Technology in Language Learning

This module on computer assisted language learning provides novice

and experienced second and foreign language (L2) teachers alike with an
introduction to the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL).
The module first provides a historical overview of the field and then
explores the most widely researched areas within CALL. The module
examines findings of research into computer-mediated communication
for L2 learning as well as L2 skill area instruction in technology-enhanced
settings. The unit then turns to a discussion of teacher and learner stan-
dards for using CALL, followed by a discussion of how one may find
and evaluate CALL resources appropriate for specific instructional con-
texts. The module ends with an introduction to four of the newest and
most exciting areas in CALL: gaming, fan fiction, digital storytelling, and
mobile assisted language learning.

Bryan Smith is Associate Professor of English at Arizona State University.

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 The Routledge E-Modules on Contemporary
Language Teaching
Series Editors: Bill VanPatten, Michigan State
University, USA, and Gregory D. Keating,
San Diego State University, USA

The Routledge E-Modules on Contemporary Language Teaching series is

an exciting and innovative approach to topics for the novice or in-training
teacher of languages. Written in an easily accessible style and delivered
in e-format only, specialists and experts provide the latest thinking on a
variety of issues that form the foundation of language-teacher knowledge
and practice: the nature of language and communication, second lan-
guage acquisition, interactive tasks, assessment, focus on form, vocabu-
lary development, and technology in language teaching, among many
others. Each module serves as a self-contained unit to be used on its own
or as part of an introductory course on language teaching. Instructors
may “mix and match” modules to create their own readings for a course
on language teaching. The modules may serve as primary reading or as
supplemental reading, with each module offering points of reflection, dis-
cussion questions, self-quizzes, and a reading list for those who wish to
delve further into the topic.

Language
Bill VanPatten

Communication and Skill

Bill VanPatten

Second Language Acquisition

The Basics
Gregory D. Keating

Vocabulary in Language Teaching

Joe Barcroft

Interactive Tasks
Michael J. Leeser and Justin P. White

Focusing on Form in Language Instruction

Wynne Wong and Daphnée Simard

Technology in Language Learning

An Overview
Bryan Smith

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 Technology in Language
Learning
An Overview

Bryan Smith

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 First published 2016
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
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The right of Bryan Smith to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
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ISBN: 978-1-315-67372-1 (ebk)

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 Technology in Language Learning
An Overview
Bryan Smith
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

Overview
In this module you will explore the following topics:

• the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and its

origins
• computer-mediated communication
• CALL and skill instruction
• teacher and learner standards for using CALL
• finding and evaluating CALL resources
• new directions in CALL

Tips on using technology in the classroom abound! We can hardly check

our email, go on Facebook or Twitter, or read a journal article without
being presented with a new gadget, app, theory, or teaching technique
that touts the benefits of using some form of digital technology with
our students. From flipped classrooms to the gamification of curricula,
how best to integrate new digital technologies in the classroom is among
the most talked about topics in education. This module examines such
integration in the specific context of foreign and second language learn-
ing and teaching. We will start out with a historical overview of the field
of computer-assisted language learning, or CALL, and then move to an
examination of both some of the most widely researched areas in CALL
as well as those that are just emerging. We will also explore specific
research and resources for skill area instruction and cultural learning and
provide a starting point for those who wish to become more active in
the field of CALL. As you read the following sections, keep in mind that
the question is not whether to use technology in language learning and
teaching; nor is it what is the right technology to use. Rather, we should
situate our exploration of this module within the question “How can I

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 2 Bryan Smith
best integrate the right technology into my specific L2 teaching and learn-
ing context?”

What is CALL? Overview and Short History

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) or Information Communi-
cation Technology (ICT), as it is called in Europe, has been around in one
form or another since the 1960s. For language teachers, it is best thought
of as being a sub-field of Applied Linguistics, Educational Linguistics, or
Foreign/Second Language Education and it is one of the fastest-growing
areas in each of these disciplines. One thing that we should address right
from the beginning of this discussion is the notion that proponents of
CALL are looking for ways that the computer can replace classroom
teachers. Nothing could be further from the truth! CALL practitioners
are striving to harness computer technologies of all sorts in ways that will
foster and facilitate second language learning across diverse educational
and cultural contexts. Nevertheless, according to Ray Clifford, one thing
seems certain: though computers will not replace teachers, teachers who
use computers will replace those who don’t.
In the early 1960s the University of Illinois developed the PLATO sys-
tem, which was the first generalized computer-assisted instruction system.
This system ran on its own hardware, central mainframe computers, and
terminals and included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations
and drills, and translation tests. Actual widespread use of CALL, how-
ever, did not emerge until the 1980s, when personal computers became
more of a commodity. Early examples of CALL programs were drill and
practice (or “drill-and-kill”) materials based on behavioristic notions of
language learning. Such software was good for delivering instruction to
individual learners and providing repeated exposure to the targeted lin-
guistic form, exercises, and so on. The idea was for learners to practice
discrete forms of the target language until they got them right. Once they
mastered a particular form, learners could move on. Most of these pro-
grams were not very interactive, but some advantages were that students
could proceed at their own pace, the computer could give learners basic
feedback on the accuracy of their answer, and the computer never got
tired of practicing. In these cases, we can view the computer as a lan-
guage tutor. And computers are quite good in this tutorial role. That is to
say, a computer program can analyze and evaluate an individual learner’s
responses to questions and provide feedback on these responses. In addi-
tion to this advantage, using the computer as a tutor allows you to work
at your own pace, without the inhibiting aspects of speaking in front of
other classmates or other pressures present during live, face-to-face com-
munication with people. Among the disadvantages is the fact that engag-
ing in human-computer interaction (HCI) is not really very interactive
at all. The feedback one gets is often limited to “Correct” or “Wrong,

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 Technology in Language Learning 3
try again.” Developing such programs is also very time intensive, which
results in a high price tag for many language-learning programs. This
“computer as tutor” model is reflective of behavioristic notions of learn-
ing in general, which was the chief psychological model of learning until
the late 1950s. As behaviorism waned, more communicative approaches
to second language learning and teaching emerged. This, coupled with
the introduction of the microcomputer in the late 1970s, ushered in a
new era in CALL.
The 1980s witnessed what might be called the era of Communicative
CALL, which continued well into the 1990s. Personal computers were
becoming the norm and relatively simple authoring programs like Hyper-
Card became available. During this time the dominant activity in CALL
focused more intensely on presenting lesson content to students and
directing them to interact with that content. The 1990s witnessed a pro-
liferation of software and multimedia for language learning, normally in
the form of CD-ROMs. The mid 1990s also saw the development of the
World Wide Web, which fundamentally transformed the nature of CALL.
More web-based CALL sites appeared and native speakers and learners
of a language were connected like never before. Web-based authoring
tools like Hot Potatoes (http://hotpot.uvic.ca), the suite of Rich Inter-
net Applications (http://clear.msu.edu/teaching/online/ria/), and commer-
cially available products such as Quia (http://www.quia.com) became
more sophisticated and freely available. Such applications have enabled
individuals to quickly develop and distribute language-learning materi-
als with relative ease. During this time the computer was more gradually
viewed as a tool or a vehicle for human-human interaction (HHI) via the
computer. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is one example of
the computer being used as a tool for communication with others, often
in real time.
Most recently, so-called Web 2.0 has brought an important shift in
the way digital information is created, shared, stored, distributed, and
manipulated. Web 2.0 is all about the user. Whereas Web 1.0 was domi-
nated by content provided in static pages, Web 2.0 applications have
democratized the web by prioritizing user-generated content, owner-
ship, and social connectivity. Web 2.0 applications leverage the power
of the masses. We no longer simply receive information via the web;
rather, we are constantly connecting with other people in the form of
social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to share knowl-
edge of all sorts in real time. The key aspect to Web 2.0 is that it is
social in nature. For example, with Google Docs, users can interact and
collaborate in real time on the same document without downloading
any software. Not only can we access, say, a newsletter, but we can start
publishing one of our own! This major technological shift has been
compared to the shift that occurred with the invention of the printing
press over 500 years ago.

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 4 Bryan Smith
In CALL contexts, Web 2.0 tools such as wikis and blogs have been used
for several years. A wiki is a website that allows collaborative editing of
its content and structure by its users. The best known wiki is Wikipedia,
which is a web-based collaborative encyclopedia. Educational wikis are
currently used for collaborative writing and editing of documents. Educa-
tors can find many free wiki spaces, like this one: http://www.wikispaces.
com. Blogs, in contrast, are websites normally run by one person. Blogs
are similar to traditional journals where one can post ideas and experi-
ences, which are regularly updated by the author. With a blog one can
post not only text, but also video and other types of media files. Read-
ers can get automatic updates each time a blog is updated and they can
post comments on each blog entry, making blogs interactive. Like wikis,
there are many free blog sites (http://edublogs.org). It’s important to note
that many students have grown up with Web 2.0 applications. These
digital natives are likely to use email, instant messaging, voice over Inter-
net protocol (such as Skype), smartphones, social networking accounts,
blogging, and virtual identities on a regular basis. However, many digital
immigrants—or those who did not grow up with these technologies—are
also active in blogging communities, social networking sites, and virtual
worlds. Social networking sites such as Facebook are web-based services
that allow individuals to create a public profile and share text, images,
and video with others. In contrast, virtual worlds such as Second Life are
computer-based 3D simulated environments, where users take the form
of avatars (virtual representations) that are visible to others. Language
instructors can leverage these increasingly familiar tools—blogs, wikis,
podcasts, and networking, among others—and provide access to authen-
tic sources of language.
The 21st century has also witnessed the explosive growth in mobile
technologies. Leading this growth are smartphones. Smartphones typi-
cally have a touch screen, camera, Wi-Fi and web browsing capabilities,
and media players. With a smartphone, one essentially has the entire
web at one’s fingertips. Not only are smartphones growing in popular-
ity, but tablets such as the iPad are now outselling desktop computers.
Naturally, foreign and second language teachers are investigating the
extent to which we can harness these new technologies for language
learning. An exciting sub-field of CALL called mobile assisted language
learning (MALL) is gaining much attention. MALL basically refers to
“learning on the go.” To date there have been hundreds of studies of
MALL, but most of these have been small-scale pilot studies with little
follow-up. One thing is certain: as our computer use becomes more and
more mobile in nature, the degree to which we use MALL applications
in language learning will increase. Currently, one of the most pressing
questions in MALL research is “What language skills is MALL best
suited for?”

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 Technology in Language Learning 5

Reflection
Earlier, you read about the idea that although computers will not
replace teachers, teachers who use computers will replace those
who don’t. A related idea is the notion that CALL (like pens or
books, which are also technologies) will eventually become nor-
malized. That is to say, at some point CALL may become fully
integrated into language learning and the field of computer-assisted
language learning will cease to exist as a separate concept and field
for discussion. What do you think about this? Has CALL become
normalized already? If not, what will normalization look like?
What evidence do you have to support your opinion?

Computer-Mediated Communication
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is a general term referring
to interaction with someone via the computer as opposed to face-to-face.
This may be text-based or may include some combination of text, graph-
ics (as in a virtual world), audio, and/or video. One can engage in CMC
with a desktop, notebook, or mobile device and the application used will
largely depend on the type of computer used. For example, one of the
most widely used text-based chat programs for desktops and notebooks
is Google Talk, which is integrated with Google’s Gmail. WhatsApp
claims to be the most popular chat application for mobile devices. Among
the many social network-based CMC applications are Facebook Messen-
ger, Twitter, and Instagram, each with its own set of affordances (i.e.,
benefits or advantages) and constraints. Beginning with text-based CMC,
this mode of communication has been studied by applied linguists for
over 20 years. However, the term CMC itself is so general that we often
need to delineate the type of CMC we are studying. Typically, we can do
this by referring to a particular type of CMC in terms of its specific affor-
dances. One of these affordances is temporality—which asks whether the
communication is synchronous (in real time) or asynchronous (not in
real time). Email is considered asynchronous since it may take a few sec-
onds or minutes for your message to reach the recipient. Likewise, if you
use a learning management system such as Blackboard or Moodle, your
discussion board postings will be considered asynchronous. In contrast,
if a message is received (virtually) instantaneously, such as when using
Facebook Messenger, then this is considered synchronous in nature. The
amount of time expected for information to reach its intended audience
has considerable impact on the discourse and behavior of the interlocu-
tors and perhaps also on the way we process and attend to aspects of the

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 6 Bryan Smith
message. From the sender’s perspective, the perception that an audience
processes a piece of information immediately may prompt the person
to consider the consequences of the message more carefully. Also, the
recipient may feel greater pressure to respond immediately in synchro-
nous communication than in asynchronous situations, since the former
resembles face-to-face conversations in many ways. One downside may
be that during real-time synchronous communication, there is less time to
contemplate the content of a message and respond to it. In contrast, asyn-
chronous communication allows for more time to work on responses,
which may then prompt a more in-depth understanding of the informa-
tion and more thoughtful responses.
CMC technologies also differ in terms of the degree of participants’
anonymity. Whereas some CMC technologies afford completely anony-
mous communication where participants do not reveal their true identi-
ties, other CMC technologies support communication where participants
are more aware of each other’s identities. For example, video conferenc-
ing allows for much less anonymity than text chat because video images
of the participants are projected along with the audio. In contrast, many
text chat programs allow users to make up and display any names they
wish. The degree of anonymity has been shown to have a significant
impact on the nature of communication. It has been found to create a
certain distance between participants that may contribute to an atmo-
sphere of critical receptivity. The relative anonymity of CMC has been
claimed to result in decreased inhibition, leading to self-disclosure on the
one hand, and increased expressions of hostility on the other. In contrast,
this shrouded identity may allow a potential freedom from various forms
of prejudice, although there is conflicting research in this area. Some
research on anonymity in CMC for writing and composition suggests
that anonymity encourages participants to be more critical while per-
forming peer reviews of each other’s writing; however, it also leads them
to work less. Similarly, anonymity may encourage learners to focus more
on fellow students’ writing while engaged in peer editing sessions, but
seems to yield less helpful and lower quality reviews than when reviewers
are identifiable.
CMC technologies also differ in terms of modality of information
presentation. Some technologies support only written text, while others
can include audio and video. It seems intuitive that the number of sen-
sory channels open during CMC will affect the nature of the interaction.
Indeed, multi-modal CMC can present learners with rich mental images,
thus facilitating language learning. Research suggests that multimedia
information may influence the comprehension of information by sup-
porting the various cognitive processes involved in comprehension. For
example, some research has found significantly higher retention scores
for words annotated with text and pictures as compared to words anno-
tated with text only or text and video combined.

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 Technology in Language Learning 7
Finally, the spatial distance between individuals largely determines
the quality and quantity of information that is exchanged. Distance also
communicates to participants and observers the nature of the relation-
ship between participants, as well as the nature of the activity. Apply-
ing these notions of interpersonal distance to CMC, we can see that the
various CMC technologies have varying capacities for supporting the
manipulation of spatial distances for communication. Email and chat,
for example, allow relatively little control over spatial distances, while
virtual worlds such as Second Life control the spatial arrangement of the
settings, their avatars, and other objects.

CMC and Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Much of the work on computer-mediated communication and its
potential for facilitating second language development has focused on
learner-learner or learner-native speaker interaction in asynchronous and
synchronous environments. The potential benefits of text-based synchro-
nous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) for SLA include more
equitable participation among students, increased quantity of learner
output, and increased quality of learner output. There is also evidence
that CMC is viewed by students as being less threatening than face-to-
face interaction, which often results in increased willingness to take risks
and try out new hypotheses. Some research has found that students are
more inclined to pursue idea-generating discourse and are less inhibited
during written production than in oral discussion. Other research has
noted that students take more risks experimenting with ideas during
online discussions. The potential for anonymity may complement this
willingness for risk taking as it has been found to create a certain distance
between participants that may contribute to an observed atmosphere of
critical receptivity. A heightened quality of learner output has also been
reported, and learners have been found to be linguistically more creative
and sophisticated during CMC than during traditional whole-class dis-
cussions. Many students also report feeling more confident communicat-
ing (in writing) in the second language during CMC sessions than they do
when speaking. One study explored interaction between heritage speak-
ers and second language (L2) learners of Spanish. Heritage speakers are
those who grow up speaking a minority language (typically that of their
parents), but become more competent in the (dominant) language of the
community, which is different from their heritage language. The findings
suggested that the demands of electronic chatting seem to force partici-
pants to produce the target language. What is more, the CMC environ-
ment seemed to offer the Spanish heritage speakers a chance to expand
their bilingual range, including grammatical, textual, illocutionary, and
sociolinguistic competencies. The output, or linguistic production, elic-
ited by the CMC environment was also found to serve as a partial remedy

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 8 Bryan Smith
for the problem of disfluency among Spanish heritage speakers by help-
ing to facilitate automatization of language processing. In this study, the
Spanish heritage speakers also seemed to gain a sense of empowerment
through CMC with Spanish learners because, despite a degree of shared
non-monolingual or non-native like abilities with the L2 learners of
Spanish, they took on the role of the more competent peer, thus bolster-
ing their largely negative opinions of their own Spanish abilities.
There is also some indication that the text-based CMC medium can
amplify students’ attention to linguistic form by offering learners ample
opportunity to notice lexical and grammatical features in the input. Writ-
ten communication likely affords more opportunity for attention to form
than spoken language. The visual saliency of incoming and outgoing
messages, as well as the ability to reread previous messages, may allow
students to better attend to such formal aspects without substantially hin-
dering the flow of communication. CMC may also afford learners more
processing time. This extra time may assist better comprehension and
more accurate production and may also help facilitate a higher quality
interlanguage than would occur in a non-digital environment. In second
language studies, interlanguage refers to the non-native linguistic compe-
tence of second language learners and speakers. The slower speed of typ-
ing as well as software—and network—induced lag time between turns,
coupled with the heightened salience of input and output afforded by the
permanence of the written message on the screen, means that interlocu-
tors have more time to both process incoming messages and produce and
monitor their output.
Learners have been shown to negotiate for meaning (i.e., resolve prob-
lems of non-comprehension) during CMC in ways that are quite similar to
those observed in the face-to-face literature. For example, as with face-to-
face interaction, lexical items (vocabulary) have been found to trigger the
vast majority of computer-mediated negotiation, with morpho-syntax
triggering very little negotiation. Finally, task types typically used during
face-to-face instruction have proven successful in eliciting high amounts of
learner interaction and negotiation in a CMC environment as well.
The potential advantages afforded by text-based SCMC essentially
come down to the constructs of attention and noticing—especially the
noticing of non-target-like input and output. More specifically, text-based
SCMC may be said to afford more online planning time, which is argued
to contribute to L2 performance by freeing up attentional resources. In
other words, learners are able to more closely attend to linguistic form
while formulating messages and also engage in more focused pre- and
post-production monitoring by attending not only to the meaning of the
input and output but also to the form that best expresses such meaning.
Some CMC studies have used screen capture technology such as Cam-
tasia (http://www.techsmith.com/) to show that learners appear to use
the increased online planning time afforded by chat to engage in careful

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 Technology in Language Learning 9
production, which results in more complex language. Though the actual
online planning itself remains an unobservable activity, these findings
support those of previous face-to-face studies, which have also found a
positive effect for increased online planning time.

Telecollaboration
One of the most widely used forms of asynchronous CMC is telecol-
laboration. The overarching goal of telecollaboration projects is to
develop intercultural communicative competence. Such projects use
online communication tools to bring together language learners in dif-
ferent countries (or in some cases from within the same country) for the
development of collaborative project work and intercultural exchange.
This collaboration reflects an interactive and dialogic process that con-
nects the learner, the home culture, and the target culture. Early telecol-
laborative exchanges were almost exclusively email based, but educators
nowadays exploit a wide variety of communication tools, including web-
based message boards and more synchronous tools such as videocon-
ferencing and text chat. These exchanges typically have two groups of
students engaged in an extended series of task-based interactions that
are built into their respective curricula. These tasks vary widely, but have
included things like comparative reviews of literature, in-depth investi-
gation of specific elements of the other culture and society, and collab-
orative creation of websites. Teachers serve as guides in such projects,
as students require both support and training in order to successfully
engage in online intercultural exchanges. Learners are typically provided
with a teacher-generated weekly or biweekly prompt or theme for discus-
sion. One recent European project asked German students studying Irish
culture to choose an aspect or personality from recent Irish history that
most interested them. Their first post to a discussion board was to tell
their partners which person or event they had chosen and why. The Irish
group was tasked with responding to this initial post by explaining how
this person or event is considered in Ireland today and also providing
their own views on the topic. Interacting with members of the target cul-
ture can enable learners to move away from a view of culture learning as
being merely a matter of collecting facts and figures and toward a deeper
understanding of culture that involves seeing cultural practices from an
insider’s perspective.
Students can develop not only an ethnographic understanding of
cultural concepts of the target language culture, but can also begin to
explore and describe their own culture, thus learning to critically reflect
on their own social reality. Language learning can also be facilitated
through intercultural telecollaboration. For example, telecollaboration
has been found to improve L2 writing and grammatical skills as well as
foster higher level thinking skills. Typically, this writing and grammar

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 10 Bryan Smith
improvement occurs within the framework of peer editing/feedback, but
such feedback only seems to occur when students are required to provide
feedback during their interactions. Telecollaborative environments have
also been shown to afford greater learner autonomy, increased language
and cultural awareness, learner identity construction, development of
multi-literacies and electronic literacy skills, increases in learner moti-
vation, and more favorable learner beliefs about their ability to use the
target language.

Reflection
When people talk about CALL in general and CMC in particular,
they often use the terms in a one-dimensional sense. That is, some
people use the term CALL to refer to all computer-assisted lan-
guage learning and CMC refers to all types of computer-mediated
communication. What are your thoughts on this, given the discus-
sion above?

CALL and Skill Development

Reading
We take it as given that in any context, reading tasks must be interest-
ing and engaging, yet challenging enough that they require learners to
stretch their language knowledge in order to understand the text. One
challenge that language teachers face is selecting reading material that is
at an appropriate difficulty level for their learners. Research suggests that
learners must know at least 95% of the words (95% lexical coverage)
in a text for basic understanding and 98% for optimal comprehension.
CALL can help make up the difference for this 2–5% by glossing. In
CALL contexts, glossing is when one either clicks on or “hovers” over
a word with the cursor, resulting in an L1 or L2 definition, synonym,
image, audio, video, or hyperlink that helps learners understand the
word. The idea is that glossing assists comprehension of specific lexical
items in a bottom-up fashion (i.e., word by word decoding strategies),
which then frees up memory and attentional resources, allowing readers
to focus on more top-down strategies for reading comprehension (e.g.,
using background knowledge or considering context). Research suggests
that learners prefer textual over visual glosses. Indeed, CALL is well
suited for providing help with new vocabulary and structures found in
the text, and research suggests that the more ways learners access, say,
a difficult vocabulary word, the more likely they are to remember it.

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 Technology in Language Learning 11
Research also suggests that a combination of making targets more salient
through bolding, color, or italics and providing good help options is the
best way to ensure comprehension. Though reading provides good expo-
sure to the target language, research suggests that such exposure alone
may not be enough to positively affect learning. Explicit teaching of lexi-
cal and structural elements of the target language seems to be beneficial
if not necessary, especially for target structures that are difficult to learn.
In light of this, many reading programs provide explicit vocabulary and
grammar activities.
CALL programs can also provide immediate feedback on learners’
responses to, say, comprehension questions. Such immediate feedback
can draw learners’ attention to gaps in their knowledge. Most programs
provide simple indications of whether or not a response was correct or
not. However, a type of CALL called iCALL (intelligent CALL) is get-
ting more and more sophisticated in its ability to identify errors in stu-
dent output and provide specific feedback so that the student can address
these errors. Such programs can also gauge learner proficiency and pro-
vide materials appropriate for their level.
Some researchers have explored whether CALL can help with the
automatization of lexical access. Automaticity refers to the gradual
improvement that occurs in speed, reduced error rate, and effort required
that typically occurs as a function of task practice. Findings suggest that
automaticity training seems to help, but does not necessarily have a
strong effect on reading speed or comprehension.
CALL can also be used to help learners develop strategies for reading
online. The research in this area is sparse, with that which exists being
devoted to identifying just what reading strategies learners employ in
online environments. Research on cognitive strategies in online read-
ing suggests that training students in strategies such as skimming for the
main idea and scanning for specific information while reading online can
be effective for reading comprehension.

Writing
Recent research into writing in CALL contexts has largely focused on
the use of Web 2.0 tools such as blogs and wikis. Blogs (web + logs) are
asynchronous tools that allow learners to write and post thoughts, opin-
ions, and observations in a public or private space online. These post-
ings typically appear in chronological order and afford both author and
reader the ability to upload and link files, which allows for interactivity.
Blogs are cooperative rather than collaborative in nature since one per-
son at a time uploads information and others can comment on it. With a
blog, anyone can be an author and the audience is potentially the world.
It is this aspect that makes blogs very popular in composition classes.
Learners have an increased sense of ownership of their writing and the

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 12 Bryan Smith
(potentially) public nature of the blog encourages learners to focus on
both form and meaning in their writing.
Because of the recent emphasis on collaborative learning and writing
in L2 contexts, wikis have grown in popularity over the past decade.
Wikis are collaborative in nature whereby learners jointly create and edit
written documents in a web-based environment. In public wikis, anyone
can serve as author and editor of the content and a record of each change
is logged, which allows authors to revert to a previous iteration. Recent
research has explored L2 learners’ revision behavior, the use of scaffold-
ing (i.e., the tailored support provided during the learning process), and
autonomous (or independent) learning. Studies have also focused on tar-
get language development that occurs via wikis, such as accuracy, lexical
diversity, syntactic complexity, and corrective feedback. The relationship
between wikis and SLA is typically examined through a socio-cultural
theoretical lens, though solid research in this area is beginning to move
from being purely descriptive to more theoretically based.
Automated L2 writing evaluation (AWE) has experienced a surge in
interest over the past decade. AWE simply refers to a program that ana-
lyzes L2 learner writing and provides instant feedback that can vary in
the degree of specificity and explicitness. AWE can also adapt to the writ-
ing of individual learners. Such feedback may direct learners’ attention to
their linguistic errors and push them to produce more target-like output
in subsequent drafts. Most proponents of AWE argue that it should be
used as a complement to teachers’ comments. To date, practicality issues
are more likely to influence the adoption of AWE rather than supportive
empirical evidence, though research on AWE’s effectiveness and accuracy
are ongoing. Detractors of AWE argue that most AWE programs were
not developed for L2 writers and as such the actual impact of automated
feedback on improved L2 writing skills is problematic. Studies that do
show improvement tend to point to superficial revisions made by stu-
dents, such as in grammar and spelling. Indeed, the feedback provided
by AWE may be better at directing learner attention to surface features
of their writing rather than getting them to focus on the construction of
meaning for communicative purposes. Current research on AWE employs
color coded feedback, which makes negative feedback more salient to
learners. Evidence is gathering that AWE feedback possesses the potential
to facilitate writing development, particularly if applied appropriately in
targeted contexts.

Listening
Listening is difficult in a second language largely because of its ephem-
eral nature, rich prosody, and—particularly in interactive situations—
pressure to respond immediately to interlocutors. Specific challenging
aspects of listening that make this skill especially difficult for learners are

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 Technology in Language Learning 13
clustering (e.g., where many separate words are perceived as one), redun-
dancy (e.g., rephrasing or repetition, or elaboration), reduced forms (e.g.,
saying I’ll instead of I will), colloquial language (e.g., use of slang and
idioms), performance variables (e.g., hesitations and pauses), and the
speed of speech. In typical situations, learners cannot stop, slow down,
or see speech and they must attempt to understand someone in real time.
CALL can provide some advantages for listening in a second language
across all proficiency levels. Through the use of multimedia, learners can
listen multiple times to an authentic passage, see a text transcript, and
view accompanying video, which will provide context and help learners
understand as they use top-down and bottom-up listening strategies.
Recent trends in listening comprehension pedagogy have moved away
from adapted scripts to authentic (or semi-authentic) texts whereby
instead of altering the listening passage itself, we construct pre- and
post-listening scaffolding tasks to aid in comprehension. Listening activi-
ties typically involve presentation of the audio or video clip followed
by comprehension questions or activities. In academic listening con-
texts, listening typically focuses on note taking, understanding formal
lectures, comprehending reduced forms, and common idioms. Intensive
and extensive listening, as well as more specific skills such as recogniz-
ing and understanding humor and listening for the general meaning and
specific detail, are also common pedagogical techniques. There are many
free websites that learners can turn to in order to improve their listening
skills. The Voice of America (http://learningenglish.voanews.com) pro-
vides listening clips of current news stories at three levels. Randall’s ESL
Cyber Listening Lab is an example of another very good and free online
listening site. This site has various listening clips organized by topic and
difficulty. Each activity also has pre- and post-listening activities, as well
as comprehension questions, vocabulary activities, and follow-up tasks
that can be completed online. Alternatively, there are many pay sites,
such as http://www.yabla.com, that provide audio and video listening
activities across many languages.
Video captioning is one common technique to scaffold video-based
listening tasks. Research on the use of captioning suggests that caption-
ing has clear benefits for video-based listening comprehension over non-
captioned videos. Captioning results in greater depth of processing and
learners seem to use captions in order to better focus their attention, rein-
force previous knowledge, and analyze language. There is also evidence
that having learners listen (watch) first with captions and then a second
time without captions may reduce learner anxiety, activate both global
and selective listening strategies, and promote automaticity in processing.
Another scaffolding technique is slowing down the speed of delivery with-
out reducing its pitch. Software such as Audacity, a freely available audio
editing program (http://audacity.sourceforge.net), has been used to explore
whether slowing the rate is beneficial for learner performance. Research

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 14 Bryan Smith
suggests that slowing down the rate of delivery leads to better performance
on listening tasks and affects learners’ perceptions of the difficulty of the
passage. Though it is unlikely that high-stakes testing environments will
opt for reducing the speed of listening texts, it is evident that such tech-
niques can be used in pedagogical and self-directed contexts as a means of
helping learners as they practice listening in lower-stakes situations.

Speaking
Rather than attempting to achieve native-like ability in speaking an L2,
most practitioners have turned to intelligibility as their goal in teach-
ing speaking. Various factors affect intelligibility, but one area in which
technology has offered multiple tools is in pronunciation. There are soft-
ware programs that vary from describing how to produce certain sounds
in, say, English with no real interactive element, to programs that use
automatic voice recognition to determine what the learner has said. In
the former, learners typically are presented with a model of the sound,
word, or phrase and are then asked to emulate the model by recording
their own voice. Learners can then play back both the model and their
attempt and compare the two. In contrast, more interactive programs are
now available that will interpret the learner’s spoken input or responses
and continue the ‘conversation’ based on what the learner said. Most
often these more advanced programs do limit the learner’s responses to a
list of possible choices, making them less than truly interactive. Speaking
practice in software such as Rosetta Stone typically provides a speech
model and then asks learners to repeat, view a spectrogram (i.e., a visual
representation of their speech), and then compare that spectrogram with
the one that corresponds to the model. Learners are then asked to repeat
until they are satisfied with their approximation to the model.
Voice and video chat are commonly used tools for practicing speaking.
Freely available products like Skype and FaceTime offer learners the abil-
ity to talk with native speakers or other learners in a video or audio chat.
Subscription services such as Adobe Connect provide similar features,
but are most effective for multi-user video conferencing and file sharing.
In either case, learners may make use of the video function and/or the
text chat function as needed. In many of these programs, it is also possi-
ble to share one’s screen with others. In contrast, software such as Wimba
are audio only and asynchronous in nature. With Wimba, teachers and
students can create voice discussion boards where instead of posting text,
they record their message orally.
Over a number of years, podcasting has increased in popularity and
ease of use. Podcasting makes digital audio (or video) files available on
the Internet in a way that other computers can automatically download
new episodes as soon as they are posted. Like blogging, podcasting can
empower students by giving them opportunities to create and publish
on topics of interest for a real audience. Recording a podcast is quite

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 Technology in Language Learning 15
easy and there are a number of free software products available, such as
Audacity, a free, user friendly, multi-track audio recorder and editor that
works on various platforms. There is a wide variety of podcast hosting
sites, such as Podomatic and libsyn, which ‘house’ your podcast in a way
that is similar to how iTunes functions. Podcasts can have single or mul-
tiple hosts; they can be a simple monologue or some type of interview.
Video podcasts, or vodcasts, are also gaining in popularity.
The potential for podcasting in L2 teaching and learning has several
theoretical underpinnings. The most obvious concerns the role of out-
put in SLA. Research suggests that producing the target language during
communicative events can serve a crucial role in L2 development. When
using podcasts, learners can individually or collaboratively plan, record,
listen, and evaluate their own and others’ production. They can then go
back and revise parts of the recording as necessary until they are satisfied
with how it sounds. Likewise, learners can receive feedback from other
students and their teacher on more formal aspects of language, such as
pronunciation, intonation, stress, and so on. SLA research focusing spe-
cifically on podcasting is just evolving, but research thus far suggests
that podcasting can offer a motivating, meaningful, and contextualized
way—that is, a real communicative event—to improve pronunciation
compared to relying on mechanical drills.

Reflection
Think about your current teaching situation, especially the skill
area(s) you teach. Which of the technologies discussed in this sec-
tion might work well for your students? What are some of the
challenges you may face in attempting to implement these new(ish)
technologies? Which of the technologies would probably not work
well in your current teaching situation? Why?

Quiz
Take the following quiz to see what you have learned so far. Answers
are given at the end, so don’t peek!

1. Which of the following is a form of asynchronous communi-

cation?
a. Skype
b. Facebook Messenger
c. email

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 16 Bryan Smith

2. Which of the following tools would be best suited for learner

collaboration in a writing class?
a. a blog
b. a wiki
c. a web-based authoring tool
3. Mass access to the World Wide Web occurred . . .
a. in the 1970s.
b. in the 1980s.
c. in the 1990s.
4. The overarching goal of telecollaboration is . . .
a. to develop intercultural competence.
b. to develop linguistic accuracy.
c. to develop into a digital native.
5. The fact that some technologies support only written text,
while others can include audio and video is an issue of . . .
a. modality.
b. spatiality.
c. temporality.
6. Skimming and scanning are examples of . . .
a. strategies.
b. skill areas.
c. glossing.
7. Which of the following are video-based?
a. podcasts
b. vodcasts
c. Wimba
8. The potential benefits of text-based SCMC for SLA include
which of the following?
a. a willingness to take risks with language
b. an increase in the amount of negotiation over morphosyntax
c. a decrease in errors

[Answers: 1. c; 2. b; 3. c; 4. a; 5. a; 6. a; 7. b; 8. a]

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 Technology in Language Learning 17
CALL and the Teacher-Scholar

Technology Standards
Many disciplines have what are known as standards. Standards are guide-
posts for institutions, schools, teachers, students, and parents, which can
be used as a tool to focus on what students in a particular setting can be
expected to learn. Having standards provides an organizational aspect
to curricula that members of an educational community agree on and
can look to when making decisions that impact teaching and learning.
In spirit, they simply articulate the educational values and learning goals
of a specific educational community. Without them, one could argue that
teachers and students do not have any common goals to shoot for. In
theory, standards are a good tool for accountability in that all concerned
know what will be covered in a specific course, year of study, degree
program, etc. However, critics of standards argue that having rigid stan-
dards, often culminating in high-stakes tests, discourages innovation
and creativity. For example, if achieving some benchmark score on each
standard is tied to funding for a school, program, instructor, and so on,
then teachers often feel pressured to “teach to the test” based on those
standards. Standards should be specific enough to be helpful in guiding
teachers and other stakeholders no matter what their specific situation is
within the organization, district, or community, but not so restrictive as
to stifle creativity or lack relevance.
We very rarely find standards specifically related to language learn-
ing and technology. For example, the American Council on the Teaching
of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) has general standards organized around
skills and knowledge of communication, cultures, connections, com-
parisons, and communities with technology-specific individual standards
woven in throughout. One example of well-constructed and technology-
specific standards for language teachers and learners are the TESOL
Technology Standards (TTS). The main emphasis of TTS is to offer
pedagogically solid ways of integrating and using technology in teaching
methods. Since TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Lan-
guage) is an international organization, the TTS are constructed so they
will be appropriate in virtually any environment employing computer
technology to some degree. They are relevant to teachers in purely face-
to-face situations as well as those teaching in purely online environments
and are organized in terms of overarching goals, standards under each
goal, and illustrations of what meeting a particular standard might look
like in the real world. Most helpful are the “vignettes,” which illustrate
specific uses in various financial resource and technological access con-
texts. For example, Goal 2 for language learners is Language learners
use technology in socially and culturally appropriate, legal, and ethical
ways. Standard 1 within this goal reads Language learners understand

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 18 Bryan Smith
that communication conventions differ across cultures, communities,
and contexts. Under each standard are several performance indicators,
which reflect specific competencies that, if mastered, show that learners
have met that standard. Performance indicator 2 under Goal 2 Standard
1 reads Language learners demonstrate understanding of multiple ways
that CMC can be (mis)interpreted (e.g., using appropriate register, turn-
taking, respecting expected length and content of messages, considering
literal versus rhetorical meaning). The vignette under this standard first
illustrates a typical activity in which a teacher may have students engage
without the use of any advanced technological resources. For example,
the teacher might have students interact in pairs in their L1, taking on
different roles, analyze the communicative choices they made, and write
and perform their role-plays in English. In a low-resource, low-access set-
ting, where students have access to video or audio recorders but no access
to the Internet, learners might record and subsequently review their role-
plays, analyzing the success of the interaction in linguistic and pragmatic
terms. In contrast, in mid-resource, mid-access settings, where there is
Internet access, students might search for the speech act of making intro-
ductions in movie trailers, YouTube videos, and other video contexts.
They may then work in small groups to analyze the samples they found,
comparing their own recorded versions of making introductions to those
found online. Students might even be able to upload their own versions
of introductions to a class site or other secure video sharing site. The
beauty of the TTS is their clarity, simplicity, and applicability no matter
what potential resources or technological access one possesses.

Evaluating CALL Resources

In virtually any CALL teaching environment, you will need to make
choices about which materials to use. You may be interested in finding
software, mobile apps, or websites that assist your learners in sharpen-
ing their listening skills, for example. The first step might be to obtain or
compile a list of the available listening materials that you could realisti-
cally envisage using. You may have a quick look at each one and then
place it in one of two piles; pile 1 might be labeled “possibility” and pile
2 might be labeled “do not use.” At this point you have already started
down the path of CALL materials evaluation. We engage in informal
evaluations all the time. However, you might find yourself in a situation
where you will need to engage in a more formal and principled approach
to evaluation.
The purpose of CALL materials evaluation is to assess the quality,
effectiveness, practicality, or overall value of these materials. Such evalu-
ations typically have a specific audience in mind, say, English language
learners. You may have already been given or have constructed a simple
checklist for things you are looking for in a CALL resource. Checklists

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 Technology in Language Learning 19
will normally be in yes/no format such as Program runs on both PC
and Mac computers (Yes/No). Checklists are often organized under sub-
headings such as purpose for purchase, teacher readiness, content and
methodology, and design, among others. For example, under “Content
and Methodology,” we might expect to find the item “Is the context
authentic and realistic?” (Yes/No) or “Is the content based on sound
pedagogical principles?” (Yes/No). You may already see the problem
developing at this point. You may ask yourself, “What is an authentic
context for my students?” “Sound pedagogical principles according to
whom?” Such general checklists often result in a one-size-fits-none sce-
nario. No one really has the time to evaluate all of the possible choices
that are out there for, say, enhancing listening skills. This is why we turn
to evaluations written by others to assist us in this process. So-called
third party materials evaluations are those that you might come across in
an educational journal. The most compelling model in use today is that
developed by Phil Hubbard at Stanford University. Hubbard’s evaluation
framework consists of several parts: First, Technical Preview essentially
asks whether the courseware will run on the computers and operating
system you will be using. Second, Operational Description asks what the
program can actually do and what learners can do with the program.
What does the screen layout look like? What features does the software,
website, or app have? What types of feedback do learners receive upon
making correct and incorrect choices? Perhaps the most important ele-
ments of Hubbard’s framework are teacher fit and learner fit. Teacher fit
refers to an assessment of the theoretical underpinnings of the course-
ware activities and judging how well they conform to accepted theories
of cognitive development, second language acquisition, and classroom
methodology. One should think about relevant theories or findings from
the literature when considering the degree of teacher fit.
The degree of teacher fit determines the pedagogical soundness and
appropriateness of the program. No matter how impressive the technol-
ogy, if it uses unsound methodology and does not follow its self-avowed
theoretical underpinning and instructional approach (if any were offered),
or if it is linguistically or socio-culturally problematic, then it will be of
limited use. Very often courseware will be marketed as being communi-
cative, learner-centered, or interactive, but upon closer inspection con-
tains little more than online flashcards or “drill-and-kill” exercises. This
is where the teacher needs to be a discriminating consumer. For example,
when presented with a very slick and professionally produced product
that suggests that it will help you get dates with Japanese supermodels,
or get out of traffic citations in Brazil, close a lucrative business deal in
France, communicate and connect with family members visiting from
the old country (Italy), order some sort of Schnitzel like a native (Ger-
man), or even conduct business here at home with a non-English speaker
(Chinese)—all in the respective second language—one needs to have a

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 20 Bryan Smith
look at what the theoretical and pedagogical research says about how
best to acquire those skills (arguably as an adult) in a few hours per day
on your computer.
Finally, learner fit requires you to think about your specific learners
in determining the extent to which the courseware is right for you. Is
the courseware designed for these types of learners, generally speaking?
If not, can it be adapted for them? Can you adapt your class in a way
that makes the courseware a good fit for your learners? Some of the
most basic things to consider are the linguistic level of the grammar and
vocabulary presented, the situational contexts used in the software, how
the program handles corrective feedback and assessment of learner prog-
ress, if the product can be used for both individual and group work, and
whether learners can access the content from home or on mobile devices.

CALL Journals
As in any field, it is important to keep up to date with new develop-
ments. This is especially important in teaching. CALL practitioners have
an unusually challenging task since technology is changing so rapidly.
The technology in use today will not be the same in five years. One of
the easiest ways to keep abreast of current research and new pedagogical
techniques is by joining a professional organization, attending confer-
ences, and reading professional journals. CALL offers many choices in
this respect. Table 7.1 shows a list of organizations, conferences, and
journals by geographic area. Of course, this is only a partial list and con-
tains only the best known in each category.

Reflection
Think about your current teaching context. What do your learn-
ers need to be able to do with technology as they learn and use a
foreign language? In addition to technology standards for learners,
TESOL also has technology standards for teachers. What techno-
logical skills should foreign and second language teachers possess
in the digital age?

New(er) Directions in CALL

Gaming
Digital gaming has grown in popularity worldwide and has expanded in
terms of types of games being played, audiences playing these games, and
languages in which these games are available. Research into the potential

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 Technology in Language Learning 21
Table 7.1 Professional CALL Organizations, Conferences, and Journals

Professional Organizations Conferences Journals

CALICO CALICO CALICO Journal
http://www.calico.org http://www.equinoxpub.com/
North America/Global journals/index.php/CALICO
EuroCALL EuroCALL ReCALL
http://www.eurocall http://www.eurocall-
languages.org languages.org/publications/
Europe/Global recall
APACALL CALL-EJ
http://www.apacall.org http://www.callej.org
Asia-Pacific
PacCALL GloCALL
http://paccall.org
East to Southeast Asia,
Oceania
IALLT FLEAT http://www.iallt.org/
http://www.iallt.org products/publications
Global
n/a WorldCALL http://worldcall.org/books
http://worldcall.org
Global
n/a International CALL Journal
CALL Research http://www.tandfonline.com/
Conference toc/ncal20/current#
n/a n/a Language Learning &
Technology
http://llt.msu.edu

that gaming offers to second language development is still in its infancy,

but much work in this area is currently underway. More than half of the
L2 gaming studies to date use English as the target language, and virtu-
ally every skill area has been explored. When we speak of gaming in
the context of L2 learning, we must first make a distinction between at
least two types of games. First, vernacular games are those that are not
designed specifically for L2 learning. Employing such games in the L2
classroom is known as game-enhanced learning and teaching. Research-
ers in this area argue that vernacular games offer educational advantages
not possible with games or virtual environments that are specifically
designed for L2 learning. For example, a Massively Multiplayer Online
game like World of Warcraft offers L2 learners a huge population of
native or expert speaking interlocutors, who are potential language part-
ners in the sense that they will interact with the learner in the L2 for the
genuine purpose of playing the game. When exploring game-enhanced
environments for L2 learning, researchers are most concerned with how

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 22 Bryan Smith
game-mediated L2 learning occurs naturally or “in the wild” and how
the power of such games can be harnessed for L2 learning and teaching.
In contrast, the second type of games falls under the rubric of game-based
learning and teaching. These include games that are designed for specific
educational contexts. Here researchers are largely concerned with design
issues and ask how specific game designs influence L2 learner behavior
and which design elements complement specific L2 pedagogical goals.
Findings over the past decade suggest that gaming offers both cog-
nitive as well as social affordances, which are relevant to second lan-
guage development. Cognitively oriented affordances include providing
significant repetition and redundancy of input, creating an environment
for collaboration and negotiation, increased lexical competence, and
increased confidence, resulting in an increased willingness to commu-
nicate and take risks with the target language. More socially oriented
affordances include documented pragmatic development, increased
intercultural competence, learner alignment, and literacy development.
Research also suggests that online gaming spaces are often used by learn-
ers for autonomous L2 learning (i.e., learning on one’s own). Indeed,
there is emerging evidence that students who play games outside of class,
which are designed specifically for L2 learning, tend to have higher tar-
get language proficiency than those who do not. In terms of L2 peda-
gogy, integrating gaming into task-based L2 pedagogical approaches has
proven possible and successful, and the target language discourse that
comes out of such an approach has been found to be linguistically diverse
and syntactically complex. However, research also shows instances of
learner dissatisfaction if learners perceive the gaming integration as non-
serious. Also, in some game genres, players may focus on the rules of
playing the game at the expense of language. Finally, a possible discon-
nect between teacher beliefs and gamer-learner practices may be present.
In sum, research into the relationship between gaming and L2 learning is
theoretically and methodologically heterogeneous, which opens up great
potential for future research, but also makes comparison across studies
challenging—especially when comparing gaming conditions with more
traditional classrooms.

Fan Fiction
Fan fiction is a multilingual phenomenon that involves the reading, writ-
ing, and discussion of novels, stories, movies, television series, songs,
and popular figures by fans of these media, typically in an online envi-
ronment. Anyone can be an author of a piece that is based on a wider-
known text. For example, there is a huge amount of fan fiction based
on popular books and movies such as the Harry Potter and Lord of
the Rings series, but fan fiction can emerge around things like Japanese
anime, musicals, digital games, and real life celebrities. Fans may write

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 Technology in Language Learning 23
new scenes that never appeared in the original text or may fill in the gaps
about major and minor characters. Much fan fiction continues the sto-
ryline after a book series or TV series has come to an end. For example,
there are hundreds of thousands of stories written post Harry Potter and
the Deathly Hallows. Readers can leave comments on stories, much like
on a blog or social media. Although there is research that shows that
some people write fan fiction in a second language, there is less research
on whether it can be used successfully for language teaching. Some
researchers have conducted research into the pedagogical viability of L2
fan fiction within a task-based language teaching framework (TBLT).
TBLT is a branch of communicative language teaching and focuses on
the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful
tasks using the target language. These tasks typically focus on things
that we need to do in life, such as taking the bus to the market or calling
a restaurant to make or change a reservation. Tasks can also be more
academic in nature, such as conducting an oral presentation, writing a
reflective paper, or conducting an interview and summarizing it. One
technique that has been used in L2 literature/writing classes is to have
students first read a novel and then collaborate in groups online in order
to complete the task of writing a new scene in the voice of one particular
character (from the story) of their choice. Part of the assessment in this
case is that the student writing needs to reflect the discourse style of their
character, which is only accessible through a careful and close reading of
the text. Students report that having to delve deeper into the text than
they normally do in order to put themselves inside the head of a particu-
lar character gives them more understanding of the text. Such activities
can also motivate reluctant students to write and increase their confi-
dence as L2 writers—especially as writers of fiction. Moreover, they are
often successful in writing in a way that is appropriate for the genre in
general as well as for their specific character, emulating the tone, emo-
tion, vocabulary, and syntax of their character. Finally, through corpus
analysis, comparisons of fan fiction L2 stories reveal a lexical profile
that resembles those used in fictional texts originally written in the target
language as well as other similar fan fiction stories. One thing to keep
in mind when considering using fan fiction in your L2 classroom is how
to select the fiction itself. Not all fiction is well-suited for fan fiction.
One suggestion is to visit Archive of our Own (http://archiveofourown.
org) and explore the literature that has yielded a significant amount of
fan fiction. For example, a search for Harry Potter yields over 73,000
works. In contrast, Jane Eyre yields 194 stories. Recommendations for
teachers include using fiction that also has a media element, such as the
movie versions of the Harry Potter books, and using the digital tool that
your learners are most comfortable with. Rather than using a wiki or
blog, which may require significant training for learners, students might
find posting their fan fiction to Facebook more palatable.

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 24 Bryan Smith
Digital Storytelling
Digital storytelling (DS) has emerged fairly recently as a way that learners
can use digital tools to tell their stories. Digital stories are online stories
that require the integration of text, images, voice, and sounds and are
typically highly personal in nature, covering a range of digital narratives,
including web-based stories, interactive stories, hypertexts, and narrative
computer games. However, DS involves more than simple inclusion of
these elements; rather, it requires the dynamic integration and combination
of these elements in ways that promote learners’ linguistic development.
Research is just emerging about the potential for using DS for L2 learning,
but work thus far suggests that the integration of DS in, say, L2 writing
classes seems to challenge (in a positive way) learners’ conceptions of the
act of writing, shifting away from traditional paper and pencil or even
word processing approaches into areas that are new and demanding.
Digital storytelling has been found to be especially successful with stu-
dents who struggle with writing in traditional terms. Because of the integra-
tion of the elements listed above, DS allows learners (both L1 and L2) to
produce multimodal texts that parallel those media products they encoun-
ter every day. Indeed, the processes involved in constructing DS correspond
nicely to many of the skills developed in, say, freshman writing classes, such
as choosing a compelling topic, selecting images (providing evidence to sup-
port claims), and integrating sound that is appropriate to the story (provid-
ing vivid description; bolstering appeals to pathos). DS can enhance learners’
communication skills and require learners to organize their narrative, argu-
ment, or comparisons in coherent and creative ways. Some research finds
that L2 learners involved in semester-long DS projects used more complex
sentences and paid more attention to formal elements of language.
Most of the work into DS is done from a Vygotskian-influenced theoreti-
cal perspective. As such, the role and influence of the actual tools employed
during DS are important. Like any piece of technology, these tools are
found to have certain affordances that interact with learners’ perceptions
of them. For example, a video editing tool such as Final Cut or iMovie will
certainly shape the learner’s writing process. Research also suggests that DS
facilitates a heightened sense of audience, which is potentially expanded
to include anyone with an Internet connection and access to sites such as
YouTube, where many DS projects reside. The heightened awareness of this
expansive audience influences learner choices in terms of language, narrative,
pictures, and sounds used to achieve the desired impact. Indeed, in order
to gain their audience’s attention, DS pushes learners to create interesting,
educational, and purposeful stories for which they need to use the precise
grammar and vocabulary to convey the desired tone, rhythm, and emotion.
DS is well-suited for collaborative work in the L2 classroom. While
constructing DS projects, learners give and receive valuable feedback on
content, language, and technical aspects of the project, and the task-based
nature of DS allows them time to reflect on the different phases of the

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 Technology in Language Learning 25
DS development. When compared to more traditional writing, DS prod-
ucts seem to have a more casual quality, though learners do not seem
to lose sight of grammatical and organizational elements they learn in
writing more traditional academic essays. Research suggests that student
attitudes toward DS are quite positive, with the perceived benefits being
closely tied to the notion of a wider audience for their work. The use
of sophisticated digital editing tools seems to be an initial hurdle that
instructors and students must clear, but reports suggest learners come to
appreciate new digital literacy skills acquired during DS projects.

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning

Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is one of the most exciting
and compelling areas within CALL today. When we speak of MALL, we
are typically referring to the use of any device that allows one to read,
listen to, learn, or practice language on the go. Such devices include mp3
players, mobile phones, and tablets. There are obvious benefits to using
mobile devices, such as portability and accessibility. Newer mobile devices,
such as iPads, are finding their way into more and more educational envi-
ronments because of their large screen size, higher resolution, and more
powerful multimedia capabilities, as well as their ability to connect to
many Wi-Fi networks free of charge. Research on mobile devices in L2
contexts suggests that they can help improve time management and moti-
vation among learners. Another clear benefit to using mobile technologies
is that mobile-facilitated learning can give students in low-resource areas
increased access to educational materials and services, particularly in rural
and remote regions. Perhaps the most compelling benefit for using mobile
devices in L2 contexts, however, is the ability to provide content via dif-
ferent technologies, thus allowing more flexibility of access.
One problem with many studies into mobile L2 learning is that they
occur in classroom environments, which are not the typical environments
in which most people use their smartphones and other mobile devices. In
order to get an idea of the true nature of mobile learning, studies need to
focus more on mobile use in a naturalistic setting. Nevertheless, research
moving outside of the classroom suggests that not everything is conducive
to being learned on a mobile device. For example, some work shows that
when given the choice of whether to use their mobile phone or desktop PC
for completing vocabulary learning activities, the overwhelming majority
of learners choose the PC, though there is no evidence that they perform
better on the PC over the mobile device, despite the smaller screen on the
latter. There is also evidence that typical language learning activities take
longer to complete on mobile devices than on desktops. What all of this
tells us is that comparative studies such as PC versus iPhone, for example,
are likely asking the wrong questions. Mobile devices are popular for a
reason. They offer several affordances, which are specific to the mobile
devices under consideration. For example, iPads offer quite different

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 26 Bryan Smith
affordances than iPhones, largely because of the difference in screen size
and input methods. iPhones (or any smartphone) are likely better for tasks
that require learners to be out of the classroom on, say, a scavenger hunt
whereby they need to be truly mobile while using a map application. An
iPad is simply too cumbersome for such a task. In contrast, iPads have a
clear advantage over smartphones when it comes to tasks requiring more
stationary learners to view video clips and then find information or to read
a large amount of information online, also because of the larger screen size.
Employing mobile devices in the L2 classroom can help teachers who
are struggling with the main practical issue that plagues instructed SLA;
namely, the insufficient time that learners have using language in commu-
nicative events and the lack of opportunities learners have to be exposed
to a variety of authentic materials. Through the use of mobile devices,
learners can increase the number of opportunities for interaction with
other learners, native speakers, and authentic materials of all sorts out-
side of the classroom. Overall, studies integrating mobile devices find
that the additional practice afforded by using these devices can increase
the amount and quality of learners’ oral production. For example, some
CALL research shows that employing tablets in the overall language
learning experience can help facilitate increases in learner production in
terms of sentence length and syntactic complexity. Overall, integrating
personal mobile devices affords students ownership of learning, which
can lead to positive language learning experiences.

Reflection
This section discussed gaming, fan fiction, digital storytelling, and
mobile-assisted language learning. Which of these are best suited
for your specific context? Is there one that would be difficult to
implement or perhaps would not work well? Why do you answer
the way you do?

Quiz
Take the following quiz to see what you have learned since the last
quiz. Answers are given at the end, so don’t peek!

1. Third party evaluations of CALL courseware are most likely to

be found . . .
a. in a professional journal.
b. on the publisher’s website.
c. at a major conference.

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 Technology in Language Learning 27

2. Learners engaged in this type of activity will likely need train-

ing in how to use digital editing tools.
a. MALL
b. fan fiction
c. digital storytelling
3. An example of well-constructed and technology-specific stan-
dards for language teachers and learners are the . . .
a. CALICO technology standards.
b. ACTFL technology standards.
c. TESOL technology standards.
4. The specific features, advantages, or abilities of a specific digi-
tal tool are known as . . .
a. theoretical perspectives.
b. affordances.
c. challenges.
5. An assessment of the theoretical underpinnings of courseware
activities would fall under the category of . . .
a. learner fit.
b. teacher fit.
c. technical fit.
6. This is a multilingual phenomenon that involves the reading,
writing, and discussing of novels, stories, movies, television
series, songs, and popular figures by consumers of these media,
typically in an online environment.
a. gaming
b. fan fiction
c. digital storytelling
7. A learner of English who listens to an English language podcast
each morning on the way to school is engaging in . . .
a. digital storytelling.
b. MALL.
c. TBLT.
8. An L2 teacher who uses a digital game that was not designed
specifically for language learning is engaging in . . .
a. game-based learning.
b. game-specific learning.
c. game-enhanced learning.

[Answers: 1. a; 2. c; 3. c; 4. b; 5. b; 6. b; 7. b; 8. c]

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 28 Bryan Smith
Summary and Conclusion
In this module, we have provided a sketch of the past and present of
computer-assisted language learning. From its historical roots in drill-
based exercises to the use of smartphones for interactive language learn-
ing, CALL has attempted to make use of the current technologies of the
time. We have explored the nature and effectiveness of various types of
computer-mediated communication, which, despite the ever-changing
technical landscape, is here to stay in one form or another and have
briefly examined the nexus of SLA theory and CALL. We have seen how
computer technology is put to use for interaction with language and cul-
ture both in and out of the classroom. Likewise, we have explored how
CALL might be employed in specific skill area development. A principled
approach to evaluating and selecting CALL materials was presented and
professional resources were shared for those who wish to delve more
deeply into professional development in CALL. Finally, four of the most
current areas of interest in CALL were discussed: gaming, fan fiction,
digital storytelling, and mobile-assisted language learning and the ben-
efits and challenges of each addressed.
One of the major challenges in CALL research is the seemingly irrec-
oncilable relationship between fast-paced technological development on
the one hand and our need to fully explore whether and how these tech-
nologies can be employed to facilitate second language development on
the other. As computer technology is constantly developing, it is clear
that the effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself, as it
is always changing; rather, effectiveness must be judged in how these
technologies are put to use in ways that are consistent with theoretical
and pedagogical developments in education. Surely, new technological
tools are exciting; however, at the core of our success or failure in L2
education is not whether we are using the newest tools, but rather the
degree to which our choices regarding how best to integrate CALL in the
L2 classroom are based on theoretically informed and empirically tested
pedagogy.

Discussion Questions and Projects

1. Below is a small segment from the TESOL Technology Standards.
Can you list four plausible performance indicators that will reflect
learner competence in meeting this standard/goal?
Goal 1: Language learners demonstrate foundational knowledge and
skills in technology for a multilingual world.
Standard 1: Language learners demonstrate basic operational
skills in using various technology tools and Internet browsers.

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 Technology in Language Learning 29
Performance Indicators
1.
2.
3.
4.
2. In an effort to examine the efficacy of CALL, many early CALL stud-
ies compared L2 learning in classrooms that used computer technol-
ogy of some sort to classrooms that did not use computer technology.
Construct a case in favor of and a case against conducting such stud-
ies. What do we hope to learn from such comparisons? Are such
comparisons valid? Helpful?
3. Ask three of your students how they use mobile technologies each
day. What types of mobile device(s) do they use? On a typical day,
what do they use their mobile device(s) for? How many minutes per
day do they estimate that they use their mobile device(s)? With all
of this information in mind, what skill area(s) (reading, writing, lis-
tening, or speaking) do you think can benefit most from the use of
smartphones in L2 teaching/learning? Which skill area can benefit
least? Why do you answer the way you do?
4. Examine the CALICO Journal website (http://www.equinoxpub.
com/journals/index.php/CALICO). Explore a few of the recently
published issues and read a few of the software/learning technology
reviews. Try to find a review of CALL courseware or a website that
you have access to. Does the review match your own impression of
this courseware or website? How would your review of the same
courseware differ from that which you read?
5. Chat with a colleague, student, friend, or other person for five min-
utes using a desktop-based chat program such as Yahoo Messenger
or Messages (Mac). It is important that you use a desktop with a
regular keyboard. Then chat with another colleague, student, friend,
or other person for the same amount of time using a chat applica-
tion on a smartphone. What differences do you notice in terms of the
nature of the interaction? Do you think that these differences might
have some implications for using each device for language learning?
How do you think your interaction and language would differ if you
were to chat with the same people via video chat (such as Google
Hangouts or Skype)?
Note: you can download a great deal of freeware and shareware at
http://sourceforge.net. Simply type what you are looking for (for
example, chat) into the search bar.
6. Imagine that you would like to set up a telecollaborative exchange
lasting five weeks with a colleague teaching in another country. This

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 30 Bryan Smith
country should be one where the target language of your students
is spoken. The goal of this exchange will be to learn about the tar-
get language culture. What challenges do you anticipate as you plan
your telecollaboration? How will you overcome these challenges?
What things will you need to plan for in order to make the telecol-
laborative exchange a success for your students?

Suggestions for Further Reading

Arnold, N., & Ducate, L. (2011). Present and future promises of CALL: From
theory and research to new directions in language teaching. San Marcos, TX:
CALICO.
Blake, R. (2013). Brave new digital classroom. Washington, DC: Georgetown
University Press.
Chapelle, C., & Jamieson, J. (2008). Tips for teaching with CALL: Practical
approaches to computer-assisted language learning. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Sykes, J., & Reinhardt, J. (2012). Language at play: Digital games in second and
foreign language teaching and learning. Boston: Pearson.

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