due to
the progress in education, illiteracy in the Philippines dropped from 55.8% in 1903 to
52% in 1935.

Filipino Pensionados to America. In 1903 the first group of 104 bright young
Filipinos was sent to the United States s government pensionados to study in American
colleges and universities. In subsequent years, more pensionados were sent. From 1903
to 1908, approximately 200 pensionados had studied in the United States.

The Filipino pensionados, after years of study in America, returned home and
contributed to the economic, social, and cultural development of the Philippines. Among
them were Justice Jose Abad Santos, eminent jurist and hero of World War II; Francisco
Bentiez, distinguished educator; Dr. Honoraria Acosta Sison, fist Filipino physician; Dr.
Jorge Bacobo, noted jurist and president of the University of the Philippines; and Dr.
Francisco A. Delgado, senator and ambassador.

Spread of the English Language. Aside from introducing popular education, the
United States propagated the English language. Assuming the conqueror's right, she set
aside the language of vanquished Spain and imposed her own tongue on the Filipinos.
English became the language of instruction in all Philippine schools and universities, the
official language of the government, the language in business and social circles, and
virtually the common language of the masses.

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 The young generation was enchanted by the new language so that they freely
Americanized their Spanish-given names. They came to adopt American names, such as
Joe, Bobby, Tony, Bill, Tom, Tommie, Mary, Nancy, Margie, Rosie, and Lily. They
used English not only in schoolwork but also in their daily conversation, in writing love
letters to the girls they loved, and in expressing themselves in prose and poetry.
Consequently, the Americanized generations, ignoring the Spanish language and
neglecting their native vernaculars, became proficient in English and eclipsed other
Southeast nations in producing an Asian literature in English.

So widespread was the English language in the archipelago that the English-
speaking tourists from all parts of the world had no difficulty in communicating with the
people and in visiting the towns and cities, English was, and still is, spoken all over the
land. Many of the streets, plazas, hotels, hospitals, moviehouses, banks, restaurants,
stores, commercial firms, bridges, schools, and colleges, and even geographical places
were named in English.

Because of the extensive propagation of the English language in the country by

America, Filipinos today are the third largest English-speaking nation in the whole world,
the first being the United States and second, Great Britain.

Filipino Literature in English. A new type of literature basically Filipino in

material and sentiment but expressed in the Enlgish language blossomed in the
Philippines. The new generation of English speaking writers portrayed in English the
glories of their land, the thoughts and feelings of their race, and the problems of the
times.

The first Filipino poet in English to attract attention was Fernando Maramag. The
first Filipino short story writer in English was a woman named Clemencia Joven. The
first Filipino to win distinction in English journalism was Carlos P. Romulo. Later
Romulo became brigadier general in the USAFFE (United States Armed Forces in the
Far East), resident commissioner and ambassador to Washington, president of the
University of the Philippines, and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He won the Pulitzer Prize
for international reporting in 1942.

Other Filipino writers also won literary distinction in the United States. The first
Filipino poet to win the recognition in American literary circles was Marcelo de Garcia

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Concepcion. His first volume of poems Azucena, was published in 1925, by G. P.
Putnam's Sons. In 1932 Edward O'Brien, a well-known American anthologist, listed Jose
Garcia Villa, also a poet, "among the half-dozen short story writers in America." Many
American-educated writers achieved distinction in various branches of Filipino literature
in English, notably Jose M. Hernandez in the drama; Trinidad Tarrosa, Francisco G.
Tonogbanua, and C. V. Pedroche in poetry; Paz Latorena, Al Efren Litiaco, and
Bienvenido Santos in the short story; Francisco Icasiano, Federico Mangahas, and
Maximo Ramos in the essay; and Juan C. Laya and N.V.M. Gonzales in the novel.

Vernacular Literature. The folk literature written in the native dialects and
languages persisted during the American regime. Tagalog poetry flourished, despite the
popularization of the English language. The poetic art of Balagtas was carried on by Jose
Corazon de Jesus (Batute), Florentino Collantes, Cirio Panganiban, and other Tagalog
poets. On April 6, 1924, the first balagtasan (Tagalog poetical joust) was held in Manila.
The term was derived from Balagtas, the "Prince of Tagalog Poets". Among the Ilokanos
the poetical joust is called bukanegan, after Bukaneg, the "Father of Iloco Literature"; and
among the Pampangos it is known as crisotan, after Crisostomo Soto, the "Father of
Pampango Literature". In the Tagalog drama, Severino Reyes was pre-eminent. He was
called the "Father of Tagalog Drama". In the Tagalog novel, the short story, and the
essay the following were regarded as outstanding: Lope K. Santos, Iñigo Ed. Regalado,
Julian C. Balmaceda, and Amado V. Hernandez. Lope K. Santos who died in 1963,
wrote the first Tagalog socialist novel entitled Banaag at Sikat (Rays and Sunrise).

Notable names in Iloco literature were Claro Caluya, the "Prince of Ilocos Poets",
Mona Crisologo, the greatest Iloco dramatist; and Leon C. Pichay, the Iloco poet laureate.

The leading figure in Pampango literature was Crisostomo Soto, famously known
by the pen name Crissot. His dramatic masterpiece, Alang Dios (No God), is still
regarded as the best zarzuela in the Pampango language. Another great Pampnago writer,
Aurelio Tolentino, excelled in both Tagalog and Pampango literature.

In Visayan literature, Angel Magahum was considered greatest dramatist. Also a

splendid novelist, he wrote Benjamin (1907), the first novel in Hiligaynon. Other great
Visayan writers were Flavio Zaragoza, the poet laureate in Ilongo literature; Magdalena
Jalandoni, the first Visayan woman novelist and also a great poetess; Vicente Ranudo, the

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first great Cebuano poet; and the Sotto brothers (Filemon and Vicente) noted writer-
politicians.

The Theatre. At the beginning of American rule, the moro-moro was replaced
by the zarzuela. The memories of the Philippine Revolution were still fresh in the minds
of the Filipino people, so the early zarzuela were nationalistic in theme and plot. Among
them were Pag-ibig sa Lupang Tinubuan (Love of Native Land) by Pascual H. Poblete,
Tanikalang Ginto (Gold Chain) by Juan Abad, Malaya (Free) by Tomas Remigio,
Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow) by Aurelio Tolentino,
and Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) by Severino Reyes. These zarzuelas were popular
among the masses. They were so nationalistic that the American authorities banned
them. Poblete and Tolentino, two of the most nationalistic zarzuela writers, were jailed.

The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the zarzuela in the
Philippines. During this period was staged Severino Reyes' Walang Sugat (Not
Wounded), one of the most famous Tagalog zarzuelas. Several zarzuela companies were
organized such as Compania de Zarzuela Tagala by Severino Reyes. Many zarzuela
heroines became the favorite stars, such as Praxedes Julia Fernandez, (famously known
as Yeyeng), Maria Carpena, and Atang de la Rama.

The introduction of the Hollywood "talkies" (taking pictures) in 1930 marked the
eclipsed of the Filipino theatre. Like the moro-moro, the zarzuela vanished as a popular
theatrical art because the people patronized the American movies.

Journalism. The first American newspaper to appear in the Philippines was the
Bounding Billow, which was published at irregular intervals on board Dewey's flagship
Olympia. Its issue of June 1898 (Vol. I, No. 5) was a victory issue commemorating
Dewey's victory at Manila Bay. The first American daily newspaper to be published in
Manila was The American Soldier, whose first issue was dated September 10, 1898.
Other papers were The Manila Bulletin (1900), which is still existing; The Cablenews
(1902); The Philippine Teacher (1904); and The Philippine Free Press (1904).

The first Filipino weekly in English was The Philippine Herald, founded by
Senate President Quezon in 1902. Five years later, The Tribune appeared as a sister
publicaiton of the La Vanguardia (Spanish) and the Taliba (Tagalog). More English
dailies, weeklies, and monthlies sprang up in subsequent.

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 Fine Arts. During the American period Manila had other centers of population
had modern buildings, colleges, theatres, hotels, stores, and private homes which were
built along American architectural lines. Modern buildings in Manila contained
elevators, air conditioning systems, and electricl gadgets. Alongside these steamlined
edifices were other buildings constructed of Western architectural designs -- Doric, Ionic,
Corinthian, Graeco-Roman, Gothic, and Byzantine. Among the prominent Filipino
architecture were Juan F. Nakpil, Andres de Luna de San Pedro, Juan M. Arellano, and
Pablo S. Antonio.

Painting flourished and developed. It glorified the native landscapes, national

heroes, and historical episodes. Worthy successors of Juan Luna and Felix R. Hidalgo of
Spanish days were Fabian de la Rosa, Fernando Amorsol, and Victorio C. Edades, all of
whom had acquired their art training under Western masters of the brush.

In sculpture, the towering name wa Guillermo Tolentino, who is still considered

the greatest Filipino sculptor of contemporary times. The magnificent Bonifacio
Monument at Grace Park is a product of his sculptural genius. Aside from being a superb
sculptor, he was a gifted guitarist and writer.

Music. The introduction of American jazz and swing music brought about the
decadence of native music. The young generations enthusiastically welcomed the
imported music and soon learned to croon the American song hits and dance the
American dances.

Talented Filipino musicians tried to preserve the musical heritage of their race.
With patriotic pride, they labored to maintain the racial rhythm and native purity of
Filipino music. At least, they succeeded in conserving the kundiman against the inroads
of foreign music. Among the luminaries in Filipino music were the famous composers
Nicanor Abelardo, Francisco Santiago, Francisco Buencamino Sr., and Antonio J.
Molina; the violin virtuosos Bonifacio Abdon, Cayetano Jacobe, Ernesto Vallejo, and
Ramon Tapales; the master pianists Calixto Llamas, Rodolfo Cornejo, Juan M.
Buencamino, Serafin Magracia, and Julio Esteban-Anguita; and the world-renowed
operatic singers Jose Mossessegeld Santiago, Jovita Fuentes, Luisa Tapales, Naty
Arellano, and Yglesias Monserrat-Marzoni.

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 Sciences. There was remarkable scientific progress in the Philippines during the
American period. Modern techniques and research in medicine, chemistry, biology,
astronomy, and other Western sciences were introduced. Various scientific organizations
dedicated to the advancement of science sprang up in the Philippines. In 1933 the
National Research Council was established by the Philippine Government. Eminent
scientists who were celebrities in their respective fields of research, were appointed to
this body.

Among the Filipinos who contributed to the progress of science during the
American times were the following: Dr. Angel S. Arguelles, the first Filipino director of
the Bureau of Science; Dr. Eliodoro Mercado, noted leprologists; Dr. Miguel Cañizares,
the first surgeon in the Far East to perform the Jacobian operation on tubercular patients;
Dr. Joaquin Marañon, an eminent botanists; Dr. Pedro Lantin, an authority on typhoid
fever; Dr. Eduardo Quisumbing, a distinguished orchidist; and Dr. Leopoldo B.
Uichangoc, a learned entomologist.

Protestant Christianity. Just as Spain brought Catholicism to the Philippines, so

did the Americans introduce Protestant Christianity. For the first time, Filipinos learned
about the gift of salvation by faith in Jesus Christ and about the Bible as the word of God.

On March 2, 1899, while the war was still raging, Bishop James M. Thoburn of
the MethodistEpiscal Church of India delivered the first Protestant sermon in the country.
Seven months later, on September 6, 1899, Mr. C. B. Randall, a lay worker, distributed
the first Bible in Manila. Previously the Bible had been manned by the friars.

Enrichment of Recreational. America enriched the recreational life of the

people. She introduced the Hollywood silent movies, and later the talkies; radios which
broadcast not only news but also musical and educational progress; indoor games, such as
bowling, billiards, ping-pong, poker, black jack, and other card games; and outdoor
sports, notably baseball, softball, calisthenics, football, and volleyball.

Physical Education was made part of the school curriculum and annual
interscholastic meets were promoted. Physical fitness was encouraged not only among
the boys, but also among the girls. In all competitive sports tournaments, the American
authorities inculcated in the minds of the players the concept of sportsmanship: "It is not
the winning of the game that matters, but how the players play it."

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 The Americans also taught the people the wise use of leisure. To discourage the
young generation from gambling and cockfighting, more wholesome forms of
amusement or recreation were introduced, such as dancing the old folk dances and the
modern ballroom dances; holding literary musical programs in schools and colleges;
listening to band concerts and public meetings; seeing movies, carnivals, expositions, and
operas; holding civic parades celebrating the anniversaries of Rizal, Bonifacio, and other
heroes.

Fiestas and Holidays. During the American period, Filipinos continued to

celebrate their annual fiestas commemorating the patron saints of their towns. Aside
from these town fiestas, the Catholic majority celebrated the feast days of other saints,
including St. Anthony de Padua, St. Francis of Assisi, Our Lady of the Pillar, Our Lady
of the Rosary, St. Joseph, and the Holy Child (Santo Niño). The annual pilgrimage to
Antipolo, Pakil and other shrines continued as before. They also continued to celebrate
the Christian holidays, including the Todos los Santos (November 1st), Christmas
(December 16 to January 6), and the Semana Santa (Holy Week).

Unlike Spain, America honored the Filipino national heroes and permitted people
to celebrate their anniversaries. Thus the country came to commemorate the "Cry of
Balintawak" (August 26th), Bonifacio Day (November 30th), and Rizal Day (December
30th). This could never have happened during the Spanish regime.

To the numerous fiestas and holidays, America added her holidays such as
Valentine's Day (February 14th), Washington Day (February 22), Memorial Day (May
30th), Glorious Fourth (July 4th), Capture of Manila (August 13th), and Thanksgiving
Day (4th Thursday of November). She also introduced the Christmas customs of having
a Christmas tree adorned with a silver star and colored lights in every home and sending
Christmas greeting cards to friends and relatives; the Halloween custom of having a party
on the eve of All Saints Day, and the romantic custom celebrating Valentine's (February
14th) as the "Day for Love."

Public Health. Public health, which had been neglected by Spain, was promoted
by America in the country. At the beginning of the American regime, two government
agencies were established to safeguard the health and sanitation of the people, namely,
the Bureau of Health and the Quarantine Service. Dr. Victor G. Heiser, a famous
American health officer, headed both the Quarantine Service and the Bureau of Health

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from 1905 to 1915. He brilliantly performed his duties and helped make the Philippines
one of the healthiest countries in the Far East, surpassing in this respect China, India, and
the Strait Settlements (now Singapore and Malaysia), and rivaling Japan.

Epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and bubonic plague, which ravaged the land
during the Spanish period and took a heavy toll of human victims, were wiped out.
Tuberculosis, malaria, typhoid fever, and other dreaded diseases were effectively fought
and their virulence appreciably lessened. Consequently, the death rate decreased, and
with an increased birth rate, the population grew.

America's Contribution to Filipino Nationalism. Under America, the Filipinos

were gradually trained in democracy and prepared for independence. After 1907 no
Filipino was imprisoned for advocating independence. The Filipinos were eventually
permitted to display their own flag, play their national anthem, celebrate their heroes'
days, and to enjoy such freedom as speech, press, religion, societies, and petition.

There were some violent and secret groups, such as the Sakdalista uprising in
1935, led by Benigno Ramos, and the Communist Party, but overall the Filipinos
preferred to follow the American timetable for their independence.

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History 1
Module III

Lesson 6

SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

True or False: Write the word true on the blank before the number if the statement
is true and false if it is otherwise.

__________ 1. At the beginning of the American regime, agriculture in the Philippines

was in a deplorable state.
__________ 2. The early American regime was faced with problems like hunger,
renderpest, locust or a shattered economy.
__________ 3. The purpose of the National Economic Protectionism Association was to
patronize Philippine made goods.
__________ 4. There was much progress in transportation, in land, sea and air during the
American period.
__________ 5. In 1935, the Philppines had an outstanding deficit of P 80,000,000.00
__________ 6. The Currency Act of 1903 fixed the value of the Philippine peso to one-
third of the American dollar.
__________ 7. Financially speaking under the American rule the Philippines was one of
the soundest and most stable governments on earth.
__________ 8. As compared to the Spanish period, the Filipinos enjoyed a higher
standard of living under America.
__________ 9. Because of so many American influences the Philippines has not retained
its Asian identity.
__________ 10. The greatest influence of America on the Philippines is democracy.

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History 1
Module III

ANSWER KEYS TO SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TESTS

Lesson 1
1. B 6. B
2. A 7. C
3. C 8. B
4. C 9. A
5. C 10. B

Lesson 2
1. Kalaya-an 6. unite
2. propaganda 7. independence
3. Jose Rizal 8. La Liga Filipina
4. La Solidaridad 9. Kartilya Nang Katipunana
5. Andres Bonifacio 10. nationalism

Lesson 3
1. C 6. A
2. B 7. A
3. B 8. C
4. A 9. C
5. A 10. B

Lesson 4
1. true 6. true
2. true 7. true
3. true 8. false
4. true 9. false
5. false 10. true

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Lesson 5
1. B 6. C
2. C 7. B
3. B 8. A
4. A 9. C
5. A 10. C

Lesson 6
1. true 6. false
2. true 7. true
3. true 8. true
4. true 9. false
5. false 10. true

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