Bio - Statistics and

Research Methodology

By,
Dr. Rahul Manvendra Ganbawale
B.H.M.S, M.D. (Hom.)
- Hon. Visiting Lecturer Dept. of Biostatistics and
Research Methodology, Dr. J. J. Magdum Homeopathic
Medical College, Post-Graduate Research Institute,
Jaysingpur.
- Member of International Homoeopathic Medical
Society, U.S.A.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2

* Published by,

* © Copyright reserved with the author.

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise
without prior written permission of the publishers.

 First Edition: July 2006.

 Second Edition :

* Price. Rs.

* Book Cover Page and Diagrams Designed by:

* Printed at:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3

Dedicated to,
My parents and teachers.
Their words always inspired me.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

It is great pleasure for me to offer this work to the profession.

There are many books on Statistics and Research Methodology. But
there are very few books on Homoeopathic Statistics and Research
Methodology. I found that the students are confused and they need a
good training to understand this important subject. Here is a humble
attempt to give a basic introduction and guidelines to the study of
Statistics and Research Methodology. I have written this book
keeping in view the syllabus set by the Central Council of
Homoeopathy, which is applicable to Post Graduate course of
Homoeopathy.
I am confident that by referring to this book, the students
would develop an attitude of thinking. I hope, this book will continue
to serve not only the medical students for whom it is intended but also
those in allied professionals.
I have tried my level best to make this book, a complete and
useful one; however suggestion if any is most welcome.

July 2006, Kolhapur. Dr. Rahul Ganbawale

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5

FORWORD
I am happy to write forword to book – Biostatistics and
Research Methodology written by Dr. Rahul Ganbawale. I have gone
through this book. This is a unique book written by Homoeopath on
Biostatistics and Research Methodology, up till now allopath write
these types of books. But as this book is written with Homoeopathic
background, is useful to students who are doing Post Graduation in
Homoeopathy. This will serve purpose for doing thesis and for
appearing examination.
In Homoeopathy many practioners are doing well, but their
results are not published. To flourish Homoeopathy we should
produce our result in Statistics form and also we should understand
Research Methodology. This book will serve this purpose.
This young Homoeopath is sincere; research oriented and will
contribute for Homoeopathy.
I wish best luck for his bright future and congratulate for
writing this book.

Dr. Sukumar J. Magdum

M.B.B.S, M.S. (Ortho)
Executive Director,
Dr. J.J.Magdum Homoeopathic
Medical College, Post-Graduate
And Research Institute,
Jaysingpur. (Maharashtra)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 6

FORWORD

I have immense pleasure in writing a forward to this book of

Dr. Rahul Ganbawale. In this book – Biostatics and Research
Methodology. Dr. Ganbawale has divided the subject into 3 parts.
First he gives Biostatistics. The second part „Research Methodology‟
is presented in depth.
The students and teachers of Homeopathy must ponder the
ways of resolution that he has suggested. In the third part Dr.
Ganbawale has given tables for calculation with question bank. On
going through the book one becomes immediately conscious of the
vast labor undertaken by him in compiling this book.
I express my good wishes to Dr. Rahul Ganbawale and
express that he should come out with an enlarged version over this
important subject.

Dr. Arun Bhasme

M.D (Hom.)
- Executive Member – Central Council of
Homoeopathy (New Delhi)
- Principal, S.K.H. Medical College,
Beed. (Maharashtra)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In bringing out this venture, I feel indebted to mention Dr. J. J.

Magdum. President Dr. J. J. Magdum Trust‟s, Dr. Sukumar J.
Magdum. E.g. Director. Dr. J.J.Magdum Hom. Medical College,
Jaysingpur. Dr. Vijay Bhagate. Principal Dr. J.J.Magdum Hom.
Medical College, Jaysingpur. And Dr. Shubhangi S. Magdum, faculty
of Homoeopathy who are the sources of inspiration for me.
I must mention Dr.Mrs.Sangita Bharamgude and Dr.Mrs.
Mankapure for their parental love and affection. They are idols for
me.
My gratitude is due to Dr. P. M. Ganbawale, Head of Dept. of
Organon and Philosophy, Dr. V. R. Khanaj, Head of Dept. of
Repertory, Dr. V.N.Patil, Head of dept. of Materia Medica, Dr.
Ravindra Chougule, Dr.S.B Banne one of my teachers and P.G in
charge.
My Special thanks to Mr. Ajit R. Kopardekar for his help, my
friends, my colleagues, college staff and P.G. students also has a share
in this venture.

Dr. Rahul Ganbawale.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 8

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

The publication of second edition of this book speaks volumes
about the success of first edition which was well received by many
Homoeopaths. The aim of this new edition is to provide advanced
researches in medical field.
I have tried to present the subject in a simple language which
can be easily understood by everyone.
During the preparation of 2nd edition of this book, I generously
drew help from many friends and P.G. students for their kind co-
operation during the preparation of this book. The purpose of this
book is to explain the same in vivid and more palatable manner so
much so that every student of Homoeopathy may successfully get
knowledge without facing any difficulty and even the lay Homeopaths
may keep place with other members of the profession by deriving the
requisite knowledge of this deep subject through a general study of
this book.
I request the readers to offer constructive criticism and useful
suggestion to improve subsequent editions.

March 2007 Dr. Rahul Ganbawale.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 9

Contents
 Common Terms used in Biostatistics and Research
Methodology.
 List of Symbols and Greek Alphabet.

Part I - Biostatistics
1. Statistics
2. Statistical Data
3. Sampling
4. Central Tendency
5. Dispersion
6. Normal Distribution
7. Measures of Location
8. Probability
9 Statistics and Epidemiology
10. Life Table
11. Errors in Statistics and Research
12. Correlations and Regression

Part II - Research Methodology

1. Research
2. Research Designs
3. Analytical Studies
4. Hypothesis
5. Computer in Research
6. Laboratory Tests
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 10

7. Latest Equipments and Technologies

In Investigations
8. Radio Isotopes and Radiation
9. Advanced Research Instruments
10. Recent Advances in Medicine
11. Drug Proving
12. Meta Analysis
13. Significant Tests
14. Demography
15. Operations Research
16. Medical Ethics
17. Thesis (Dissertation)

Mathematical Tables
1. Logarithm Table
2. Anti Logarithm Table
3. Areas of Standard Normal Distribution
4. Percentile Value for Students „t‟ Distribution
5. Percentile Value for the Chi-Square Distribution
6. Conversion of Persons „r‟ into corresponding Fishers „z‟
Coefficient.
7. Spearmans Rank difference Correlations
 Exercise
 References
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 11

COMMON TERMS USED IN STATISTICS

AND RESEARCH
Analysis:
It means computation of certain measure along with searching
for pattern of relationship that exists among data groups. The
main object of statistical analysis is to abstract significant facts
from the large mass of data collected during the enquiry.
Authority:
It is the method relies upon the knowledge of experts in their
fields when there are some differences of opinion about
previous knowledge. The experts are needed to answer or
clarify these differences of opinion.
Average:
It is a value in the distribution around which the other values
are distributed.
Bias:
A systematic distortion of a statistical result due to a factor not
allowed for in its derivation.
Chance:
It is a correct observation because of error arising from
random variation.
Classification:
It is a process of arrangement of data in groups according to
similarities in characteristics.
Coding:
It is a process of assigning number or numerals to answers.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12

Concept:
It is an overall idea about particular things or phenomena.
Correlation:
It is the relationship or association between two continuous
variables.
Data:
It is collected information on a specific subject, or a set of
values obtained by measurement or counting.
Editing:
Its is a process of modifying by examining and correcting any
errors.
Hypothesis:
A tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship
between two or more variables on the basis of limited
evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
Incidence:
It is the number of new cases arising in a given period in a
specified population.
Interpretation:
It is an art of drawing conclusions and explaining their
significance after a careful analysis.
Intuition:
It is the method, which relies upon its appeal to reason. The
investigator who supports the proposition should show that the
reasons are considered to be correct so that it becomes an
important step in research.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 13

Mean:
It is the average of a set of quantities and is calculated by
dividing the sum of quantities by the number of cases.
Measurement:
It is the application of number to the characteristics of objects,
persons, states or events.
Median:
It is the point in a frequency distribution of observed values or
quantities with an equal number of cases on either side of it.
Meta Analysis:
It is a process of combining the result of several clinical
studies on the same subject to derive a definitive conclusion.
Mode:
It is the most frequent observations seen in a series.
Morbidity:
It is defined as any departure, subjective or objective, from a
state of physiological well being.
Mortality:
It means death from any cause. Mortality rate is the number
of deaths in a given area or period, or from a particular cause.
Natality:
It is defined as the rate of birth per unit time per area.
Population:
Population is defined as the total number of individuals of a
given species at a specific area at a particular time, or it is an
entire mass or a group of people or group of quantitative data.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 14

Prevalence:
The prevalence of a disease is the number of cases in a given
population at a specific point of time.
Randomization:
It is a procedure by which participants are allocated into study
group and control group.
Rate:
It is a measure of the occurrence of some particular event (e.g.
development of disease or the occurrence of death) in a
population during a given time period.
Ratio:
Ratio is the quantitative relation between two amounts
showing the number of time one value contains or is contained
within the other.
Research:
A scholarly pursuit directed towards systematic search, or
investigation in to and study of materials and sources in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusion.
Research Methods:
The techniques that are used for conduction of a research.
Research Methodology:
It is the way to solve problems systematically; or it is a
planned approach towards observing the reality, defining the
problems, examining its various dimensions, analyzing and
evaluating the information and drawing conclusions there
from.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 15

Sample:
It is a selected number of individuals each of which is a part
of whole population.
Sampling:
It is a technique of selecting a sample.
Sampling Frame:
It is a cluster of units from which sample is to be selected.
Scale:
The instrument, which is used, is called scale.
Scientific Research:
It is a systematically controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical proposition about the presumed
relations among the natural phenomena; or it is the process of
knowing new facts and verifying old ones by the application
of systematic and scientific methods to the natural
phenomenon.
Sensitivity:
It is the ability of a test to identify correctly those who have
the disease that is true positive.
Specificity:
It is the ability of a test to identify correctly those who do not
have the disease that is true negative.
Screening:
It is testing for infection or disease in population or on
individuals who are not seeking health care.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16

Tabulation:
It is the summarization of results in the form of statistical
tables.
Tenacity:
It is the tendency to continue to believe a proposition through
habit keeping a firm hold on it. Here, we accept a preposition
as true simply because we have always believed it to be true.
Transcription:
It is an act of transcribing or making copy of any kind from
the original.
Validity:
It means acceptability depending on accuracy.
Variable:
It is a quantity which is able to assume different numerical
values as per need. In statistics variable are the characteristics
of an individual which can be measured numerically.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 17

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbol Meaning
W Set of whole numbers
N Set of natural numbers or Number of observations
Q Set of rational numbers or Quartile
< Is less than
> Is greater than
~ is similar to
Since
Therefore
The absolute value of x
f(x) A Function of x
Varies as
Σ Summation
X Chi
μ Mu
ƒ Frequency
√ Root
A Assumed mean
d Deviation of variables
V Variance
X Mean
P Probability
Ho Null Hypothesis
O Observed value
E Expected value
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 18

r Coefficient of correlation
D Difference
G Geometric mean
H Harmonic mean
M Median
L Lower limit
C Cumulative frequency
i Width of class interval
Mo Mode
m Mid - point
SE Standard error
df Degree of freedom
fo Observed frequency
fe Expected frequency
pdf Probability density function
Ø Mother Tincture
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19

GREEK ALPHABET

Symbol Meaning
λ Lambda
Δ Delta
б Sigma or Standard deviation
p Rho Spearmen‟s rank correlation coefficient
α Alpha
β Beta
γ Gamma
δ Delta
Ψ Psi

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 20

PART I - BIOSTATISTICS
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 21
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 22

Chapter No. 1

STATISTICS
History:
tatistics the word is derived from Latin word „Status‟. In
S German mythology a word „Statistik‟ was used for the
first time political arrangement. It was Gottfried Achenwall who used
his word in the history of medicine.
Pierre C.A. Louis (1787-1872), a pioneer of clinical Statistics,
studied 77 patients of Pneumonia. He counted and compared the
results of patients treated by „Blood Letting‟ and concluded that early
bleeding was associated with reduced survival.
William Bateson and Galton applied Mathematics to
Evolution.
In 1959, Robert Ledley and Lee Lusted published –Reasoning
Foundations of Medical Diagnosis. They were the first to provide a
mathematical analysis of the reasoning process inherent in medical
diagnosis
Wilfrid Card and Jack Good (1973) wrote on Mathematical
Structure of Clinical Medicine and Logical Analysis of Medicine.
Dr. Hahnemann also mention under the foot note of §106 in
his 6th edition of Organon of Medicine - The healing art will then
come near the mathematical sciences in certainty.
Statistics:
In simple words, Statistics is a science of figures which deals
with data in an experimental study.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 23

According to Webster:
Statistics are the classified facts representing the conditions of
the people in a state especially those facts which can be stated in
number or in a table of numbers or in any tabular or classified
arrangement.
According to Bowley:
Statistics is a numerical statement of facts in any department
of enquiry placed in relation to each other.
According to Horace Secrist:
By statistics we mean the aggregate of facts affected to a
marked extent by multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed,
enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of
accuracy, collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined
purpose and placed in relation to each other.
According to Croxton and Cowden:
Statistics may be defined as a science of collection,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
In brief, Statistics is a method of taking decision on the basis
of numerical data properly collected organized, presented, analyzed
and interpreted.

Biostatistics:
The branch of statistics concerned with data related to living
organisms is known as Biostatistics or Biometry.
Biometry:
In Greek, bios = life and
Matron = measure
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 24

So, Biometry is the science of a measurement of life.

Branches of Biostatistics:
According to its application in different fields, Biostatistics is
divided in following branches:
a) Health Statistics:
It is useful in community medicine and public health system.
b) Medical Statistics:
Statistics related to study of diseases and their treatment by the
use of drug.
c) Vital Statistics:
Statistics related to demography and vital events.
In Biostatistics we study humans or animals and their
biological phenomena, problems related to public health and
medicines also.
How to Study Statistics:
As Statistics is a logical and systematic science, it has its own
principles, laws and certain procedures to be followed stepwise.
Therefore it should be studied as under:

First stage : Collection of data

nd
2 stage : Organization of data
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 25

3rd stage : Presentation of data

4th stage : Analysis of data
5th stage : Interpretation of data

Characteristics of Statistics:
 Statistics is a quantitative expression and not a qualitative
expression.
 Statistics is the aggregate of facts.
 Statistics is affected by multiplicity of causes.
 Statistics is estimated based on reasonable standard of
accuracy.
 Statistical data is collected for pre-determined purpose.
 Statistical data should be related to each other.
Limitations of Statistics:
 It does not study the qualitative aspects.
 Individualistic study is very difficult in this science.
 Statistical studies are based on average values or results.
 It lacks mathematical accuracy.
 Statistics is only a means and not an end of study.

Aims of Statistics:
The aim of Statistics is not only to collect numerical
data but also to provide a methodology from which certain
conclusion can be arrived it.

Utility of Statistics in Homoeopathy:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 26

 It helps in presenting large quantity of data in a simple and

classified form. Suppose, if we want to show the results of
many patients suffering from the same disease, we can
classify them into different groups according to age or sex
and may present them in a tabular form. That means, with
the help of Statistics we can express information on a
number of patients or remedies in a smaller space by
classifying them.
 Statistics gives the methods of comparison of data and it
weighs and judges them in the right perspective e.g. we
can use this science for comparison of different
Homoeopathic remedies for classification of grade and
intensity etc. of symptoms.
 It assists in arriving at correct views based on facts.
 It helps in finding relationship between the variables.
Many remedies show relationship at certain state of
patients. One can use statistics here, which helps in writing
the second prescription, and in the follow up study of
patients.
 It providers materials or data to researchers which serve as
a guide for future planning and programs.
 It is useful in drug proving. Proving of new drugs as well
as verification and re-proving of old drugs.
 To asses normal or healthy state of a person; that is, to find
limits of variables. E.g. blood pressure. The normal range
and that is 80 – 120 mm of Hg. But it may be normal
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 27

above this range has to be ascertained with statistical

techniques.
 To find the correlation between two variables such as Diet
and weight. Weight increases or decreases proportionately
with diet.
 To find the difference between means and proportions of
normal individuals at two different places or at different
periods.
 It is used in drug proving process; that is, in the action of a
particular drug, both on humans and animals, it helps in
ascertaining the pathogenic and curing power of that
particular drug.
 It is used to compare the action of same drug on different
persons which helps in understanding individual
characteristic symptoms of that drug / patient.
 To compare the efficacy of a particular drug by using
experimental or control group.
 To find the incidence, prevalence and progress of
symptoms observed in the course of a disease – holistic
approach.
 It is used in preventive medicine to measure the death rates
from vaccinated or un-vaccinated individuals and to asses‟
efficacy of a particular drug as a prophylactic medicine for
a specific disease by using appropriate statistical tests.
 In epidemiological studies the role of causative factors is
statistically examined. For example deficiency of vitamin
C causes scurvy in a community is confirmed only after
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 28

comparing the scurvy cases before and after supplying

vitamin C.
 It is used for recording, the rate of birth, death, morbidity
etc. which are the basic tools in Demography.
 It is used for analysis of certain components of case
taking, e.g. Thermal Analysis (Hot / Chilly /
Ambithermal), Miasmatic Analysis (Psora / Sycosis /
Syphilis) etc.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 29

Chapter No. 2

STATISTICAL DATA

D ata is a facts and statistics, expressed either in

quantitative or in qualitative form and used for
reference and analysis. It is collective information on a specific
subject.
Types of Data:
1) Qualitative (Nominal / Ordinal):-
E.g. Disease status of the patient (Yes/No)
Stages of cancer I, II, III, IV etc.
2) Quantitative (Discrete / Continuous):

i) Nominal Data:
The following data indicating the sex, male or female, of the
patients undergoing appendectomy are as follows:
Patients: F,M,F,M,M,F,F,M,F,M,F
M=5
F=6
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 30

Table No. 1 Frequency Distribution undergoing appendectomy

Gender Frequency
Males 5
Females 6

ii) Ordinal:
Example: The researchers have to evaluate the effectiveness
of a newly proved homoeopathic drug for headache versus placebo
treatment.
Pain intensity is as follows:
Experimental Group : 3,4,4,3,3,3,4,2,1,3,2,1,3,4,4,2,3,3,3,3.
Placebo Group : 4,4,4,4,4,3,4,3,2,4,4,2,4,5,3,4,4,4,4,4,4
1 = no pain
2 = mild pain
3 = moderate pain
4 = severe pain
Table No. 2 Pain intensity of patients following placebo and drug
treatment:
Pain Experimental
Placebo Group
Intensity Group
1 2 --
2 3 2
3 10 3
4 5 15
n = 20 N = 20
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31

Collection of Data:
There are many sources of collection. Collection of data is the
first stage in Statistics. We can collect materials or data from the
following sources:
Sources of Data

Internal Data External Data

1) Internal Data:
The data which is limited to that society, organization,
institute or government, and published regularly and have internal
information, is called internal data they produce regular reports for
their own purpose for future planning. E.g. government department‟s,
railway, education, Zillah Parishad, charitable trust, co-operative
departments, banks etc.
2) External Data:
The data which is collected from outside is called external
data. This type of information can be collected by census or sample
method by conducting surveys and investigations.
External data can be obtained from two sources as follows;

External Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 32

1) Primary Data:

Primary Data

Personal Interview Information from Questionnaire

Correspondents
Direct Indirect Mailed Filled by
Enumerator

Primary Data:
The data which is obtained by the investigator either by his
own or through some agency set up for a specific purpose, directly
from the field of enquiry for the first time is called Primary Data. This
is original one. Ideally it should be unprejudiced. Many scientific
researches are based on primary data.
Primary data can be collected by the following methods:
I] Direct Personal Interviews:
Here, the researchers or his agency collect data personally
from persons who are the subject of enquiry.
If the area of an enquiry is limited, we can directly reach to
each person, provided researcher should be unprejudiced, skilled and
pleased. Example: If a teacher wants to know the personality of
students in a class he may interview his students personally one by
one.
ii] Indirect Personal Interview:
If a person refuses to provide information to an investigator,
then we can adopt indirect personal interview method. Here the
information is collected from the persons who are nearest to him.
( His relatives, family members, friends, associates etc.)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 33

Example: Inquiry of an alcoholic drunkard is very difficult.

Therefore, in this situation we should gather information about him
from his nearest persons; or during traffic accident we get information
from persons who are present at the time of accident.
In developing countries like India this method is used mainly by
committees and commissions appointed by a government. Here
selection of information is very important because the information
provided to the investigators is the basic tools for their reports..
2) Information from Correspondents:
Here, local agents or correspondents are appointed in the
different parts of investigation area. They provide information to the
researchers. It is used when the information is to be obtained from a
wide area and where high degree of accuracy is not required.
Example: Newspapers or Radio departments. They obtain news or
articles, programs, etc. by this method.
3) Questionnaire:
It is a set of printed questions usually with a choice of
answers. In the question sheet itself spaces are allowed for giving
answers prepared by an investigator as per schedule. In this list
there is a space for answers.
i) Mailed Questionnaire:
Here, certain questions are sent to informants by post and the
answers are kept confidential. It is the most popular method
used during these days.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 34

ii) Questionnaire to be filled by the enumerator:

The basic points to be observed in of drafting a good
questionnaire are:
(1) The questions should be simple and clear. There should
not be any ambiguity in any question.
(2) The questions should be arranged logically in a proper
order.
(3) Personal questions.
(4) Instructions to the informants.
(5) The questions should be divided under different heads.
(6) Multiple-choice questions.
(7) Simple alternative questions.
(10) Specific information questions.
(11) Open questions.
(12) Questions should be related to subject only.
(13) Avoid leading questions.
(14) Layout should be attractive.
(15) Check errors.

Secondary Data:

Secondary Data

Published Unpublished

Govt. International Bodies Semi Official Committee Report Private

Publications Publications Publications

Journals Research Companies Articles and Reports

Institutions
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 35

Secondary Data:
The data which is collected by some agency when used by
another, or collected for one purpose when used for another may be
termed as Secondary Data. The main advantage of this system is that
it saves time and money.
Secondary data is either published or unpublished information

Published Data:
1. Govt. Publications:
Many government departments such as Health and Family
Welfare Dept. of central and state government regularly publish
current information with statistics. E.g. Health Statistics, Agriculture
Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, Gazette, etc.
2. International Organization:
Many international organizations like WHO (World Health
Organization) UNO (United Nations Organization), UNICEF publish
valuable data annually regarding people‟s health, Trade and
Companies atomic research. Etc. which provide valuable statistical
information about each country and its place in the world standard.
3. Semi-official Publications:
Local bodies such as Municipal Corporation, Gram Panchayat,
etc. publish reports periodically, which provide information about
people‟s health, birth and death rate, sanitation, literacy, etc.
4. Reports of Committees or Commissions:
There are committees and, or commissions of enquiry
appointed by the central and the state government for some special
purpose and study. Their reports have very high values.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 36

5. Private Publication:
i) Journal and Newspapers:
Journals like Links, Asian Journal, Journal of Industries etc,
provide valuable statistical information on health, medical status, and
industries etc. commerce. Many newspapers like The Times of India,
The Economic Times on Financial Express regularly publish data on
different fields.
ii) Research Institutes:
These are the most important sources of secondary data. Many
research institutes at national level like ICR, CCRH and various
departments at university level provide data on different subjects
from their research activities.
iii) Private Companies:
Companies in the private sector publish annual reports along
with the balance sheets and profits and loss accounts. These reports
help the government to assess the economic status of the state. The
data related to financial positions of the companies, their annual
productions and sales etc. are considered as secondary data and
become useful to the economists and researchers.
iv) Articles and Reports:
Articles and reports published by various field workers and
social activities provide valuable information on different subjects.
Unpublished Data:
In many departments like, Atomic research departments,
information and technology dept. medical research institutes,
Research workers or scientists have great information regarding their
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 37

subject but they never publish their data without Government

permission or their Head of department or Chief.

Limitations of Secondary Data:

As a homoeopathic physician, one should not accept
secondary data blindly unless and until they are confirmed.
Following are some of the limitations of secondary data:
i) The procedure of collection of data may vary from person to
person.
ii) The information that was collected for particular subject may not
be suitable and relevant today or in future.
iii) Rate of accuracy is very low because of inadequate data.
iv) It does not help till the end of research.
In scientific research institutes, secondary data have less value
than primary data.

Organization of Data:
Organization of data is nothing but simply classification of
data. Classification is the process of dividing different things into
definite classes according to their similarity and dissimilarity.
Soon after collection of data starts, arrangement should be
made to scrutinize them. After proper scrutiny, the information is
classified and tabulated. The main object of statistical analysis is to
abstract significant facts from a large collection of data. The
statisticians arrange these data according to their characteristics and
affinities. Classification or systematic arrangement of data is called
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 38

organization of data which is one of the major step during research

investigation.
Aims and Objects of Classification:
 It presents collected data in a definite and properly ordered
form.
 It eliminates unnecessary parts of our data.
 Portrait of data can be made.
 Similar and dissimilar things are useful for comparative
study.
 Many primary conclusions can be drawn.
 It is useful for further statistical calculations.

Classification of Statistical Data:

Data

Geographical Chronological Qualitative Quantitative

Alphabetical Descending Ascending Descending

Simple Compound

Continuous Discrete Class-interval

 Geographical Classification :
Collection of data according to area or region of some parts of
a country is called Geographical Classification.
It is further classified as follows:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 39

i) Alphabetical Order:
Here, names of the villages, districts, states or countries given
alphabetically.
Example: Countries – America, Burma, China, Denmark, and their
Literacy Rate – 95%, 65%, 60%, 80% respectively.
ii) Descending Order:
Here, names of the countries do not appear in an alphabetical
order but the percentage distribution is according to descending order
(consider above example).
Countries : America, Denmark, Burma, China.
Literacy rate : 95% 80% 65% 60%
 Chronological or Temporal Classification :
Classification of data according to time is called chronological
or temporal classification. Time may be in the form of year, month,
weeks, etc. It may be classified either in ascending order or in
descending order as per requirement.
i) Ascending Type:
Example: Population of Kolhapur city for the last 5 years is as
follows:
Year Population
2000 – 2001 60500
2001 – 2002 74200
2002 – 2003 80350
2003 – 2004 90411
2004 – 2005 112350
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40

ii) Descending Type:

Year Population
2004 – 2005 112350
2003 – 2004 90411
2003 – 2002 80350
2002 – 2001 74200
2001 – 2000 60500
 Qualitative Classification :
i) Simple Classification:
If a group of students in a class is to be classified in respect of
sex, we can classify them into two groups – one is male and the other
is female.
Students

Male Female
This type of classification is also called as ‘Dichotomous’
classification.
Definition: When the classification is done with respect to one
quality or attribute of a group into two classes is called Simple
Classification.
ii) Compound Classification:
When the classification is done with respect to two attributes/
qualities and where several classes are formed then that classification
is called Compound Classification.
Example: When a number of students are classified with respect to
two qualities simultaneously, that is sex and intelligence, and then
they are first classified on the basis of sex- male and female.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 41

Subsequently, each of these classes is further subdivided on the basis

of their intelligence- intelligent and non-intelligent.
Students

Male Female

Intelligent Non- Intelligent Intelligent Non- Intelligent

 Quantitative Classification :
When the collected data is grouped with reference to
characteristics, which can be measured and numerically described
such as weight, age, income, expenditure, sales etc. the classification
is called Quantitative classification.
Example : Table No. 3
Expenditure (Rs.) 50-99, 100-199 200-299 300-399

No. of students 10 12 18 20
Here, there are 10 students who have expenditure group of Rs. 50 to
99 and so on.
i) Continuous Data:
A continues data is one for which there is a possible value
between any other two possible values. For e.g. when we consider the
height of students, then the value may be any fraction of a number
and can be measured theoretically to any degree of accuracy. That
means if we measure a height of 70 cm and a height of 71 cm then
there is every possibility that the height of any student may be within
the range of 70cm to 71cm that is 70.2cm, 70.3cm, 70.4cm, 70.6cm.
etc. Thus here we get a continuous variable.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 42

ii) Discrete Data:

Discrete data is one, which is limited to certain numerical
values of a variable. Which every takes isolated values and there
values are usually integral in nature. For example if we found the
number of leaves of a tree, the quantity may be 40, 41, 42, etc. but the
numerical can never be 40.2, 41.8, 42.1, etc. which are practically
impossible.

iii) Class intervals:

If number of observations a large possess having wide range
definite characteristic and are expressed in numerical values, then
they are classified into a number of groups at certain intervals these
are called class intervals. Thus in table no. 3, 50-99, 100-199, 200-
299, etc. are different class intervals.

Features of Class Interval:

 Each class interval has two limits- upper limit and a lower
limit.
 The differences between upper and lower class boundaries are
called width of class interval and are denoted by letter „i‟.
 The number of observations present in between these two
values is called frequency and is usually denoted by letter „f ‟.
 The way or method in which the observations are classified
and distributed the class interval is known as, „Frequency
distribution.‟
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43

Presentation of Data:
An investigator has to collect data for his predetermined
purpose. Soon after collection of data, the arrangements should be
made to edit the information for removing any inconsistency or in
accuracy present. Then he classifies all data in to different groups,
classes or intervals. After classification and tabulation report is
prepared by the investigator describing the purpose of the enquiry,
method of collection of information, definition of terms used, degree
of accuracy, places and time of collection of data, final results and
conclusion, and suggestion, if any for any interpretation of the data.

Definition: The way or method of presenting the collected

information for statistical analysis is called, „Presentation of Data‟.
Methods of Presentation:

The following are the methods of presentation:

 Tabulation or Tabular presentation

 Diagrammatic presentation

 Graphical presentation

Tabular Presentation:
Tabulation

Simple Complex

Two-way Three-way Compound

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44

Here the classified data are put in a table having rows and
columns.
The process by which the classified data are presented in an
orderly manner in rows and columns of a table with their
characteristics are known as „Tabulation‟.

Ideal Table:
The following are the essential features of a table:
 A table should be simple, easy to understand.
 It should not be overloaded with details of each criterion.
 It should be attractive and comprehensive. (That is the
proportion of columns, rows and size should be maintained).
 Units of measurements must be mentioned.
E.g. weight in Kg, Hb in percentage, etc.
 It should have a suitable title, table number and if required,
footnotes and sources of data should be mentioned.
 Columns and rows should be numbered for the convenience of
future reference.

Parts of an Ideal Table:

A. Table number
B. Title or Head note
C. Columns and rows heading
D. Body of a table
E. Footnote
F. Source
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 45

Structure of an Ideal Table:

Table No. _ _
Title / Head note (if any)
Sr. Column Heading or Caption
No
Sub- Sub- caption Sub-
caption caption
STUB

Row Heading

Body

Foot note: _ _ _ _ Source: _ _ _ _

Types of Tabulation:
Simple Tabulation:
In a simple table only one set of data gives information. Here
we find only two columns. In this type of tabulation we study only
one characteristic of a data. Therefore, it is also called as One-way
table.
Example: Different districts of Maharashtra and its population:
Table No.4
Sr. No. Districts Population
1 Kolhapur 115302
2 Nagpur 88900
3 Solapur 76530
4 Pandharpur 70312
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 46

Complex Tabulation:
Here, more than one set of data are presented in a table. In this
table each numerical figure is the value of the measurement having
the characteristics shown both by column and row headings.
i) Two-way Table:
The data are presented with two characteristics in this complex
table.
Example: The students of a high school can be divided according to
their class and they can be subdivided according to their sex as
follows:
Table No.5
Sr. No. Class Students Total
Males Females
1 6th class
2 7th class
3 8th class
4 9th class
5 10th class
Total

ii) Three – way Table:

In this type of table the collected data are classified and
presented with three characteristics.
Example: The students of a high school are divided according to their
class and are further sub-divided according to their sex. And lastly
they are sub-divided according to their intelligence Therefore, this
type of table is known as three-way table.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 47

Table No.6
Sr. Class Students Totals
No. Boys Girls

Non - Intelligent

Non - Intelligent

Non - Intelligent
Intelligent

Intelligent
Subtotals

Subtotals

Total
Intelligent

1 6th class
2 7th class
3 8th class
4 9th class
5 10th
class
Total

iii) Complex Table:

Here, the data are classified into more than three
characteristics and tabulated.
Example: The students of a high school are divided according to their
class, sex, intelligence and are further subdivided according to their
religion.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 48

Table No.7

Students
Boys Girls Total
Sr. Class Religion

Non-Intelligent
Intelligent

Intelligent

Intelligent

Intelligent

Intelligent
Subtotals

Subtotals
No

Total
Non-

Non-
Hindu
th
1 6 Muslim
class Others
Sub
total‟s
Hindu
th
2 7 Muslim
class Others
Sub
total‟s
Hindu
th
3 8 Muslim
class Others
Subtotal

Diagrammatic Presentation:
In occasions tabular representation of statistical data becomes
difficult to understand. In that case, diagrammatic presentation is
appealing to eyes and creates a lasting impression in mind. It revels
the hidden facts of the data. Usually picture presentation of data
makes a clear impression than any other diagrams.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 49

Diagrams

One-dimensional (Simple bar, Subdivided bar, multiple bar,

Percentage bar etc.)
Two-dimensional (Rectangles, Squares, Circles, Pie Chart)
Three-dimensional (Cubes, Cylinders, Blocks)
Pictogram
Maps (Cartogram)

An Ideal Diagram:
The diagram should posses the following qualifications
 The diagram should be observable by naked eye.
 It should be orderly divided considering its accuracy.
 It should have suitable heading.
 The scale should be mentioned and selected according to the
size of paper and graph.
 Geometric instruments must be used.
 If necessary, footnotes and sources should be mentioned.
 Shades and colours make diagrams more attractive.
 It should be easy to comprehend.

Types of Diagrams:
The data can be represented in the form of different
dimensional diagrams as follows:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 50

One Dimensional Diagram:

Bar diagram is called one-dimensional because the height of
the bar is of real significance and not the width of the bar. A bar
diagram consists parallel bars, each of which has the same width. All
the bars are drawn on a common base line and the distance between
two consecutive bars is always same. The height of each bar
represents the value of each item of the data.
Following are the different categories bar diagrams
i) Simple Bar Diagrams.
ii) Subdivided bar Diagrams.
iii) Multiple Bar Diagrams.
iv) Percentage Bar Diagrams.

i) Simple Bar Diagram:

The simple bar diagram is used to represent only one
characteristic. Here one bar represents only one variable.
A simple bar diagram is given bellow showing weight gain of the
students recorded in different months of a year.
Table No.8
Month Jan Feb Mar April May June
Wt. gain 40 42 48 52 56 60
(Kg)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 51

70
60
50
Wt. in kg

40
30
20
10
0
Jan Feb Mar April May June

Months

Fig. 2.1
ii) Subdivided bar Diagram or Component Bar Chart:
In this type, the bar is subdivided into certain parts where the
total height is proportional to different sub-divisions representing the
component parts.
Fig. 2.2 represents such a subdivided bar diagram or a component bar
chart. There are four bars- the first one from the left represents the
total expenditure and its component parts (viz., expenditure modern
medicine, Ayurveda medicine, Homoeopathic medicine and other
system) for the year 2000-2001 and the other three depicting the same
items for the years 2001-2002, 2002-2003 and 2003-2004
respectively. The component parts are indicated by different hatchings
and the total expenditure by the complete bar. Component bar chart is
useful in comparing the part of the item to the whole, or among
different parts.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 52

Table No.9
Particulars Expenditure (Rupees in lac)
2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004
Modern Medicine 80.4 84.3 86.4 90.2
Ayurveda medicine 67.7 72.2 78.2 80.0
Homoeopathic medicine 43.2 45.4 47.3 50.2
Other System 60.4 62.8 66.4 70.4
Total 251.7 264.7 278.3 29

Fig. 2.2

iii) Multiple Bar Diagram or Compound Column Chart:

These Charts depict more than one type of data at a time.
These types of bars are used when we have to make a comparative
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 53

Study of different characteristics. Here the bars are drawn side-by-

side touching each other. For convenience the columns are differently
shaded.
Example:

Fig. 2.3
Literacy rate among people of 3 states Kerala, Maharashtra and
Karnataka in the years 2001 and 2005 is shown by multiple bar
diagram.

IV) Percentage Bar Diagram:

In component bar chart when subdivisions are more than two,
then the subdivisions are converted in to the percentage of the whole
and the height of each bar is considered as 100 units. Hence the
diagram (Fig. 2.4) is called Percentage Bar Diagram.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 54

Avarage results of Medical

100%
90%
80%
Colleges 70%
60% B.H.M.S
50% B.A.M.S
40% M.B.B.S
30%
20%
10%
0%
1990 - 1991 - 1992 - 1993 -
91 92 93 94
Years

Fig.2.4
Here, each division of the bar indicates the average results of
the students of different medical colleges.

Two Dimensional Diagrams:

In this type of diagrams the areas instead of lengths are
proportional to the given figures.
These types of diagram are:
i) Rectangles:
Here, the length represents one quantity, the second quantity is
represented by breadth and the area of the rectangle represents the
third quantity provided these quantities are proportionate to each
other.
Example : The following table gives the average farm area
and total farm area of maize along with the irrigated and un-irrigated
area of land for the two periods - years 2003-2004 and 2004-2005
Here the sub-divided rectangular diagram represents the data :-
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 55

Table No.10
Area (acre)
Years Average Total Irrigated Un Total
farm farm irrigated
2003 – 2004 9.6 403.2 12.4 15.4 27.8
2004 - 2005 8.7 311.4 13.6 17.2 30.8

35
30
Area in acres

25
20 Un Irregated
15 Irrigated
10
5
0
2003 - 04 2004 - 05
Years

Fig. 2.5

ii) Squares:
It is used when the ratio between the quantities is very high.
For example, if the ratio between the two quantities is 10:1 the height
of one bar will be 10 times the height of the other bar, which is very
difficult to draw on the graph paper. In that case, we can present the
data in by squares as shown below:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 56

A B

Fig. 2.6

iii) Pie Diagram:

These types of diagrams are used where the quantities are
proportional to the area of the circle or square of the radius. It is more
attractive than squares.
For example, if the ratio between the two quantities is 10:1,
the radius of one circle will be 10 times the radius of other circle as
shown in fig 2.7.

A B

Fig. 2.7

iv) Pie Chart

Pie chart is a circle of suitable radius subdivided into sectors
by radius in such a way that the areas of the sectors are proportional
to the values of the component items under investigation. Pie chart is
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 57

varying useful in drawing comparison among various components or

between a part and the whole.
The total angle at the center being 3600, this angle will
represent the whole that is 100%. Therefore 3600  100 or 30.6 angle
will represent 1% of the whole. To draw a pie chart, first of all the
different components of the given data are expressed as percentage of
the whole. If x be the percentage of any component, then the angle of
the corresponding sector at the center will be x X 30.6. In this way,
angle of all the sectors corresponding to different components are
determined. Finally, a circle is drawn and divided into different
sectors with these central angles. The different components are
indicated by different hatchings in each sector.
Example: Tuberculosis cases represented by WHO 2000 are as
follows:
Table No. 11
Region Cases
1. South – East Asia 38 %
2. Western pacific 22 %
3. Africa 20 %
4. Europe 10 %
5. America 6%
6. East Mediterranean 4%
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 58

Fig. 2.8
Three-Dimensional Diagram:
i) Cubes:
When the ratio of two quantities is very high (e.g., 125: 1)
they are represented by cubes.
Their sides are proportional to cube roots of given quantities.
Example: If the quantities are in the ratio 125:1, sides of cubes will
be in the ratio 3 125 :1, that is 5:1, which is shown in figure as
under :

(A) (B)
Fig. 2.9
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 59

ii) Rectangular Solids:

It is used when the three quantities are jointly proportional to a
4th quantity.
Example: If one side of a rectangular solid represents the students of
a class, other side represents their weight gain per month and the third
one represents the number of months in a year. Then the volume of
the solid will represent the total weight gain distributed in that year.

Pictograms:
When the presentation is in the from of a picture is known as
pictogram. It is also known as Vienna method or ISO type method
because this type of technique was first represented by Dr. Otto
Neurath, who was the resident of Vienna. Nowadays this type of
diagram is widely used because of its quantity of attractiveness.
In a pictogram a symbol represents a certain value
Example: Find bellow table no. 12 and its corresponding fig. 2.10
Table No. 12
Year Consumption of Hom. Medicine (bottles)
2001 7000
2002 6000
2003 9000
2004 8000
2005 9500
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 60

Fig. 2.10
Cartograms or Maps:
Cartograms are nothing but a geographical representation of
data or information. It is mainly used for comparison of two different
areas under some characteristics.
Example: In India states like Kashmir, Punjab, Utter Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam is called goiter endemic
areas, which are represented by Cartogram.

Fig. 2.11
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 61

Limitations of Diagrammatic Presentation:

 There are chances of wrong interpretation of diagram.
 It lacks classification or tabulation of data. Here only visual
presentation of data is possible.
 Diagrams are unable to show many characteristic items at a
time. Diagram represents only approximate value and not the
exact value.
 Conclusion drawn from the diagram may be wrong in many
cases.

Graphical Representation:
Graphical representations are made when we have to represent
the data of a frequency distribution over a period of time.

Graphs

Frequency Distribution Time Series (Historigram)

Line frequency Histogram Frequency Frequency Ogive

graph polygon curve

Graphs of Frequency Distribution:

For the presentation of frequency distribution we should take
class intervals mid values and measurement on X axis and frequencies
an Y- axis we know that the utility of false base line in time series
graph to reduce the length of Y axis in certain situations. In the same
way if we wan to start X axis from zero and at the same time to
present the false base of X axis we can use kinked line.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 62

Frequency distribution is commonly presented graphically by

the following diagrams:

Graphs:
1. Line frequency graph.
2. Histogram.
3. Frequency polygon.
4. Frequency curve or smoothed frequency curve.
5. Cumulative frequency curve – Ogive.
1) Line Frequency Graph:
Here two variables are used, one on X – axis and other

on Y-axis. Independent variable should be taken on X- axis and

dependent variable should be taken on Y- axis. The points are
plotted and joined by a line. For comparative study two or more
graphs are drawn on the same graph paper considering the same
scale.
Example: Tuberculosis cases reported throughout the world
during 2000-2005 are as follows:
Fig. 2.12

9
8
7
6
Cases (Millions)

5
World
4
East Asia
3
2
1
0
-12000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 63

2) Histogram:
It is a pictorial of frequency diagram distribution. It consists of
a series of blocks drawn adjacently on the same horizontal baseline.
Here class intervals are mentioned on x-axis and the frequencies on
Y-axis. Therefore the area of each block becomes proportional to the
frequency. The rectangles are drawn on each class interval with height
in proportion to its frequency. The number of such rectangles will be
equal to the number of classes. It is useful in presentation of quantity
to data.
Example: Here we take weights of 127 patients from 30-40 kg. With
class interval of 2. Now we draw histogram using following table
Table No.13
Weight in k.g. Frequency
30-32 25
32-34 10
34-36 30
36-38 46
38-40 16
Total 127

50
40

30

20

10

0
30 32 34 36 38 40

Fig.2.13
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 64

3) Frequency Polygon:
In this type of frequency distribution the variant values are
plotted on X -axis and corresponding frequencies on Y- axis. Then
the points plotted on the graph paper are joined successfully by
straight lines and the polygon is completed by joining the two
extremities of the rectilinear figure. This is called a Frequency
Polygon. Here we get graph in to two forms.
First we take the first group having 30-32. This group is
having 25 frequencies. Now take mid point of this group (that is 31)
then plot a point corresponding to 31 on X-axis and 25 on y-axis. In
this way all frequencies are marked on the corresponding mid points
of the groups. Then connect all these points with straight line.
It is useful to compare two or more than two distributions on
the same graph paper.
Example: We take weight of 127 patents from 30-40 kg. with class
interval of 2. Now we draw frequency polygon using following table.
Table No.14
Weight in kg frequency
30-32 25
32-34 10
34-36 30
36-38 46
38-40 16
Total 127
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 65

Fig.2.14
4) Frequency Curve:
If the points plotted for a frequency polygon are joined by a
free hand then we get a curve called „frequency curve‟.
When the class intervals are small and number of observe are large
the frequency polygon lose its angulations and forms a frequency or
normal curve. It provides continuo graph giving the relative frequency
for each value.
If the points plotted for a frequency polygon are joined by a
free hand smooth curve we get a „Frequency curve (The curves drawn
by different individuals will be different.
Example: We draw frequency curve using following table:
Table No.15
Marks No. of Students
10-20 20
20-30 40
30-40 60
40-50 30
50-60 20
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 66

Fig.2.15
5) Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive:
Cumulative frequency is the total number of individuals in
each particular range from lowest value of the characteristic up to and
including any higher group value
Ogive is a graph of the cumulative relative frequency
distribution. Therefore if we want to draw Ogive we should convert
ordinary frequency distribution into relative cumulative frequency.
In drawing Ogive variate values are represented on the X- axis
and the cumulative frequencies are on the Y- axis.

1. Less than –Cumulative Frequency Curve:

Here, the cumulation of frequencies is done from the end of
lower variate value.
The coordinate of the points, which are plotted, as follows:
X - Coordinate = upper limit of class interval.
Y - Coordinate = corresponding cumulative frequency.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 67

2. Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve:

Here the cumulation of frequencies is done from the end of
highest vitiate value. The Co-ordinates of the points which are plotted
are as follows:
X – Coordinate = Lower limit of the class interval
Y – Coordinate = Corresponding cumulative frequency.
Then a free name smooth curve is drawn through the plotted points or
the points are joined by broken lines to get the cumulative frequency
curve.
The point of interaction of me „Less than‟ and „greater than‟
cumulative frequency group represents the point of median as shown
in fig. 2.16
Then, a free hand smooth curve is drawn through these plotted
points or the pints are joined by broken lines to get the cumulative
frequency curve.
The point of intersection of the less than and equal to or
greater than cumulative frequency graphs represents the points of
median as shown in diagram here, the wave drawn by different
persons will be slightly different from each other.

Fig.2.16
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 68

6. Lorenz Curve:
It is a cumulative percentage curve where percentage of items
is combined with the percentage of other things.
It was Dr. Mare Lorenz who investigated this curve and applied it into
statistics.
It is useful in the study of the degree of inequality in the
distribution. E.g. Growth of babies at different periods of time

II. Graphs of Time series (Historigram):

The graphical representation of a time series is known as
Historigram. It shows changes in values of a variable over passage of
time. (Histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency
distribution) Here, time is represented on the X-axis and other
variable on Y- axis.
Then the X-co-ordinate and Y- co-ordinate points are
plotted on the graph paper and they are joined by lines as shown in
figure 2.17. The graph thus obtained will be the graph of Time Series
or Historigram. For e.g. the heights of the 3 students at different
stages.
Example: The following table gives weight (in kg.) at the 3
children at different stages.
Table No.16
Age in years
Children 2 4 6 8 10
A 10 14 19 24 32
B 8 12 17 22 30
C 12 15 18 23 34
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 69

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2 4 6 8 10

Fig.2.17

Utility of Graphical Representation:

 It is used for comparative study of two events.
 It is used for finding values of variable when others are
unknown.
 It helps for future planning on the basis of present data.
 It helps in finding out the effects of some factors or events.
 It stimulates brain for new ideas.
Limitations of Graphical Representation:
 Graph only shows tendency and fluctuation and not actual
value, which is important for further statistical calculations.
 Graph shows approximate values of variables only.
 Only one or two characteristics can be plotted on a graph. Too
many characteristics make graphical representation complicated.
 Graph cannot show all the rows or columns, which are
represented in a table.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 70

Chapter No. 3

SAMPLING

S mpling is a process of obtaining information about entire

population by examining only a part of it, serving as a
basis for estimates of the attributes of the whole. After completion of
sampling process, inductive logic is applied, that is, conclusion on the
whole population is drawn from the particular observations or
instances.
Sampling Theory:
It is the study of relationships existing between a population
and samples drawn from it. This theory is applicable to random
samples only.

Laws of Sampling:
In statistics there are two laws of sampling as under:
i) Law of Statistical Regularity
ii) Law of Inertia
Law of Statistical Regularity:
It states that any group of objects taken from a large
group will tend to possess the same.
Law of Inertia:
It states that when the size of the sample increases, it
gives more representative information.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 71

Utility of Sampling Theory:

1) It helps to decide whether to accept or reject a hypothesis.
2) It helps for making generalization from a very few variables.
Sampling of Attributes:
When we study qualitative characteristics of items in a
population we get sampling of attributes in 3 ways.
a) When the parametric value is unknown we have to estimate
population parametric from sample.
b) When the parameter value is known we have to test whether
the observed statistics include the estimated values or not.
c) Examination of reliability of the estimate after the calculation
of standard of errors and tests of significance.

Sampling of Variables :
When we study quantitative characteristic of the items in a
population we get statistics of variables.
In research we can use sampling of variables in 3 ways.
a) To estimate population parameters using a sample.
b) To find out degree of reliability of estimate.
c) To compare the observed of expected values and to find whether
this difference is due to the fluctuations of sampling or real
difference.
Samples are divided into 2 types:
Large Sample:
When the size of population is more than 30 items.
Small Sample:
When the size of sample is less than 30 items.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 72

Sampling Design:
While collecting primary data the information may be obtained either
by census method or sample method.
1. Census Method:
In this type each and every functional unit of the population or
group is studied. There fore, this method will provide more reliable
and accurate result. But it requires much time and money compared to
other method. For example, if the average Hb percentage of patients is
to be calculated then the Hb percentage would be obtained from each
and every patient in the Hospital and some total of that percentage of
Hb is to be divided. By total number of patients would get the average
Hb% of patient.
2. Sample Method:
In this type only a small part of the whole population is to be
studied and the conclusions are applicable to the whole population.
For example, a pathologist examines a few drops of blood and draws
conclusion on the blood composition of the whole body.

Sampling Techniques:
There are the techniques of taking a sample from a population.
Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Non - Probability Sampling

Simple random Accidental / Incidental

Stratified random Judgment / Purposive /
Systematic random deliberate sampling
Multistage random Quota sampling
Multiphase sampling Convenience sampling
Cluster sampling Sequential sampling
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 73

Probability Sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling:
Here, a sample is selected randomly in which every item has
an equal chance of being included.
This method is used when population is small and equally
characteristically distributed. Here samples are selected freely.
Therefore, it is also called, Unrestricted Random Sampling.
Practically it is difficulty to select sample from a group. Therefore to
make it simple one can use either lottery method or table of random
number method.
i) Lottery Method:
This is a widely accepted method of selecting a sample from
population.
Procedure: Give each and every item a specific number, say, A, B,
C... or 1, 2, 3... Etc. Then mix all the papers into a box. Shake well
and then draw any paper (folded) from the box randomly one by one;
thus you get samples.

ii) Table of Random Number:

This is also called as mechanical randomization method; here
already some numbers are given.
Procedure: First give serial numbers say, 1, 2, 3, etc. to all the items
of population. Then select a random item from any page of random
number table. Then select the number from any row or column of a
table.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 74

There are many random tables available toady, like Tippets

Random Number Table, Fishes and Yates Table, Rand Corporation
random Number Table etc.
Advantages:
1) It is a scientific method of selection of a sample.
2) As the size of the sample increases it becomes more expressive.
3) It is cost effective.
Disadvantages:
1) It requires study of the whole population.
2) It is less expressive if the population size is small.
3) Individual characteristics of each item are difficult to study by
This method.

2. Stratified Random Sampling:

This type of sampling method is mostly used in the fields like
Geography, Sociology and Economics. Stratified Random Sampling
method is applicable for the items of population, which are not similar
in characteristics.
Procedure: The whole population should be divided into small
groups as per their similarities in characteristics. Then a sample is
drawn from each group randomly.
Here the size of the sample from each group can be either
proportional or disproportional to the size of each group.
Advantages:
1) It has greater accuracy.
2) It has good representation.
3) This method is mostly used in geographical purposes.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 75

4) In this method, grouping of samples is more comprehensible for

study.

Disadvantages:
1) On the basis of similarities in characteristics division of the whole
population into groups is a very difficult task.
2) Overlapping of groups may be possible sometimes.

3. Systematic Sampling:
When we have a complete study of population if each and
every item stet then we can use this method. Here, we will take every
sampling interval from the sampling frame, which is obtained by
dividing total population by desired a sample size.
Example: Select 50 items from a population of 500 and calculate
sampling interval.
Solution: We know,

Sampling Interval = Total size of population

Desired sample size

= 500
50
= 10.
If, we select a starting number, say, 20, by lottery method,
then every 10th item from onward has to be taken until we get 100
items. (30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, etc.)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 76

4. Multistage Random Sampling:

Here, many stages at different level should be studied and
selection is made at random.
Example: If we want to show the place of Maharashtra in among the
states of India, AIDS first of all we have to divide Maharashtra into
different districts, then each district into different villages and urban
areas. Then we select randomly any villages and urban areas, which
are representatives of Maharashtra state.

District 1
Maharashtra State District 2
District 3
District 4
District 5
District

Village‟s Urban areas

5. Multiphase Sampling:
Here, one part of information is collected from the whole
sample and part of information is collected from sub sample.
Example: Leprosy survey. In the first phase, tests like Lepromin test
is done in all cases of sample. Those who are tested + ve in lepromin
test are screened in he second phase by culture of organism which is
more expensive and time consuming than the tests performed in the
first phase.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 77

6. Cluster Sampling:
Cluster is a small group of a population, which is randomly
selected. Many national surveys are based on cluster sampling where
villages, schools, colonies, corporation areas are considered as a
cluster.
Here, usually 30 clusters are selected, by random sampling
method and then whole population in the cluster is studied.
Example: If, we want to study the national state of one village we
have to select 30 clusters, which are the representatives of the whole
village.
For this we have to prepare cumulative population list of the
village.
- Here 30 clusters are the sampling intervals.
- Select the random numbers from sampling intervals.
- Total population of village = 2700.
- We have 30 clusters.

Sampling interval = 2700 = 90

30
- Now select one number from 1 to 90 by random sampling
method, which is supposed to be 32.
- Then add random number with the sampling interval to get
the starting point of the 2nd cluster. That is, 32 + 90 = 122.
- The 2nd cluster (122) + sampling interval (90) will be the
starting point of the 3rd cluster. That is, 122 + 90 = 212.
- In this way after selection of 30 clusters we can start
surveying with the help of random table.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 78

Non – Probability Sampling:

1) Accidental or Incidental Sampling:
When selection is not preplanned and the sampling is done
quite accidentally or incidentally, it is called Accidental or Incidental
sampling.
Example: Many people assemble to watch a movie or a
cricket Then if we want to study the prevalence of hypertension
among the people in the age group of 40 – 70 yrs., that is, blood
pressure at the time of watching the movie or the cricket match
(considering situational variation among the individuals), The
observation will be the Accidental or Incidental sampling.

2) Judgment Sampling
In this type of method the selection of sample is based on the
judgment of the person concerned. This method depending on the
sampling design and purpose of representative ness. Therefore, it is
also called Purposive Sampling. Here an investigator makes a proper
judgment, which decides the effectiveness of the sampling.

3) Quota Sampling
In this type of method a group is selected by subtracting
randomization from stratified random sampling.
Example: If we want to make sampling from a village where
there are 25% farmers. 50% merchants and 20% workers. Then for
sampling the population of that village, same percentage of these
groups should be represented from the villagers.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 79

4) Convenience Sampling
When conventional source is used for sampling, it is called
convenience sampling method. Example: Telephone directory, etc.
This is not a scientific method, because many times some
peoples are not included here. (E.g. poor people are not considered in
such samples.)

5) Sequential Sampling
This sampling method is applied as a process for quality
control, because here samples are drawn one after another from a
population depending on the sample drawn earlier.
If the first sample is acceptable, no new sample is needed and
if the first sample is rejected, 2nd sample should be selected. And if
the 2nd one is doubtful, then the 3rd one will be selected for desired
results.

Utility of Sampling in Homoeopathy:

Sampling plays a very important role in drug proving process,
reproving of drugs and verification of clinical symptoms. Because
final conclusion will depend upon these samples which are
representatives of the whole community.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 80

Chapter No. 4

CENTRAL TENDENCY

A ny given observation has some central value, which is a

representative for the whole data. This tendency of the
distribution is known as, „central tendency‟ and the measure devised
to consider this tendency is known as „measure of central tendency‟
The main aim of measurers of central tendency is to get single value
that describes the whole mass of data. In our every day life we called
it as average.
According to Croxton Cowden:
An average value is a single value within the range of data that
is used to represent all of the values in the series. Since the average is
somewhere within the range of the data it is sometimes called a
measures of central value.
According to Smith and Crum:
An average is sometimes called a measure of central tendency
because individual values of the variable usually cluster around it.

Characteristics of an Average:
A good average must have following characteristics:
 It should be simple in presentations.
 It should be easy to comprehend.
 It should have a fixed value.
 It should not be affected by fluctuations of sample.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 81

 It should be capable of further algebraic derivation.

Objectives of an Average:
 It represents a single value of whole series.
 Average is useful for comparisons.
 Average is helpful for taking overview of data.
 Average is helpful for making decisions in planning in various
fields.
Statistical Average

Mathematical Average Positional Average

Arithmetic Mean Geometric Mean Harmonic Mean

(X) (G.M.) (H.M.)

Median (Me) Mode (Mo)

Arithmetic Mean:
It is the number obtained by dividing the total values of
different items by their number.
Calculation for Arithmetic Mean:
i) Individual Series
ii) Discrete Series
iii) Continuous Series
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 82

i) Individual Series:
In individual series the arithmetic mean is easy to
calculate. Here, we get the total of values and divide this total by
number of observations.

X = ∑X
N
Where,
X = Arithmetic Mean.
∑X=Sum of the values of observations.
N = No. of observations.
These, calculations are done by 2 methods:
A] Direct Method
b] Shortcut (Assumed Mean) Method
A] Direct Method:
The direct method of arithmetic mean can be used when the
items in a series are less.
Example: Calculate arithmetic mean of following marks in Anatomy
obtained by 10 students from first B.H.M.S class.
Students Marks (X)
A 05
B 10
C 05
D 15
E 20
F 05
G 10
H 10
I 05
J 15
N = 10 ∑ X = 100
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 83

Therefore, the average mark in anatomy is 10.

b] Shortcut Method:
When the items in a series are big or more we must use short cut
or assumed mean method. Here, we can assume any figure as the
mean and deviations from this mean is calculated. Then to get
arithmetic mean, the total of deviations from assumed mean is
calculated from assumed mean and is divided by the number of
observations.
By applying this method we can save much time and energy
without changing answer.
Example: Consider the same data given in previous example.
Here, consider assumed mean „A‟ = 15. Then calculate the
deviations from assumed mean that is X – A = d

Students Marks (X) X – A (d)

A 05 - 10
B 10 - 05
C 05 - 10
D 15 00
E 20 05
F 05 - 10
G 10 - 05
H 10 - 05
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 84

I 05 - 10
J 15 00
N = 10 ∑ d = - 50

Then, by using this formula,

X = A+ ∑d
N
= 15 + (-50)
10
= 15 + (-5)
= 10
X = 10
Therefore, the average marks in Anatomy are 10.
ii) Discrete Series:
In discrete series we multiply the variable by their respective
frequencies and get the sum of the products and thus total obtained is
divided by the number of observations. That is the total of
frequencies.
X = ∑ ƒx or ∑ƒx
∑ƒ N

Where, ∑ ƒx = Sum of product of variable and their frequency.

ƒ = Frequency.
N = ∑ ƒ that is number of observations.
ƒ = Product of variables with their respective frequencies.
Example: Calculate arithmetic mean from following table:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 85

Homoeopathic Colleges 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

No. of M.D. Teachers 10 15 20 42 32 38 40

Solution: By direct method:

Hom. No. of M.D. ƒx
Colleges Teachers
(X) (ƒ)
90 10 900
100 15 1500
110 20 2200
120 24 2880
130 32 4160
140 38 5320
150 40 6000
N = 125 ∑ ƒ x = 22960

Here, we multiply the frequency with the variable X then we get the
sum of product (∑ƒx).
Then divide ∑ƒx by total number of observation
That is ∑ ƒ or N.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 86

Therefore the average number of Hom. Colleges with respect

to M.D. teachers are 128.26.

By Shortcut Method:
Formula:

X = A + ∑ƒd
N

Where, A = Assumed mean

N = Number of observations
ƒ = Frequency
d = X – A (deviations of variables taken from assumed mean)
∑ƒd = Sum of product of frequencies and their respective
deviations.
Here, we have to solve above example by short cut method
- First consider assumed mean A = 100.
- Take deviation from assumed mean that is X-A = d.
- Multiply deviations by frequency to get fd.
- Then add product of deviations and frequency.

Hom. No. of M.D. X–A fd.

Colleges Teachers (X – 100)
(X) (ƒ) (d)
90 10 - 10 - 100
100 15 00 00
110 20 + 10 + 200
120 24 + 20 + 480
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 87

130 32 + 30 + 960
140 38 + 40 + 1520
150 40 + 50 + 2000
N = 179 ∑ ƒ d = 5060

We, know formula,

X = A + ∑ƒd
N
= 100 + 5060
7
= 128.26
Therefore the average number of Medical colleges is 128.26
iii) Continuous Series:
In this type, the mid- points of various classes intervals are to
be obtained by following equation.

Mid points = l1 + l 2
2

Where, l1 = Lower limit

l2 = Upper limit
After obtaining the mid- points we can use all the methods of
calculations of arithmetic mean. These methods are as follows:
i) Direct Method
ii) Shortcut Method
i] Using Direct Method:
Example: Find out the mean of the following distribution.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 88

Weights No. of Patients

40 – 50 12
50 – 60 18
60 – 70 20
70 – 80 24

Solution:
Weights No. of Mid points ƒm
(X) Patients (f) (m)
40 – 50 12 45 540
50 – 60 18 55 990
60 – 70 20 65 1300
70 – 80 24 75 1800
N = 74 ∑ ƒm = 4630

We know formula,

X = ∑ ƒm
N

= 4630
74
= 62.56
Therefore, mean weight = 62.56
ii] Shortcut Method:
Example: Calculate arithmetic mean of previous example by short
cut method.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 89

Solution:
Weights No. of Mid point s m – 20 ƒd
(X) Patients (m) (d)
(ƒ)
40 – 50 12 45 25 300
50 – 60 18 55 + 35 630
60 – 70 20 65 + 45 900
70 – 80 24 75 + 55 1320
N = 74 ∑ ƒ d = 3150

Here, - Obtain mid points.

- Decide assumed mean that is A = 20
- Calculate the deviation from assumed mean that is m – A = d
- Multiply deviation by frequency to get ƒ d .
- Add product of deviation and frequency.
We know formula, X = A + ∑ ƒd
N
= 20 + 3150
74
= 62.56
Therefore mean = 62.56
Merits of Mean:
1) It can be easily calculated.
2) Its calculation is based on all the observations.
3) It is easy to understand.
4) It is least affected by fluctuations.
5) Comparison made easy by using this measure.
Demerits of Mean:
1) It is theoretical because it does not represent actual data.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 90

2) The extreme value affects on it.

3) Without all values it can not be calculated.
4) It lacks qualitative data.
5) In the absence of original observations it leads false result.

Median (Me)
When the set of observations are arranged either in ascending
order or in descending order, the middle most or the central value is
called Median which divides the observation series into two equal
parts. It is denoted by M.
Calculation of Median:
A] When data is ungrouped:
1) When ‘n’ is odd: In this case n + 1 th value is the Median
2

M = n + 1 th term
2

2) When ‘n’ is even:

th
Here, there are two middle terms n and n + 1 th
2 2
n + n +1
M= 2 2
2
Example: When ‘n’ is odd:
The Hb% of five patient‟s areas follows:
10, 12, 14, 11, 09 Find Median.
Solution: Let us arrange values in ascending order we get,
09, 10, 11, 12, 14
Median (M) = n + 1 th value
2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 91

= 05 + 1 th value
2
= 3rd value
Thus 3rd value in data is 11.

Median = 11 Hb%.
Example: When ‘n’ is even:
Find out the Median of following terms:
12, 10, 7, 6, 4, 8
Solution: Let us arrange values in ascending order we get,
4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12

Median (M) = average of n th and n +1

th
terms
2 2

= average of 6 th and 6 + 1 th terms

2 2
= average of 3rd and 4th terms.

=7+8
2
= 15
2

Median = 7 .5
B] When the data is grouped:
1] When the series is discrete:
Here, the values of variables are arranged in ascending order
or descending order of magnitudes. Then the median is calculated by
the following Formula:
the
M= n+1
2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 92

Where, n = ∑ ƒ = Total frequencies.

Example: Calculate Median for the following data:

No. of patients 60 80 40 50 20 30
Hb% 11 12 14 10 09 15

Solution: Arranging the marks in ascending orders

Hb% Frequency Cumulative
frequency
9 20 20
10 50 70
11 60 130
12 80 210
14 40 250
15 30 280
n = ∑ ƒ = 280

Here, n = 280
th
Median M = n + 1 value
2
th
= 280 + 1 value
2
= 140.5th value.
From above table all items from 130 to 210 have their values 12.
Since 140.5th item lies in this interval.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 93

Its value is 12.

Hence, Median = 12 Hb%
2) When the series is continuous:
Here, the data is given in the form of frequency table with
class – interval
Formula:

Where,
L = Lower limit of class in which Median lies.
n = Total number of frequencies that is n = ∑ƒ.
ƒ = Frequency of the class in which median lies.
C = Cumulative frequency preceding the Median class.
i = Width of class interval of class in which Median lies.

Example: The weekly expenditure of 100 students is as follows. Find

out Median.

Annul No. of Country

expenditure (f)
(Rs.in Corers)
40 - 50 05
50 – 60 12
60 – 70 10
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 94

70 – 80 08
80 – 90 06

Solution: Let us prepare a table for cumulative frequency.

Annual Exp. No. of Country Cumulative frequency

(Rs.in cores) (f) (C)
40 – 50 04 04
50 – 60 12 16
60 – 70 10 26
70 – 80 08 34
80 – 90 06 40
Σ f = 40 = n

Therefore, Median =

Median (Class Interval) = 60 – 70.

Here, n = 20
2
L = 60
f = 10
C = 16
i = 10
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 95

Merits of Median:
1] It is useful when the extreme values of the series are either not
available or abnormal
2] It is useful in case when the items are not susceptible to
measurement in units. Ex. In cases of intelligence, honesty etc.
3] Median is useful in distributions where, extreme classes are ill-
defined like, less than 10 or more than 80 or 100.
4] It is not affected by (abnormally) larger or lower values.

Demerits of Median:
1] When there is great variation among the items of population it fails
to give satisfactory answer. For example, if the marks obtained by
students are 0, 2, 2, 8, 12, 13, 35, 42, 44, 45, 45 then the median will
be 13. This can never be the representative of all, because there are
many who have obtained marks more than 40.
2] Arranging in ascending order will require much time.
3] It is affected by fluctuations of sampling.
4) Further algebraic calculations are difficult from median.
5] many times it falls between two values therefore can not be
expressed.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 96

Mode
When a value in a series occurs most frequently is called
Mode. It has maximum frequency. Mode is also known as „Norm‟.
According to Kenny and Reepura, „the value of the variable which
occurs most frequently in a distribution is called Mode.
Example: In a series – 6, 3, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 6, 4 we
Find that 4 occur 4 times. Therefore Mode is 4.
Calculation of Mode:
a) In Simple Series
b) In Discrete Series
c) In Continuous Series
a) Simple Series:
Example: In the Series 5, 2, 3, 5, 2, 5 find out Mode.
Here, 5 occur 3 times. Therefore Mode is 5.

b) Discrete Series:
If the distribution in Series is regular and any one maximum
frequency is known then mode can be calculated by Inspection
method as follows.
Inspection Method:
Example: The percentages of students in B.H.M.S are 55, 60,
50, 62, 64, 60, 61, 60, 60 find the mode.
Solution: All the data is arranging in ascending order.
We get 50, 55, 60, 60, 60, 61, 62, and 64
Then, make a grouped frequency table.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 97

Students in % Frequency
50 1
55 1
60 3
61 1
62 1
64 1

Thus, from just only by observation here we find that 60 appear 3

times. There fore Mode of series are 60.
Therefore Mode = 60.
c) Continuous Series:
Here, we find out the class or group in which Mode lies. This
class is known as modal class. By using following formula Mode can
be calculated
Mode = l1 + f2 x i
f1 + f2

Where, l1 = Lower limit of the modal class

f1 = Frequency of the next lower class
f2 = Frequency of the next higher class
i = Width of class interval
Example: Find out Mode from following frequency distribution
Or
Mode = l1 + ∆2 x i
∆1+ ∆2

Where, l1 = Lower limit of the modal class

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 98

∆ 1 = Difference between the frequencies of the modal class

and next lower class.
∆ 2 = Difference between the frequencies of the modal class
and next higher class.
i = Width of the modal class.

Example: Find out mode for following the frequency distribution.

Class interval Number of patients

(age in years)
30 – 40 4
40 – 50 3
50 – 60 8
60 – 70 7

In this table modal class is = 50 – 60

Here, L1 = 50
∆1 = 8 - 3 = 5
∆2 = 8 - 7 = 1
i = 60 - 50 = 10
Therefore, Mode = 50 + 1 x 10
5+1
= 51.66 years.
In Case of asymmetrical frequency distribution or moderately
skewed mode can be calculated by Karl Pearson‟s formula.
Mode = 3 median – 2 mean
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 99

Merits of Mode:
 It plays important role in business for forecasting process.
 Meteorological forecasting is based on modal value.
 It can be obtained simply by inspection method.
 As it is the item of maximum frequency the same item is used
in every sample of the population.

Demerits of Mode:
 In many cases we get Bimodal or Multimodal
values. Therefore single value cannot be
obtained.
 Its calculations are not based on all values.
 Further algebraic process is difficult to
calculate from mode only.
 When there are small differences between the
observations mode should not be used.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 100

Chapter No. 5

DISPERSION

D ispersion means scatter, deviation, spread

fluctuation. It denotes lack of uniformity in item
values of a given data.
or

The value, which is away from the central value or average, is called
Dispersion. The measures devised for dispersion is known as
Measures of dispersion.
Measures of Dispersion:
Measures of Dispersion are of following types:
 Range.
 Semi – Inter Quartile Range or Quartile Deviation.
 Mean Deviation.
 Standard Deviation.
 Variance.

Range:
It is the difference between the highest and the lowest terms of a
series of observations.

Range = XH – X L

Where, XH = Highest value.

X L = Lowest value.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 101

Features of Range:
 It is affected by fluctuations of sampling.
 Its value usually increases with the increase in size of the
sample.
 It is not useful in accurate studies because it gives a rough
answer.
 It is not based on all the observations.
 It is changes from one sample to other population.
Quartile Deviation:
The half distance between 75th percentile that is 3rd quartile
(Q3) and 25th percentile that is. First quartile (Q1) is called as Quartile
Deviation.
In normal distribution quartile deviation is called as Probable
Error (PE).

Where, Q1 = First quartile

Q2 = Median
Q3 = Third quartile
Here, Q1 divides the range of a variable into 25% and 75%
observation.
Q2 divides the range of variable into 50% and 50%
observations.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 102

Q3 divides range of variable into 75% and 25% observations.

Q = (Q3 - Q2) + (Q2 - Q1)

2

Q = (Q3 - Q1)
2

For ungrouped data:

Q = Q3 – Q1
2
For ungrouped data:
Q1 = L + N–F
4 xi
fq
And Q3 = L + 3N – F
4 xi
fq
Where, L = Lower limit of that class interval
Where Q1 N or Q3 3N falls.
4 4
F = Cumulative frequency just above that class interval
When, interval
Where Q1 N or Q3 3N falls.
4 4
fq = Frequency of that class interval where Q1 and Q3 falls.
i = Length of class interval.

Coefficient of Quartile Deviation:

Formula:
Coefficient of Q = Q3 - Q1
Q3 + Q1
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 103

Mean deviation or Average Deviation:

Mean deviation of a series is arithmetic average of the
deviations of various items from a measure of central tendency
(Mean, Median or Mode) Here two basic calculations are to be done.
i] Compute deviations of all the items from either Mean or Median
ignoring plus (+) and minus (-) signs.
ii] Then, the aggregate of these deviations are divided by the number
of observations. Then we get Mean Deviation.
Calculations of Mean Deviation:
A] Individual Series:
Example: Calculate Mean Deviation and its coefficient from
the following data:
34, 40, 12, 18, 24, 36, 16, 10, 22, 26.
Mean Deviations can be calculated from Median and also from Mean.
Median = size of N + 1 th item
2
= size of 10 +1 th item
2
= 5.5 th item.

= 22 + 24 = 23
2

Arranging all the data in ascending order we get,

10, 12, 16, 18, 22, 24, 26, 34, 38, 40.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 104

Data Deviations from Data ( X ) Deviation from

(X) Median Mean (X = 24)
(me= 23) IDI
IDI
10 13 10 14
12 11 12 12
16 60 16 8
18 5 18 6
22 1 22 2
24 1 24 0
26 3 26 2
34 11 34 10
38 15 38 12
40 17 40 16
N = 10 ∑ IDI = 84 ∑ X = 240 ∑ IDI = 82

A] Mean Deviation from Median:

Applying formula,
Mean Deviation (M.D.) = ∑ I DI
N

= 84
10

= 8.4

Coefficient of M.D = M.D.

Median

= 8.4
23
= 0.3652

B] Mean Deviation from Mean:

M.D. = ∑ IDI
N
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105

= 82
10

= 8.2

Coefficient of M.D. = M.D or M.D.

Median Mean

Coefficient of M.D. = M.D.

Mean

= 8.2
24
= 0.3416
1] Individual Series:
Example: The 5 patients show weights (in K.G.) as follows:
40, 42, 60, 58, 52 respectively.
Solution :

Weight (k.g) Deviation from Mean (50)

(X) IDI
40 10
42 8
60 10
58 8
50 0
∑X = 250 ∑ IDI = 36

Here, we get Arithmetic Mean (X) = ∑ X

N
= 250
5
= 50

We have formula,
M.D. = ∑ IDI
N
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 106

= 36
5
= 7.2
Mean Deviation = 7.2
2] Discrete Series:
Example: Find out Mean Deviation of the following distribution and
its coefficient.

No. of Families Handicapped

Individual
0 4
1 3
2 5
3 7
4 2
5 1
6 9

Solution:

No. of Handicapped C. f. (X – Me) ƒ IDI

Families Individuals IDI
(X) (f)
0 4 4 3 12
1 3 7 2 6
2 5 12 1 5
3 7 19 0 0
4 2 21 1 2
5 1 22 2 2
6 9 31 3 27
N = 31 ƒ IDI
= 54

Calculation of Cumulative Frequency:

Steps:

Find out N + 1st item of each value.

2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 107

- Find out Median.

- Take Deviations of items from Median ignoring + signs and
denote column as IDI.
- Multiply frequencies with Deviation to get ƒ IDI.
Apply formula,

M.D = ∑ ƒ IDI
N

Calculation of Median:
Me = size of N + 1 th Item
2
= size of 31 + 1 th Item
2
= 16th item

Median = 3

Mean Deviation (M.D) = ∑ ƒ IDI

N
= 54
31
= 1.74

Coefficient of Mean Deviation = M. D.

Median

= 1.74
3

= 0.58
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 108

3] Continuous Series:
Example: Calculate Mean Deviation from Mean and its
coefficient of the following data:

Weights No. of patients

40 - 50 8
50 - 60 4
60 - 70 6
70 - 80 2
Solution:

Weight No. of Mid m–4 ƒ d1 m – 56 ƒ IDI

(X) patients points 40 IDI
(f) (m) (d1)
40 – 50 8 45 1.025 8.2 11 88
50 – 60 4 55 1.275 5.1 1 4
60 – 70 6 65 1.525 9.15 9 54
70 – 80 2 75 1.775 3.55 19 38
N = 20 ∑ƒ d1 = ∑ƒ IDI
26 = 184

Calculation of Mean Deviation from Mean:

Steps:
- Calculate Arithmetic Mean.
- Take deviations of mid- points from mean ignoring + signs to get
IDI.
- Multiply these deviations by each frequency to get ƒ IDI.
- Apply formula, M.D. = ∑ƒIDI
N

Calculation of Arithmetic Mean:

X = A1 + ∑ ƒd1 X C
N
1
Where, A = 4
∑ ƒ d1 = 26
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 109

N = 20
C = 40

X = 4 + 26 X 40
20
X = 56

Calculation of Mean Deviation:

M.D. = ∑ ƒIDI
N
= 184 = 9.2
20
Coefficient of Mean Deviation =
M.D.
X

= 9.2 = 0.1642
56

B] Calculation of Mean Deviation from Median:

Example: Calculate Mean Deviation and coefficient of Mean
Deviation from Median of following data:

Weights 50 – 60 60 – 70 70 – 80 80 – 90 90 – 100
No. of patients 45 42 38 22 23

Solution:
Weights No. of C. ƒ. Mid points m -85 ƒ IDI
patients (m) IDI
50 – 60 45 45 55 30 1350
60 – 70 42 87 65 20 840
70 – 80 38 125 75 10 380
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 110

80 – 90 22 147 85 0 0
90 – 100 23 170 95 10 2300
N = 170 ∑ƒIDI =
4870

Step 1. Calculation of Median:

Median = size of N Th item
2
= size of 170th item
2
= 85th item

Median lies in class 80 – 90

Step 2. Take Deviation from mid- points from mean ignoring + signs
to get IDI.
Step 3. Multiply Deviations by respective frequencies to get ƒIDI.
Step 4. Apply formulas for Mean Deviation.

Median = me = l1 + N - c. f
2 X i
ƒ

Where, l1 = 80

N/2 = 85

c.f. = 125
ƒ = 38
i = 10
We know me = 80 + 85 – 125 x 10
Formula, 38
= 69.47 weight.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 111

We know,
Mean deviation M.D. = ∑ƒIDI
N
Here, ∑ƒIDI = 4870 and N = 170

M.D. = 4870
170
= 28.64
Coefficient of M.D. = M.D.
Median

= 28.64
69.47

= 0.4122

4] Standard Deviation:
It is the square root of the arithmetic average of the squares of
the deviations measured from the mean.
It was first time introduced by Karl Pearson. It is widely used
in Statistics. It is also known as Root Mean Square Deviation. It is
denoted by Greek letter 6 (sigma).
Calculation of Standard Deviation:
A. Individual Series.
B. Discrete Series.
C. Continuous Series.
A] Individual Series:
Standard deviation may be calculated by 2 methods,
i) Actual Mean Method.
ii) Assumed Mean Method.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 112

i) Actual Mean Method:

Example: Calculate standard deviation from following data:
10, 12, 14, 30, 26, 38, 40, 54.

Solution:
Value (X) X –X (x) x2
10 - 19 361
12 - 17 289
14 - 15 225
30 -1 1
26 -3 9
38 9 81
48 19 361
54 25 625
∑X = 232 ∑X 2 = 1952
Steps:
1] Calculate actual Mean of the observations.
2] Obtain deviations of values from the Mean that is calculate (x - x)
to get x.
3] Square the deviations to get ∑X 2
4] Divide ∑X 2 by number of observations.
We, know,

X = ∑X = 232
N 8
= 29.
Here, ∑x 2 = 1952 and N = 8.

6= ∑x 2 = 1952 = 244
N 8
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 113

6 = 15.62

ii) Assumed Mean Method:

Example: Calculate the standard deviation of the data given in
previous example by using assumed mean method.

Value (X) X – 12 (d) d2

10 -2 4
12 0 0
14 2 4
30 18 324
26 14 196
38 26 676
48 36 1296
54 42 1764
N=8 ∑d = - 136 ∑d 2 = 4264

Calculation:
Stapes:
1] Calculate the deviation of the observations from an assumed mean
(X - A) to get d.
2] Obtain the total of d that is ∑d
3] Square the deviations and donate the total ∑d2
4] Apply the following formula:

6= ∑d2 _ ∑d 2

N N
Where, d = X –A
We know formula,
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 114

6= ∑ d 2 - ∑d 2

N N

Here, ∑d2 = 4264, N = 8, ∑d = 136

2
6= 4264 - 136
8 8

= 533 - 289

= 244

= 15.62
B] Discrete series:
Standard deviation can be calculated by the following methods:
i) Actual Mean Method
ii) Assumed Mean Method
Example: Calculate standard deviation of following data:

Family 1 2 3 4 5
Patients 4 6 5 2 8

Calculation:
Steps:
1] Calculate Mean and take the deviations of the items from actual
mean that is (X- X) to get x.
2] Square the deviations.
3] Multiply deviations with respective frequencies.
4] Make the total of deviations and frequencies that is ∑ƒx2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 115

5] Apply formula:
6 = ∑ƒx2
N

Solution:
Family No. of
(X) Patients ƒx X–X x2 ƒx2
(ƒ) (x)

1 4 4 - 2.16 4.6656 18.6624

2 6 12 - 1.16 1.3456 8.0736
3 5 15 - 0.16 0.0256 0.128
4 2 8 0.84 0.7056 1.4112
5 8 40 1.84 3.3856 27.0848
N = 25 ∑ƒx = 79 ∑ƒx2 = 55.36

Calculation of Mean:
X = ∑ƒx
N
Here, ∑ƒx = 79 and N = 25
X = 79 = 3.16
25
By Appling formula,
6 = ∑ƒx2
N
Here, ∑ƒx2 = 55.36 and N = 25

6= 55.36
25

= 2.2144
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 116

= 1.48

Assumed Mean Method:

Example: Calculate the Standard Deviation of the data, given in
above example by Assumed Mean method.
Family No. of X–3 ƒd ƒ d2
(X) Patients (ƒ) (d)
1 4 -2 -8 16
2 6 -1 -6 6
3 5 0 0 0
4 2 1 2 2
5 8 2 16 32
N = 25 ∑ƒd = 4 ∑ƒd2 = 56

Calculation:
Steps:
1] Take deviations of size from an assumed mean to get d.
2] Multiply these deviations by their frequencies
3] Multiply frequencies with squares of deviation
4] Obtain total that is ∑ƒd2
Apply formula,
6= ∑ƒd2 – ∑ƒd 2
N N
Where,
d = (X – A)

Here,
∑ƒd2 = 56 and ∑ƒd = 4 and N = 25

We know formula for 6.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 117

2
6= 56 – 4
25 25

= 2.24 – 0.0256

= 2.2144
= 1.48
C] Continuous series:
Here, also we can calculate standard deviations by two methods.
i) Actual mean method
ii) Assumed mean method
1] Actual mean method:
Steps:
1] Calculate actual mean of series that is X.
2] Take the deviations of mid- points from mean that is find (m – X)
to get x.
3] Square these deviations and multiply them by their frequencies.
4] Obtain ∑ƒx2.
5] Divide ∑ ƒx2 by total number of items.
Apply formula,
6 = ∑ƒx2
N
Where, x = (X – X)

Example: Calculate standard deviation from the following data:

Hb % 6 - 10 10 -14 14 - 18
No. of patients 4 2 4
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 118

Calculation:

Hb % No. of Mid
(X) patients points ƒm (m–X) ƒx ƒ x2
(ƒ) (m) x
6 – 10 4 8 32 -4 - 16 64
10 – 14 2 12 24 0 0 0
14 – 18 4 16 64 4 16 64
N = 10 ∑ƒm ∑ƒx= ∑ ƒ x2 =
= 120 0 128

Calculation of Mean:
Mean X = ∑ƒm = 120 = 12
N 10
Where, ∑ƒm = 120 and N = 10.

Calculation of Standard Deviation:

6 = ∑ƒx2
N
Where, ∑ƒx2 = 128 and n =10

6 = 128
10

= 12.8

= 3.57

ii] Assumed Mean Method:

Example: Find out standard deviation of the data given in
above example by assumed mean method.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 119

Steps:
1] Take the deviations of mid points from an assumed mean to get d.
2] Multiply these deviations by respective frequencies.
3] Calculate the total that is ∑ƒd.
4] Calculate the squares of the deviations that are d2.
5] Multiply these squared deviations by their frequencies that are ƒd2.
6] Obtain the total that is ∑ƒd2
Apply formula:
6= ∑ƒd2 - ∑ƒd 2

N N

Hb % No. of Mid points m–A ƒd ƒd2

(X) patients (m) (d)
(ƒ)
6 – 10 4 8 -4 - 16 64
10- 14 2 12 0 0 0
14 – 18 4 16 4 16 64
2
N = 10 ∑ƒd = 0 ∑ƒd = 128

We know formula,
6= ∑ƒd2 - ∑ƒd 2

N N

Where, d = (X –A)

∑ƒd2 = 128
∑ƒd = 0
N = 10
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 120

2
6= 128 - 0
10 10

= 12.8 - 0

= 12.8 = 3.57

Features of Standard Deviation:

 Its calculations are based on all the observations.
 Standard deviation is zero when all the variable values are
same.
 It is least affected by fluctuations of sampling.
 It is widely used for Regression, Coefficients, and
Correlations etc.
 It is also used in testing the reliability of certain statistical
measures.
 Standard deviation summarizes the deviation of a large
distribution into single value.
 It helps in calculating the standard error.
 Standard deviation gives gradation to only extreme values.
 It states whether the variation of difference of an individual
from the mean is real or by chance.

5. Variance:
Fisher first used the name variance.
The analysis of variance is the method by which one can
measure the significance of difference between several mean at one
time.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 121

Definition: Variance is the square of the Standard Deviation.

Variance = (S.D.) 2
Or
S.D. = Variance
Or

Variance = ∑ (X – X) 2
N
Or
Variance = ∑X2
N

Where, X = Value of individual items

X = Mean of series
N = Total of items
6 = Standard Deviation

Symbol 62 or V represents variance.

Example: The weight of 5 patients was recorded as 40, 48, 56, 63, 68
k.g. Find out variance of data.
Solution:
Weight Deviation (X - X) x
x
40 40 – 55 = – 15 225
48 48 – 55 = – 7 49
56 56 – 55 = 1 1
63 63 – 55 = 8 64
68 68 – 55 = 13 169
∑ X = 275 ∑ x 2 = 508
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 122

Here, N = 5 = No. of patients total

Calculation of Mean: ∑ X = 275 = 55
N 5

We know formula,
Variance = ∑ x2 = 55
N 5
= 11

Variance = 11

Coefficient of Dispersion:
Coefficient of dispersion is the ratio of a measure of
dispersion to the related measure of central tendency [Mean, Median
or Mode] Therefore we get following expressions:

1] Coefficient of Mean Deviation about Mean =

Mean Deviation about Mean
Arithmetic Mean

2] Coefficient of Mean Deviation about Median =

Mean Deviation about Median
Median
3] Coefficient of Mean Deviation about Mode =
Mean Deviation about Mode
Mode
* Coefficients of standard deviation = Standard Deviation
Arithmetic Mean
* Coefficient of variation = Standard Deviation X100
Arithmetic Mean
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 123

Importance in Biostatistics:
Measure of dispersion is useful mainly in biological processes
of living organism than the nonliving, physical or chemical sciences,
HB%, RBC number, O2 or CO2 capacity are some of the examples
Where dispersion are widely used.
It is also used when cure or non-curable rate with
same drug varies in different patients even we consider same age and
sex. Example: Same individual shows different pulse rate in different
physiological conditions.



Chapter No. 6
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 124

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

he Statisticians use the name „Normal‟ to the pattern of

T frequencies on which Statistical reasoning depends, while
physicians use the word „Normal‟ to differentiate between „Health‟
and „Disease‟
Normal Curve:
Synonyms: - Curve of error, Bell-shaped curve, de Movie‟s curve,
Gaussian curve.

Fig. 6.1
The normal curve or normal distribution is an important
concept in statistics For example we collect Hb values of many
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 125

patients and try to make a frequency distribution with class intervals

which are called Normal distribution or Normal curve
The shape of a curve will depend upon:
i) Mean.
ii) Standard deviation.
iii) Number and nature of observations.
From the above fig. 6.1 we get,
1) The area between one standard deviation on either side of
mean (x + 1) will include approximately 68% of values in
distribution.
2) The area between two standard deviation on either side of
mean (x + 2) will cover 95% of values in distribution.
3) The area between ( x + 3) will include 99.7 % of values in
distribution.
These limits on either side are called confidence limits.
 Demoivre (1733) was the first man who developed
mathematical equations of Normal Curve.
 Gauss and Laplace developed the concept of curve
and probability.

Mathematical formula for Normal Curve:

Y= N e - X 2/2 б 2
б2π

Here, N = Number of measures.

Y = An ordinate taken at any point on base line.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 126

π = 3.14
б = Standard deviation of distribution
X = The deviation of any unit of measurement from the mean.
e = 2.7193, the base of the system of natural logarithms.

Standard Normal Curve

The standard normal curve was investigated to estimate easily
the area under the curve between any two ordinates.
Characteristics of Standard Normal Curve:
 It is a smooth, bell shaped, perfectly symmetrical curve.
 The total area of the curve is one.
 Its mean is zero.
 Its standard deviation is one.
 Theoretically the curve n touches the X-axis or Y- axis.
 It is also known as Normal Probability Curve.
 Ideally number of items or events is plotted on the horizontal
or X -axis and frequency of accuracy is plotted on the vertical
or Y- axis.
The distance of a value (x) from mean (x) of the curve in units
of standard deviation is called Relative Deviation or standard normal
variable and is denoted by Z.
.

Z = ( x – x)
б
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 127

Skewed Curve:
Any deviation from the mean value to either below or above
the normal distribution value results skewness of the frequency
distribution. We find such two curves as under:
 Positively Skewed Curve.
 Negatively Skewed Curve.

Symmetrical distribution. (Skewness = 0)

M= Me=Mo

Fig. 6.2
Positively Skewed Curve

Fig. 6.3
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 128

A distribution is said to be positively skewed if the frequency

has a longer tail towards the higher values of x, that is, on the right, in
this case, Mean (M) > Median (Me)> Mode (Mo).
For example when outcomes of an examination show poor
result the scores are found towards the lower end. Such skew ness is
called positively skewed curve. Here, mean falls to the right of
median.

Negatively Skewed Curve

Fig. 6.4
A distribution is said to be negatively skewed if the frequency
curve has a longer tail towards the lower values of x, that is, on the
left. In this case, Mean (M) < Median (Me) < Mode (Mo)
Example: When outcomes of an examination show exceedingly
good result the scores are found towards the higher end. Such skewed
is called negatively skewed curve. Here, mean falls to the left of
median.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 129

Skewness is useful in Statistics for the purpose of calculation

with accuracy.

i) J-Shaped Curve:

Fig. 6.5
This typically J-shaped curve is seen during the drug proving
process, where the effects of an acute drug wear off after the initial
phase of pathogenesis. There is an increased frequency of events
happening in the initial phase and they disappear later.

ii) Bimodal Distribution Curve

Fig. 6.6
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 130

This type of distribution is seen with two peaks of normal

distribution curve.
Kurtosis
It is a measure of the peakedness or steepness of a frequency
distribution. Normal distribution has zero kurtosis. Kurtosis
graphically explains the range of distribution. There may be two
distributions which are identical in respect of central tendency
dispersion and skewness, but the frequency curve in one may be
steeper than the other. This characteristic of frequency distribution is
known as Kurtosis. According to the value of the Kurtosis a
distribution is divided into three categories:
i) Meso Kurtic Distribution
Here, the data is fairly spread out, and, the distribution looks
like a bell- shaped curve.

Fig. 6.6
ii) Platy Kurtic Distribution
Here, the distribution is spread extensively so that the curve of
distribution looks like a Plateau.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 131

Fig. 6.7
Iii) Lepto Kurtic Distribution
Here, the range is very small, so that data is spread within a
close extent. The curve of this distribution looks tall.

Fig. 6.8
Skewness
Skewness means the lack of symmetry or any deviation from
symmetry. Measure of Skewness tells us whether the dispersion of
items from an average is symmetrical or asymmetrical. In skewed
distribution values of mean, median and mode do not coincide.
Skewness or Kurtosis may happen if
1) Selection procedure is prejudiced. For example, inadequate
sample size, homogenous group. etc.
2) Unsuitable statistical tests give wrong interpretation.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 132

Chapter No. 7
MEASURES OF LOCATION

B asically, these are the values in a series of observations

arranged in ascending order, which divide the
distribution into 100 equal parts while averages are measures of
central value. They locate the centre or midpoint of a distribution.
Example: Measures of central tendency – Mean, Median, Mode.
Percentiles:
These are the values of a variable, which divide the total
observations by an imaginary line into two parts, which is expressed
in percentage, e.g. Weight, Height etc.
Types of percentiles:
1. Quartiles:
These are three different points situated on the whole range of
a variable.
Example: Higher quartile Q1 & Q2 and Q3 & Q1 or a lower quartile
will have 25% observations of highest falling in its left and 75% on its
right. Q2 or median will have 50% observations on each side and Q3
or upper will have 75% observations on its left and 25% on its right
side.

2. Quintiles:
They are four numbers, which divide the whole distribution in
to 5 equal parts. So 20% percentiles falling or first quintile will have
20% observations falling to its left and 80% on its right side.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 133

3) Deciles:
They are nine in number, which divide the whole distribution
into ten equal parts. That means first decile or 10th percentile will
divide the distribution into 10% and 90%. While 9th decile will
divides into 90% and 10% and first decile will be as median which is
also a second quartile Q2.
Calculation of Percentiles:
A) Graphic Method:
Here, the values are to be calculated from cumulative
frequency group.
Example: Find out the location of a percentile in the range of a
variable from following table.
Weight of groups Frequency of each Cumulative
in kg. group class frequency
20 – 22 4 4
22 – 24 3 7
24 – 26 2 9
26 – 28 4 13
28 – 30 5 18
30 – 32 6 24
32 – 34 8 32
34 – 36 10 42
36 – 38 12 54
38 – 40 8 62
Total = 62
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 134

To find the median weight or Q2 in the above example

draw a perpendicular on Ogive from the midpoint of frequency that is
62/2 = 31 and note the point where it cuts the Ogive perpendicular
from this point on the base line locates the median value. It is 33.7
Kg.
Repeat the same process to find the weight of the first or lower
quartile Q1 that is of 15.5th observation (62/4) or the third quartile Q3
that is of 46.5th observation (62 x ¾).
Similarly we can find any percentile value.
Example: To find 10th percentile determine the value of 6.2th
observation (62/10).
The values for Q1, median, Q3 and 10th percentile are shown in the
cumulative frequency diagram. Thus, form the same diagram we can
find how any given value of a variable divides a distribution into two
parts, Therefore what percentage of people are underweight or
overweight than ones own weight can be ascertained.
Suppose, it is 32 kg then draw a perpendicular from this
weight on the baseline on to the Ogive and form Ogive to the vertical
line. We find 34 people out of 62 or 54.83 % have more weight than
32 kg.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 135

B] Arithmetical Method:
Here the values are to be calculated from the cumulative
frequency where we have to find variable group in which the
particular observation lies and then raise the lower value of the
variable of that group proportionately to the value of that particular
observation.

1) Calculation of Median (Q2):

Median (Q2), that is 62/2 = 3first observation lies in the weight group
32 – 34 kg. The cumulative frequency up to the weight less than 32 kg
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 136

is 24. The frequency rises by 7 from 24 to31that is median or middle

observation. For 8 observations the attribute value as per the table
rises by class interval of 2 kg from 32 – 34 kg.
Therefore, the proportionate rise in the attribute for 7
observations =

2 X (31 – 24) = 1.75

8
Thus, median or second quartile Q2 value = 32 + 1.75 = 33.75 kg.
which is almost equal to the graphic value 33.7 Kg.

2) Calculation of first Quartile:

First Quartile, that is 62/4 = 15.5th observation lies in the group 28 –
30 kg. Cumulative frequency up to weight 28 kg is 13.
Q1 = 28 + 2 x (15.5 –13)
5
5 are the group frequency.
= 28 + 2 x (2.5)
5
= 28 + 5
5
= 29 kg.

3) Calculation of Third Quartile (Q3):

That is 62 X ¾ = 46.5th observation lies in group 34 – 36 kg.
Cumulative frequency up to weight 34 is 32.
Q3 = 36 + 2 x (46.5 – 42)
12
Where 10 is group frequency
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 137

= 34 + 29
10
= 36.9 kg.

4) Calculation of 10th Percentile:

10th Percentile, that is 62 /10 or 6.2th observation lies in-group 22 – 24
kg. Cumulative frequency up to weight 22 is 4.
P10 = 22 + 2 x (6.2 – 4)
3
Where 3 is group frequency

= 23.46 kg.
Utility:
1) Location of percentile divides the frequency distribution into
two parts, which is sophisticated for further study.
2) Preparation of a standard percentile like Quartile (Q1) or
median (Q2) etc. Example: For age, sex reasons.
3) It is useful for comparison of one percentile value of a variable
of one sample with another sample drawn from same
population.
4) It is used for study in growths in children.
5) It can be used as a best measure of dispersion.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 138

Chapter No. 8

PROBABILITY

I n our daily life there are many situations where there is no

certainty. For example, whether the students will pass or
not or if we toss a coin there is no certainly that whether there will
head or tail etc. In these situations we have doubt about certainty,
which is different from situation to situation. Therefore we also
defined probability as „measurement of doubt or degree of doubt‟.
Probability and degree of doubt is always universally proportional to
each other.
Blaise Pascal and Pierre Fernant developed a theory in connection
with gambling with cards .Then Laplace (1749-1827) converted this
theory into a method. It was used widely after the end of 19th century.
Probability is the ratio of number of favorable cases to the
total number of equally likely cases or the total number of cases.
OR
In other worlds, Probability is a chance or likely hood.

P (A) = m = No. of cases favorable to A

Total (Exhaustive) number of cases

OR
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 139

Probability = No. of favorable cases

Total number of equally likely cases

Where,
n= Experiment (exhaustive) that is total number of cases.
M= Favorable (to A) cases.
A= Event.
Laws of Probability:

1] Addition Law (The theorem on total probability)

2] Multiplication theorem (The theorem on compound probability)
3] Binomial Law
4] Probability from shape of Normal Distribution or Curve
5] Probability of calculated values from tables

1] Addition Law:
If the events are mutually exclusive, then the probability of
happening of any one of them is equal to the sum of the probabilities
of the happening of the separate events that is in other words if, E1,
E2, F3, En be „n‟ events and P (E1), P (E2),……P(En) of their
respective probabilities. Then,
P (E1 + E2 + E3 ……….. En) = P (E1) + P (E2) + P (E3)
Example: If the probability of student a passing the examination is
1/3 and the probability of the student „B‟ passing the same
examination is 1/5 then what is the probability that one of the student
will pass that examination?

Solution: Probability of the passing students A = 1/3 and

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 140

Probability of the passing students B = 1/5

P (A + B) = P (A) + P (B)

= 1 + 1 = 8 = 0. 53
3 5 15

B] Multiplication Law or Laplace’s 3rd principle:

The probability of occurrence of several independent
events is the product of their separate probabilities.
Consider, E is an event, which is joint occurrence of n
independent events E1, E2, E3, _ _ _ _ En.
So, E = E1, E2, E3 _ _ _ _ En.
Therefore, P (E) = P (E1) x P (E2) x P (E3) _ _ _ _ P (En).
OR
P (E) = P1 x P2 x P3 _ _ _ _ Pn.
Example: A card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards and then a second
is drawn. What is the probability that both the cards drawn are king?
Solution:
First draw – Probability of getting a king = 4 =1
52 13
(In a pack there are 52 cards)
2nd draw – After drawing first king we are left with 51 cards having 3
kings.

Probability of getting a king in second draw = 3

51

Probability that both the cards king

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 141

= 1 x 1 = 1 = 0. 008264
13 17 121

1] Classical Probability:
It is the calculation of probability in situation where there is
easy to predict.
Example: What is a probability of finding a black pen from a group
of 7 colored pens?
2] Frequency Probability:
It is the calculation of chance of happing in more complex
situations. Therefore these calculations are based on previous
observations and experience. Therefore it is also called as – Empirical
Probability.
It is based on two laws -Addition law and Multiplication law.
3] Conditional Probability:
It is the type of happening of an event, which is based on the
presence or absence of another event as a condition.

Probability Distribution:
There are 4 common probability distributions, which is a
very useful in operation research study.
i) Binominal distribution:
Consider, that a physician examines a certain group of patients
„n‟ items each. The fraction of defective items in each group is
estimated from previous data to equal „p‟. Thus we have to determine
the probability density function (pdf) of the number of defectives in a
group.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 142

There are Cxn = x! (n – X)!

N!
Distinct combination of having „x‟ defectives in a lot of n items and
n-x
the probability of getting each such combination is PX (1 – p)
According to addition law of probability the probability of „k‟
defectives in a group of „n‟ items is as follows:-
n-k
P (x = k) = Ckn Pk (1– p)
Where k = 1, 2, 3, n.
Above expression is called as „Binominal Distribution‟ in which „p‟
and „n‟ are the parameters mentioned.
ii) Poisson distribution:
Suppose, the patients arrive at a hospital in a totally random
fashion. That means there is no way to predict when someone will
arrive. The probability density function (pdf) for explaining the
number of such arrivals during a specified period is called „Poisson
Distribution‟.
Consider, „x‟ is the number of events that is arrivals that takes place a
specified time unit. The Poisson pdf is then given as follows:-

k
P x=k =λ e-λ
K!
Where k = 1, 2, 3….n.
And λ = the rate (number per unit time) at which the events occur.
iii) Negative exponential distribution:
It is the number of arrivals during a specified period, which
occurs according to a Poisson distribution then the distribution of the
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 143

intervals between successive arrivals, must follow the negative

exponential distribution.
If, λ is the rate at which the Poisson events occur, then the
distribution of the time „x‟ between successive arrivals is as follows:-
- λx
f (x) = λ e
Where x > o

iv) Normal distribution:

The probability density function (pdf) of the normal
distribution is defined as,
ƒ(x) = 1 ( x – μ)2
2 π б2 e – 2 б2

Where, E = x = μ (Mean)

Variance x = б2
It is useful in many random phenomena that occur in every day
practice like weights, where N (μ6) represents the normal distribute
on. The average of a sample taken from any distribution can always
be approximated by the normal distribution (as per central Limit
theorem).

Utility of probability in Homoeopathy:

 Conditional probability can be applied to the
possibility of occurrence of a symptom.
 It is also used for confirmation of medicine.
 It helps to demonstrate the sensitivity and specificity of
measure for events.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 144

 It explains whether the test is false positive or

negative, and predictive value positive or negative etc.
 Conditional probability can be applied to assess cure.
 It helps in Individualization process by denoting
uncommon symptoms, which helps for prescription.
 It helps to evaluate comparative value of a symptom.
 Probability distribution explains various permutations
and combination that the values of variables under
investigation can be measured and the number of times
each value can be observed in study process.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 145

Chapter No. 9

STATISTICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

ohn M Last has defined Epidemiology in 1988 as, “The

J study of the distribution and determinants of health related
state or events in specified population and the application of this study
of the control of health problems”.
This definition of Epidemiology is enough to understand the
relation of Epidemiology to Statistics.
The basic components of Epidemiology are:
a) Disease Frequency.
b) Distribution of Disease.
c) Determinants of Disease.

Measurement in Epidemiology:
The first requirement for any measurement in Epidemiology is
what is to be measure that is collection of data. To minimize errors in
classification of data Epidemiology need clear definition of a disease
it includes:-
a) Measurement of Mortality.
b) Measurement of Morbidity.
c) Measurement of Disability
d) Measurement of Natality.
e) Measurement of Demographic Variables
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 146

The basic requirements of measurements are validity,

reliability, accuracy, sensitivity and specificity.
The frequency of a discrete variable can be expressed as a rate
in relation to population. The frequency of continuously distributed
variables is expressed in the form of a frequency distribution using
indices of mean, centiles and standard deviations etc.
The Epidemiologist usually expresses disease magnitude as a
Rate, Ratio and Proportions.

1) Rate:
It is measure of the occurrence of some particular events in a
population during a given time period. It indicates the change in some
events that takes place in a population over a period of time.
Example: Death rate = Number of deaths in one year X 100
Mid- year population
The categories of rates are as follows:
i) Crude Rates:
These are the actual observed rates such as the birth and death
rates.
ii) Specific Rates:
These are the actual observed rates due to specific causes. E.g.
Leprosy occurring in specific groups. (Age, sex group) or during
specific time. (Weekly, monthly, annually) etc.
iii) Standardized Rates:
It is mainly used to compare the death rates of two populations
with different age composition. Standardization is carried out by one
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 147

of two methods – Direct or Indirect standardization by using standard

population.

2) Ratio:
A ratio is a measure of disease frequency. It denotes a relation
in size between two random quantities. In other words ratio is a result
of dividing one quantity by another.

Example: The ratio of WBC‟s to RBC‟s is 1: 600 or that means

for every one WBC there is 600 RBC‟s.

3) Proportion:
A proportion is a ratio, which indicates the relation in
magnitude of a part of the whole. It is expressed as a percentage.
Ex. The number of males with hypertension at s certain time X 100
The total number of males in a city at the same time

Mortality Rates and Ratio’s:

These measures are as follows:
i) Crude Death Rate:
It is the number of deaths (including all causes) per 1000
estimated mid – year population in one year in a given place.
Crude death rate = Number of deaths during year x 1000
Mid – year population
ii) Specific Death Rates:
When the cause of death is known in a specific group we can
calculate specific death rates. It may be...
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 148

i) Cause or disease specific: For example: Leprosy,

Tuberculosis.
ii) Related to specific group: For example: Age, Sex group.
It is mainly used for identification of groups at risk for preventive
purpose.

iii) Case Fatality Rate (Ratio):

It is the ratio of deaths due to particular disease to cases,
which represents the killing power of a disease.
It is mainly used in acute infectious diseases (For example:
Cholera, Poisoning etc)
Case fatality rate
= Total number of deaths due to a particular disease x 100
Total number of cases due to the same disease

iv) Proportional Mortality Rate (Ratio):

It is number of deaths due to a particular cause (or in a specific
age group) per 100 or 1000 total deaths.
a) Proportional mortality from a specific disease =
Number of deaths from the specific disease in a year x 100
Total deaths from all causes in that year
b) Proportional mortality rate for age group
= Number of deaths at the particular age x 100
Total deaths of all age group in that year
It is mainly used for non-communicable diseases such as
Coronary heart disease, Cancer etc. in developed countries.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 149

v) Survival rate:
It is the proportion of survivors in a group of patient‟s studied
and followed over a period (say 5 yrs).
It is mainly used to know prognosis of that disease For
example: In Cancer patients who is useful for further medication.
Survival rate = Total number of patients alive after 5 yrs x 100
Total number of patients diagnosed or treated

vi) Standardized Mortality Ratio:

It is a ratio of the total number of deaths that occur in a group
to the number of deaths that would have been expected in a
population, which is expressed in a percentage.
Standardized mortality ratio = Observed deaths x 100
Expected deaths
It is mainly used for occupational diseases.
Example: Sarcoidosis, Pneumoconiosis etc.

Measurement of Morbidity:
The WHO expert committee on health statistics noted in its 6th
report that morbidity should be measured in terms of:
a) Person who were ill.
b) The illnesses that these persons experienced.
c) The duration of illness.
Morbidity is commonly measured by morbidity rates / ratios,
frequency, duration and severity. Disease frequency is measured by
Incidence and Prevalence rates.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 150

1) Incidence Rate:
It is the number of new cases occurring in a population during
a specified period of time.
Incidence rate
= Number of cases of specific disease during a given time period x 1000
Population at risk during that period
Incidence rate is important for:
i) To control disease.
ii) For research into etiology, pathogenesis and distribution of
diseases.
iii) For preventive and therapeutic measures.
iv) Incidence rate is mostly considered in acute diseases.

Other incidence rates are as follows:

a) Attack Rate:
An attack rate is an incidence rate when the population is
exposed to an epidemic for a certain period of time.
Attack rate =
Number of new cases of a specified disease
During a specified time interval x 100
Total population at risk during the same interval

b) Secondary Attack Rate:

It is the number of exposed persons developing the disease
within the range of the incubation period following exposure to a
primary case.
Secondary attack rate =
Number of exposed persons developing the disease
Within the range of the incubation period X 100
Total number of exposed / susceptible contacts
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 151

Utility of Incidence:
1) It is useful to determine whether a disease of unknown
etiology is communicable or not and in evaluating the
effectiveness of control measures like immunization and
isolation.
2) It is useful in infectious diseases in which the primary care is
effective for only a short period of time.
3) It measures the spread of an infection in a family or
community.

Prevalence:
It is the total number of all individuals who have a disease at a
particular time divided by the population at risk of having the disease
at this point in time or mid-way through the period. Prevalence is of
two types:-
a) Point Prevalence
b) Period Prevalence
a) Point Prevalence:
It is the number of all current cases (old and new) of a disease
at one point in time in relation to a defined population.

Point prevalence =
Number of all current cases (old and new) of a specified
Disease exiting at a given point in time x 100
Estimated population at the same point in time
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 152

b) Period Prevalence:
It is the frequency of all current cases (old and new) exciting
during a defined period of time (e.g. Monthly prevalence) in relation
to a defined population.
Period prevalence
= Number of exciting cases (old and new) of a specified disease
During a given period of time interval x 100
Estimated mid – interval population at risk

Uses of Prevalence:
1) Prevalence is used to estimate health or disease problems in
community and identify high-risk population.
2) Prevalence rates are useful for administrative and planning
purposes.
3) It is used for rehabilitation purpose.

Relationship between Prevalence and Incidence:

Prevalence = Incidence x mean duration,
P=IxD or I = P
D
Prevalence is directly proportional to duration of the disease and its
incidence.

Risk Factors:
Where the disease agent is not known the etiology is generally
discussed in terms of „Risk factors‟.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 153

It does not mean that presence of risk factors will cause

disease or its absence will not cause disease. Risk factors may be
either modified or unmodified.
i) Modified Risk Factors:
Example: Smoking, Hypertension, Serum Cholesterol level,
Obesity etc.
ii) Unmodified Risk Factors:
Example: Age, Sex, Race, Genetic factors etc.
Case control and Cohort studies are essential to identify risk factors.

Utility of Risk Factors:

 Risk factors characterize the individual. For example: Some of
the individual risk factors include Age. Sex, Smoking,
Hypertension etc. that helps for selection of single
Homoeopathic remedy.
 The defection of risk factors is useful for prevention of
disease.
 It is useful for pre symptomatic screening for disease.
 The presence of risk factors increase the probability that
diseases is present and more often it may give due to rule out
disease (absence of risk factors).
 By calculating risk we use it to predict future incidence of
disease.
1] Relative Risk or Risk Ratio:
It is the ratio of incidence of the disease or death among
exposed and the incidence among non-exposed.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 154

Risk ratio = Incidence of disease / death among exposed

Incidence of disease / death among non - exposed

Utility of Risk Ratio:

1) It helps to find out etiology of a disease.
2) It is an index of the association between suspected cause and
effect.
2] Attributable Risk or Risk Difference:
It is the difference in incidence rates of disease or death
between an exposed group and non exposed group which is expressed
in percentage.
Attributable risk =

Incidence of disease rate among exposed – incidence

Disease rate among non – exposed x 100
Incidence rate among exposed
Utility of Attributable Risk:
It indicates to what extent the disease under study can be
attributed to the exposure.

3] Population Attributable Risk:

It is the incidence of the disease or death among those who not
exposed to the suspected causal factors.

Utility of Population Attribution Risk:

It provides an estimate of the amount by which the disease
could be related in that population if the suspected factor was
eliminated or modified.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 155

Screening for Diseases:

Screening:
It is defined as, „the search for unknown disease or defect by
means of rapidly applied test, examinations or other procedures in
apparently healthy individuals‟. Or in other words, „Screening is
testing for infection or disease in population or in individuals who are
not seeking health care. Example: Neonatal screening.

Screening Tests:
It is an initial examination and not a diagnostic test except
anemia and glucose tolerance test, which are used both for screening
and diagnosis.

Aims and Objectives for Screening:

1) Identification of apparently healthy persons who are
susceptible for disease or at risk from population.
2) For early diagnosis and quick treatment.
Utility of Screening:
1) Case Detection.
2) Control of Disease.
3) Research Purposes.
4) Educational Opportunities.
Types of screening:
Screening

Mass Screening Selective Screening Multiphasic Screening

(High risk)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 156

1) Mass Screening:
Mass screening is nothing but the screening of a whole
population. E.g. screening for tuberculosis.
2) Selective (High-risk) Screening:
Here, the screening tests are selectively applied to individuals
in high-risk group.
Example: Screening for Cancer of cervix in the lower social groups.
Risk factors especially those of a pathophysiological in nature are
identified and then preventive measures can be applied before actual
disease occurs.
3) Multiphasic Screening:
It is the application of many screening tests to a large number
of peoples at a same time for many diseases.

Criteria for Screening:

The criteria for screening are based on two considerations as
follows:
i) The disease to be screened.
ii) Test to be applied.

Evaluation of a Screening Test:

The following measures are used to evaluate a screening test:-
i) Sensitivity.
ii) Specificity.
iii) Predictive value.
iv) False percentage.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 157

i) Sensitivity
It is the ability of a test to identify correctly all those who have
the disease. Yerushalny introduces it in 1940.It is a statistical index of
diagnosis. It is expressed in percentages. (E.g. 80%, 90% etc.)

ii) Specificity:
It is the ability of a test to identify correctly those who do not
have the disease.
It is expressed in percentage.
iii) Predictive Value:
It reflects the diagnostic power of the test. It depends upon
sensitivity, specificity and prevalence of a disease.
It is either positive or negative.
The positive test indicates the probability that a patient with a
positive test resulting in disease.
iv) False Percentage:
It is either negative or positive as follows:
a) False Negative:
It means that patients who actually have the disease are told
that they do not have the disease. Therefore here many patients do not
receive proper treatment at right time. The lower the sensitivity, the
larger will be the number of false negative patients.
b) False Positive:
It means that patients who do not have the disease are told that
they have. Here normal healthy peoples may be screened. A screening
test with a high specificity will have few false positives.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 158

Calculations:
1) Sensitivity
= diseased peoples whose screening test is positive x 100
(Disease peoples whose + (Diseased peoples
Screening test is positive) whose screening test is negative)

2) Specificity
= Non diseased peoples whose screening test is negative x 100
(Non-diseased peoples whose + (Non diseased peoples
Screening test is positive) whose screening test is negative)

3) Predictive value of positive test

= Diseased peoples whose screening test is positive x 100
(Diseased peoples whose + (Non diseased peoples
screening test is positive) whose screening test is positive)

4) Predictive value of a negative test

= Non Diseased peoples whose screening test is negative x 100
(Diseased peoples whose + (Non diseased peoples
screening test is negative) whose screening test is negative)

5) Percentage of false negative

= Diseased peoples whose screening test is negative x 100
(Diseased peoples whose + (Diseased peoples
Screening test is positive) whose screening test is negative)


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 159

Chapter No. 10

LIFE TABLE

I t is very difficult to predict how long a particular man will

live. But today the statisticians are able to state expectation
of life after birth or any event by using life table.
Life table states the mortality rate of a particular group of
people over a given period from a birth until the last individual of that
group died.
Example: If we observed 100 peoples from birth until death then we
have to observe each individual at every year till its death.

Utility of Life Table:

1) Life table are used in the fields of Reproduction, Natality, Chances
of survival (after any surgery or medicinal treatment)
2) It is useful to analyze the mortality of given population that is to
find number of survivors out of 100 births at any age of life. For
example:
i) At age of 4 to find preschool children.
ii) At age of 18 to find number of person who become eligible for
voting… etc.
3) It is useful to make comparative study at state, national or
international levels.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 160

4) By modified life table technique we can answer survival rates after

treatment in chronic diseases like, TB, cancer any major surgery etc.
5) L.I.C. peoples commonly use life tables for computation of life
insurance premiums.
6) By using life table we can calculate the proportion of individuals
who entering service at 20 yrs. become eligible for pension at age of
58 yrs. (Retirement age).
7) We can use life table to quantify premature mortality that is the
amount of life that is lost as a result of diseases of young age or
premature death.
Disability – Adjusted Life Years:
It is one of the measures to find out illness or death rates in a
community. We know that many conditions may not cause death but
may cause disability due to that specific disease.
Example: In Leprosy there is deformity of fingers of hand, which
result in loss of total working days.
Therefore WHO investigated a new technique to find the
actual health status of different countries. This parameter is called –
Disability Adjusted Life Years. (DALYS)
Requirement for measurement of disability adjusted life years:
1) Life table of that country:
2) Loss of healthy life yrs. resulting from disability. (The disability
may be permanent e.g. Polio or temporary like Leprosy or may be
physical like Paralysis or mental like Schizophrenia).
The number of years of a healthy life lost to all causes,
whether from premature mortality or from disability.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 161

Utility:
1] To compare health status of different countries.
2] To identify the handicapped groups.
3] It plays important role in health interventions or levels of
preventions.
4] It provides data for health planning and programs.

Quality – Adjusted Life Year:

It is used to measure the cost – effectiveness of health
interventions. Its expresses the quality of life. It estimates the number
of years of life due to successful treatment either medical or surgical.

Heath Expectancy :
There are many factors like social, economical, and cultural
that affects indirectly on health, which was not included in disability
adjusted life years approach. Therefore WHO Advisory Committee on
Health Research creates a new framework that is International
classification of impairments, disabilities and handicaps to ass‟s
health expectancy considering above-mentioned factors.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 162

Chapter No. 11

ERRORS IN STATISTICS AND RESEARCH

E rror is the difference between a computed or estimated result

and the actual value or in other words it is „Incorrect or
Mistake‟ resulting from any cause.
A researcher is a human being and not a machine. There fore
there are many chances and or scope of errors from selection of
problem up to the formulation, conclusion and even presenting final
reports. Thus one should identify these errors and correct them as far
as possible at that time only. These errors may be of following types:
 Theoretical Error
 Methodological Error
 Sampling Error
 Measurement Error
 Statistical Error
 Interpretation Error
 Inferential Error
 Reporting Error

Theoretical Error:
As the researcher do not have enough theoretical knowledge
and information regarding the area of studies. He may choose
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 163

unsuitable area for his study .Therefore it is the responsibility of

supervisor or guide to select appropriate area for study.
Many times the terms statement of the problem, topic of research
are used synonymously through due to lack of knowledge, nature and
role of variables of their studies.

Methodological Errors:
During conducting any research by using only one type of
methodology is not sufficient for its internal and external validity.

Sampling Error:
These types of errors can be reduced if appropriate statistical
test is used and samples-representatives are increased in numbers. The
technique which is adopted for sampling plays important role in
experimental studies. (Provided equivalent groups considered)
While the size of sample plays important role in survey type of
studies-Epidemiological Studies.
During a survey we take only a small portion of a whole
population that is a sample where naturally a certain amount of error
will occur this error is called as „Sampling error‟. When sampling
error decreases sample size increases and vice versa.
Sampling errors are as follows:
i) Chance Error:
It occurs due to random sampling. In statistics we can accept it
up to 5% (that is if p < 0.05 it is significant). If it is more than 5%
(that is if p> 0.05, it is not significant) we reject it.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 164

ii) Frame Error:

It occurs during the selection of sample frame from a
population.
Standard Error:
It is the deviation of sampling distribution of a statistic. This
type of error will occur due to chance.
I) Standard Error of Mean (SE X):
Standard error of mean is the standard deviation of the sample
divided by the square root of the number of observations in the
sample.
SE X = S. D.
N
Utility:
1. It is used to determine whether the sample is drawn from a known
population or not when its mean is known.
2. To calculate size of sample if SD of population is known.
3. To asses if the observed difference between the means of two
samples is statistically significant or not.

ii) Standard Error of Proportion (SEP):

It is a unit, which measures variation which occurs by chance
in proportions of a character from sample to sample or from sample to
population or vice versa. It is calculated by formula:
S.E.P = Pq
N
Where, P = Percentage of positive character.
q = Percentage of negative character.
n = Number in the sample.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 165

Utility:
1. It is used to determine whether the sample is drawn
from known population or not.
2. It is used to find the standard error of difference
between two proportions to know if the observed
difference between the proportions of two samples is
statistically significant or not.
3. During survey it helps to find sample size.

iii) Standard Error of Difference between Two Means:

Frequency distribution of the differences gives a normal curve.
The standard deviation of such a distribution of differences is known
as, Standard error of difference between two means.
Utility:
1. It is used for study of the specific action of a specific drug in two
groups (Experimental and control group)
2. The action of two different drugs or its different doses of same drug
can be compared from standard error of differences.
3. It is used to see whether the difference between the means of the
two groups is significant or not. It is calculated by using following
formula:
A. When samples are very large (More than 100):

S.E (d) between the means = 621 + 622

n1 n2

B. When the sample size is small (Between 30-100):

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 166

SE (d) = 1 1
X12 +  X2 2 N1 + N2

N1 + N2 -2

Where, 6 = Standard Deviation.

N = Number in the sample.

iv) Standard Error of Difference between Two Proportions:

It is the square root of the sum of squares of the standard

errors of the two proportions. It is denoted as SE (P1- P2).

It is calculated by using following formula:

S.E of difference = P1 q1 + P2 q2 OR
Between two proportions n1 n2

1 + 1
PQ n1 n2

Where, p = Percentage of positive character.

q = Percentage of negative character.
PQ = Combined percentage of positive
and negative character.
n = Number in sample.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 167

Utility:
It is used to test the significance of difference between two
proportions or ratios to find out if the difference between the two
proportions or ratios has occurred by chance.

Measurement Error:
Human variables are measured with the manifestation of their
behaviors (symptomatology) of an individual, different groups
expresses different traits and behaviors. For example: Measurement
of intelligence, success or failure rate etc. Therefore to avoid these
types of errors
- Large samples should be considered which also automatically
eliminates sample errors.
- Collection of data is done by employing appropriate tests.
- Nature of variables should be defined.
- All instruments which are used should be examined by
researcher carefully in the terms of its reliability, validity
and appropriateness for the study.

Statistical Error:
Many behavioral sciences required statistical
techniques. If an appropriate test is not used for analysis of data and
interpreting conclusion it results into statistical errors. Therefore care
should be taken to avoid these errors. For example:
1) Parametric statistics should be used in samplings procedure,
collection of data.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 168

2) Non- Parametric statistics should be used in pure research secure

they have no assumptions.
A researcher can check his results with the help of advanced
computer or electric calculator.

Interpretation Error:
Interpretation is an individualistic entity. Though
Homoeopathic science is based on individualization concept, the
researcher should not state something beyond the statistical data.
His interpretative data must be relevant to concerned variable. For
example: When we the use non-parametric statistics, our results
should be interpreted as a description of a sample only and should
not be interpreted in terms of grand generalization. Scientific
words or terminologies used whenever necessary. Certain
evidence should be used for final interpretation.

Inferential Error:
While applying grand generalization one can use many
individuals as samples only. Few peoples do not always become ideal
representative of whole population. Samples should be taken
considering racial geographical and biological variation. We can use
small samples in experimental studies to show cause and effect
relationship of any disease We can not generalized it because may
diseases was multifactorial in origin, many environmental and the
hosts defense mechanisms and susceptibility plays important role in
development of disease mechanism. Therefore the inferences drawn
should be based on clinical findings and should not come in conflicts.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 169

The merits and its limitations should be discussed in details,

provided its findings must be related to aims or objects and hypothesis
of study.
Accepting or rejecting the Null – Hypothesis (Ho) always
carries some risk of making one or two type of mistakes as follows:
i) α - error (Type I Error):
It is the rejection of null hypothesis that is actually true or
incorrect rejection of null hypothesis.
ii) β error (Type II Error):
It is the acceptance of null hypothesis as true when it is false
or incorrect acceptance of null hypothesis.
α error is inversely proportional to β errors.
That is if α error increases β error deceases and vice versa.

Reporting Error:
Many times most of the errors are seen during reporting
research projects. These are either Bias or Prejudices, false analogy in
selecting a problem and considering methodology or the statistical
techniques are used without considering their assumption. We can
avoid these types of errors with the help statisticians and experts,
who easily identify these types of errors.

Stage of Research and Type of Error:

At every stage of research we find some errors which can be
avoided, if possible. If it can not be removed it can be corrected. But
one should not be ignored them for e.g. during each stage of research
we find following types of errors
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 170

Stage of Research Type of Error

1) Conceptualization and Lack of validity.
Formation of hypothesis
2) Construction of questionnaire Lack of reliability.
3) Sampling Lack of external validity.
(Sampling error)
4) Collection of data Errors due to
Environmental factors,
Personal characteristics,
Defects in research
Instrument, interview,
Communicative
Language problems etc.
5) Coding Coding error- incorrect
Information recorded due
to Missing data.
6) Data analysis Misuse of statistical
Techniques.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 171

Chapter No. 12

CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

A ccording to Croxton and Cowden: When the

relationship is of a quantitative nature the appropriate
statistical tool for discovering and measuring the relationship and
expressing it in a brief formula is known as Correlation.
That means, correlation indicates the relationship between two
such variables, which is solely depend upon each other. That means if
one change automatically other will change.
Correlation is a close association of two or more facts.
In other words, it is the tendency of simultaneous variation between
two variables it is also called Co variation‟. For example: The
relationship of study and result of examination can be termed as
correlation because marks obtained increases or decreases with
respect to level of study.

Types of Correlation:
There are 4 types of correlation. They are as follows:
A. Positive and Negative Correlation.
B. Simple and Multiple Correlations.
C. Partial and Total Correlation.
D. Linear and Non-linear Correlation.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 172

A. Positive and Negative Correlation:

In positive correlation the movement of variables is
unidirectional that is if there is increase or decrease in one variable
the other variable will also increase or decrease.
On the other hand in negative type, the movement of variables
is in opposite directions. That is if there is increase in the value of one
variable there is decrease in the value of other.

Examples of Positive Correlation:

- Increase in height and weight.
- Age of brother and sister.
- Monsoon and crop production.

Examples of Negative Correlation:

- Sale of air coolers in rainy season.
- Increase in number of cable operators and the number of
Theaters.
- Demand of gold goes down as a result of rise in prices.

B. Simple and Multiple Correlations:

In simple correlation the relationship is related to two
variables. Example: Study and marks obtained in examination of a
student.
In case of multiple correlations there is relationship
between more than two variables. Example: The relationship of
marks obtained in examination with students study, type of teaching,
familial environment etc.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 173

C. Partial and Total Correlation:

When the correlation is based on all the variables is called
Total correlation. And when the relationship is present between two
or more but not to all is called Partial correlation.

D. Linear and Non – Linear Correlation:

When two variables have a constant ratio there will be a linear
correlation. In non- linear (also called curvilinear correlation)
correlation variation in the value of two variables does not constant.

Degree of Correlation:
It is the intensity of relationship between two variables.
Classification of Degree of Correlation:
Degree of Correlation

Perfect Limited Absence

Positive Negative Positive Negative

Perfect Degree of Correlation:

It is the relation between two variables is in a state that when
there is increase in the value of one the value of other increase or vice
versa. Such relation is called as Perfect degree of correlation.
If both series move in same direction is called Positive perfect
degree of correlation and if, the two series move in opposite direction
is called Negative perfect degree of correlation.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 174

Fig. No.12. 1

Fig. No.12.2

Limited Degree of Correlation:

If there are unequal changes in same direction the relationship
is said to be limited positive correlation and if there are unequal
changes in opposite direction the correlation is called limited negative
correlation.

Fig. No. 12.3

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 175

Fig. No. 12.4

Absence of Correlation:
Here, there is no any relationship exists between variables.
Therefore these variables are not depending on each other.

Fig. No. 12.5

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 176

Coefficient of Correlation:
It is a measure of tendency that is the degree to which the two
variables are interrelated which is measured by a coefficient, is called
Coefficient of correlation.

Properties of Coefficient of Correlation:

1] Coefficient of correlation lies between – 1 and + 1.
2] The coefficient of correlation is not affected by change and scale of
origin.
3] There is no correlation between two variables if r = 1.
4] The correlation is perfect and positive if r = + 1.

How to Study Correlation:

There are 3 methods of studying correlation. They are as follows:
A] Scatter Diagram.
B] Karl‟s Pearson Coefficient of Correlation.
C] Rank Correlation.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 177

A] Scatter Diagram:
Here, by simply observation we get some idea about the
presence of correlation. Scatter diagram is in the form of plotted
points on a graph paper. The plotted points may be upward or
downward in direction is called positive or negative scattered
diagrams respectively.

i] Perfect correlation: If the potted points are in straight lines is

called, perfect correlation.
a) Scatter Diagram of Perfect Positive Correlation:
Fig. No. 12.6

r = + 1.
Here, we observe an upward trend indicate positive
relationship or correlation.

b) Scatter Diagram of Perfect Negative Correlation:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 178

Fig. No. 12.7

r=-1
Here, we find plotting on graph paper have downward trend indicate
negative correlation.

Degree of Correlation:
If the plotted points are not in a straight line but if we draw a
straight line in a middle of their points – regression line we will find
the points may be nearest to line or not- this kind of scatter diagram is
called degree of correlation. It may be of following types.

Degree of Correlation

Positive Negative

High Low High Low

iv) Scatter Diagram of Zero Correlation:

If a scattered points shows no any trend or relationship
between each other is called, „No correlation or Zero correlation.‟
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 179

i) High Degree Positive Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.8

ii) Low Degree Positive Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.9

iii) High Degree Negative Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.10
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 180

iv) Low Degree Negative Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.11

Example: The following data gives the height and weight of 10

students in a class. Draw a scatter diagram on a graph paper and
interpret whether the correlation is positive or negative.

Height (cm) 110 112 118 130 100 130

Wight (kg) 40 42 50 60 38 44

Solution:
Fig. No. 12.12
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 181

From the above scatter diagram we find that the variables height and
weight are of high degree positive in nature.

Features of a Scatter Diagram:

1) It is vary easy method to find nature of correlation between two
variables.
2) It is an attractive.
3) It is non- mathematical which saves time.
4) It is not affected by extreme values.
5) It gives rough idea that how two variables are related to each other
either low or high.
6) From scatter diagram only we cannot ass‟s degree of correlation.
B] Karl Person’s Coefficient of Correlation:
It is obtained by dividing the sum of the products of the
corresponding deviations of the various items of two series from their
respective means by the product of their standard deviation and the
number of pairs of observations. It is denoted by „r‟. It is used to
measure the degree of relationship between two or more variables.
It is based on arithmetic mean and standard deviation.
Formula:

Where, x = (X - X)
y = (Y - Y)
б x = Standard deviation of X - axis
б y = Standard deviation of Y - axis
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 182

N = Number of pairs of observations

r = Coefficient of correlation

r = ∑xy
Nx ∑x 2 x ∑y 2
N N

OR

Example: Calculate coefficient of correlation from the following data

interpret the result.

Students 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Marks in 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 39 42 48

Anatomy

Marks in 25 25 27 27 31 33 35 41 41 45

Physiology
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 183

Solution:
Calculation of coefficient of correlation:
Marks in Marks in
2
Anatomy X-X x Physiology Y–Y y2 xy
X x Y y
( X – 30) ( y – 33)
15 - 15 225 25 -8 64 120
18 - 12 144 25 -8 64 96
21 -9 81 27 -6 36 54
24 -6 36 27 -6 36 36
27 -3 9 31 -2 4 6
30 0 0 33 0 0 0
36 +6 36 35 +2 4 12
39 +9 81 41 +8 64 72
42 + 12 144 41 +8 64 96
48 + 18 324 45 + 12 144 216
2 2
∑x = 300 ∑x ∑y = 330 ∑y = ∑xy =
= 480 708
1080

Calculation:
Steps: 1) Calculate arithmetic means of X and Y series.
2) Find out deviation of X series to get x.
3) Square their deviation to get ∑x 2.
4) Find out deviation of Y series to get y.
5) Square their deviation to get ∑y2.
6) Multiply x and y.
7) Find out total that is x and y.
Apply formula, r = ∑xy
∑ x 2 x ∑y 2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 184

Calculation of Mean:

X= ∑x = 300 = 30
N 10

Y= ∑x = 330 = 33
N 10

Now, we know, r = ∑xy

∑x2 x ∑y2
Where, ∑xy = 708
∑x 2 = 1080
and ∑y 2 = 480

Hence, there is high degree of Positive (+ ve) correlation.

C] Rank Correlation:
It was Charles Edward Spearman (1904) who developed a
formula for obtaining rank correlation. According to him if we want
to find if two characteristics A say smell of a sent and B say its color
are related or not.
Spearman‟s rank correlation coefficient is denoted by p (Rho) and
calculated by following formula.

r or p = 1 - б∑ D2
n (n2 – 1)

Where, p (Rho) = rank difference of x and y variables

 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 185

D = Difference between pair of same individual

in two characteristics.
N = Number of pairs.
∑ D2 = Summation of square of difference of two
variables rank I and II (R1, R2).
Rank correlation is mainly used when we want to present quantitative
characters such as color, smell, intelligence, stress. …etc. It is least
expressive in quantitative measurement.
Example: Calculate the coefficient of rank correlation from following
data:
Students 1 2 3 4 5
Marks in Anatomy 75 40 52 65 60
Marks in 25 42 35 29 33
Physiology

Solution:
Anatomy Physiology Rank Difference
(d)

Marks R1 Rank Marks Rank R2 d = R1 – R2 d2

75 1 25 5 -4 16
40 5 42 1 +4 16
52 4 35 2 +2 4
65 2 29 4 -2 4
60 3 33 3 0 0
n=5 0 40
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 186

P or R =1– 6 ∑ d2
n (n2 – 1)

=1– 6 x 40
5 (52 – 1)

=1– 240 =–1

5 x 24

Here, we get negative rank correlation that means, the student

who is best in one subject is dull in other subject and vice versa.
Example: 2) Calculate the coefficient of correlation by Rank method
of following data:

Marks in 29 24 25 27 30 31
Materia Medica
Marks in 29 19 30 33 37 36
Repertory

Solution:
Sr. Marks in Rank Marks Rank d
No. Materia. R1 Repertory R2 R1 – R2 d2
Medica.
1 29 3 29 5 -2 4
2 24 6 19 6 0 0
3 25 5 30 4 1 1
4 27 4 33 3 1 1
5 30 2 37 1 1 1
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 187

6 31 1 36 2 -1 1
∑ d2
=8

P = 1 - 6∑d2
n (n2 – 1)

=1- 6x8
6 (62 – 1)

=1- 48
6 (36 – 1)

= 1 - 48
210

= 1 – 0.228

= 0.78

Features of Rank Method:

1. When the ranks of different items – values in the variables only are
given rank method is the only method for finding the degree of
correlation.
2. If the values are not repeated, the answer obtained by Karl
Pearson‟s method and rank difference method will be the same.
3. Rank method is not used when the number of items is more than
30. Here Karl Pearson‟s method may be used.
4. This method is applicable only to individual observation rather than
frequency distribution.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 188

5. This method can not be employed for finding out correlation in a

grouped frequency distribution.

2. Regression:
Regression means change in the measurements of variable character
either positive or negative side, beyond the mean.
Francis Galton introduced this concept. It is used
for estimating the unknown values of one variable from known values
of another.
Regression analysis is a method in which variables can be
determined by regression lines and be indicated by regression
analysis. Regression describes the functional relationship between
dependant and independent variables, which helps us to make
estimates of one variable from another.

Regression Line:
It is a line of points drawn in such a manner, which represent
the average relationship between the two variables such a line, is
called „Regression line‟. Here, it estimates the value of one variable
from the value of the.
When the regression lines show some similarity upward or
downward we can assess same trend or correlation between these two
variables. When the trend is upward the correlation is positive and
when it is downward the correlation is negative. In positive
correlation there may be high or low degree and in case of negative
correlation there may be high or low degree of correlation. If both the
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 189

lines cut each other at right angle that is parallel to OX and OY –

shows No correlation or zero correlation (r = o).

a) Perfect Positive Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.13

b) Perfect Negative Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.14

c) High Degree of Positive Correlation:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 190

Fig. No. 12.15

d) Low Degree of Positive Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.16

e) High Degree of Negative Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.17
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 191

f) Low Degree of Negative Correlation:

Fig. No. 12.18

Regression Coefficient:
It is a measure of the change in one dependant character
with one unit change in the independent character. It is denoted by
letter „b‟.
As there are two regression lines so there are two regression
equations and therefore two regression coefficients are as follows:
X on Y regression equation = Xc = a + b y.
Y on X regression equation = Yc = a + b x.
Calculation of ‘a’ Value:-
The value of „a‟ can be calculated with the help of following
equation.
∑X = N a + b ∑ Y and ∑ XY = a ∑ Y + b ∑ Y 2
Calculation of ‘b’ Value:-
The value of „b‟ may be calculated with the help of following
equations.
∑Y = N a + b ∑ X and ∑ X Y = ∑ X + b ∑ X 2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 192

The Coefficient of Regression are Calculated by the Formula as:

Regression coefficient of X on Y = bxy = r б x
бy
Regression coefficient of Y on X = bxy = r б y
бx
Where, б x = standard deviation of X series.
б y = standard deviation of Y series.
r = coefficient of correlation.

Coefficient of Correlation:
It is the square root of the product of the two regression
coefficients.
We can calculate coefficient of correlation from the equation
of regression coefficient.
Here, we have to understand two laws:
i) If regression coefficient has negative sign coefficient of correlation
will also be negative.
ii) If regression coefficients have positive sign coefficient of
correlation will also be positive.
It means that, both the regression coefficient have same sign
either + ve or – ve. Never both signs.

Calculation of Regression Equations:

It can be solved by 3 methods. They are as follows:
a) Normal equations.
b) Deviation taken from Arithmetic means of X and Y.
c) Deviation taken from assumed mean.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 193

A) Normal Equation:
Example: Calculate regression equation of the following data:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Y 1 2 3 4 10 13 15 16 17

Solution:
X Y x2 y2 xy
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 4 4 4
3 3 9 9 9
4 4 16 16 16
5 10 25 100 50
6 13 36 169 78
7 15 49 225 105
8 16 64 256 128
9 17 81 286 153
∑X= ∑ Y = 81 ∑ x2 = ∑y2= ∑ xy =
45 285 1069 544

Regression equation of Regression equation of

X on Y Y on X
Xc = a + b Y Yc = a + b X
Two normal equations are : Two normal equations are :
∑ X = N a + b ∑ Y --- (1) ∑ Y = N a + b ∑ X --- (1)
2
∑XY =a∑Y+b∑Y ∑ X Y = a ∑ X + b ∑ X 2 --(2)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 194

---(2)
Substituting the values Substituting the values
45 = 9 a + 81 b ------ (1) 81 = 9 a + 45 b ------ (1)
544 = 81 a + 1069 b --- (2) 544 = 45 a + 285 b ------ (2)
Multiplying the equation (1) Multiplying the equation (1)
by 9 by 5
405 = 81 a + 729 b --- (3) 405 = 45 a + 225 b ----- (3)
544 = 81 a + 1069 b --- (4) 544 = 45 a + 285 b ---- (4)

Deducting equation (4)th Deducting equation (4)th from

from (3) rd (3) rd
139 = 340 b 139 = 60 b

b = 0.40 b = 2.31
Substituting value of „b‟ in Substituting value of „b‟ in
st
equation (1) equation (1)st
45 = 9 a + 81 (0.40) 81 = 9 a + 45 (2.31)
45 = 9 a + 32.4 81 = 9 a + 103.95

9 a = 45 – 32.4 9 a = 81 – 103.95

9 a = 12.6 9 a = - 22.95

a = 1.4 a = - 2.55
Now the regression equation Now the regression equation
X on Y is Y on X is
X c = 1.4 + 0.95 Y. Y c = - 2 .55 + 2.31 X.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 195

B] Deviation taken from Arithmetic Mean of X and Y:

Example: Calculate regression equation of the following data.

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Y 1 2 3 4 10 13 15 16 17

Solution:
X Y X–X x2 Y–Y y2 xy
(x) (y)
1 1 -4 16 -8 64 32
2 2 -3 9 -7 49 21
3 3 -2 4 -6 36 12
4 4 -1 1 -5 25 15
5 10 0 0 1 1 0
6 13 1 1 4 16 4
7 15 2 4 6 36 12
8 16 3 9 7 49 21
9 17 4 16 8 64 32
∑X= ∑Y= ∑x= ∑ x2 = ∑y= ∑ y2 = ∑xy
45 81 0 60 0 340 = 139

Regression equation X on Y Regression equation Y on X

X - X = r 6 x (y – y ) Y- Y = r 6 y (x – x )
6y 6x

r = 6x = ∑ xy = 139 = 0.40 r = 6y = ∑y = 139 = 2.31

2
6y ∑ x2 340 6x ∑x 60
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 196

x = 45 = 5 and y = 81 = 9 and
9 9
Hence, Hence,
X – 5 = 0.40 (y – 9) Y – 9 = 2.31 (x – 5)
X – 5 = 0.40 y – 1.44 Y – 9 = 2.31 x – 11.55
X = 0.40 y – 1.44 + 5 Y = 2.31 x – 11.55 + 9
X = 3.56 + 0.40 y Y = -2.55 + 2.31x

C] Deviation taken from Assumed Mean:

Example: Calculate regression equation from following data:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Y 1 2 3 4 10 13 15 16 17
Solution:
X Y X–4 dx2 Y – 10
(d x ) (d y) dy2 d x. d y.
1 1 -3 9 -9 81 27
2 2 -2 4 -8 64 16
3 3 -1 1 -7 49 7
4 4 0 0 -6 36 0
5 10 1 1 0 0 0
6 13 2 4 3 9 6
7 15 3 9 5 25 15
8 16 4 16 6 36 24
9 17 5 25 7 49 35
∑X= ∑Y= ∑d x = ∑d ∑d y = ∑dy2 ∑ d x dy =
45 81 9 x2 = -9 = 130
69 349
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 197

Regression equation X on Y Regression equation Y on X

X–X бx
= r ( Y– Y ) Y- Y бy
= r ( X– X )
бx бx
r бx =bxy r бy =byx
бy ∑dxdy бx ∑d x x ∑dy
bxy= ∑dxdy- N byx= ∑dxdy- N
∑ d y2 - (∑d y)2 ∑ d x2 - (∑d x)2
N N
= 130– ( 9) ( - 9) = 130 – ( - 9) ( - 9 )
9 9
349 – (- 9)2 69 – (- 9 )2
9 9
= 130 –(-9) = 0.40 = 130 –(-9) = 2.31
349 - 9 69 – 9
X= 45 = 5 Y = 81 = 9.
9 9
Hence, X – 5 = 0.40 (Y – 9) Hence, Y – 9 = 2.31 (X – 5)

X – 5 = 0.40 Y – 1.44 Y – 9 = 2.31 X – 11.55

X = 0.40 y – 1.44 + 5 Y = 2.31 x – 11.55 + 9

X = 3.56 + 0.40 y Y = -2.55 + 2.31 x


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 198

PART II - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 199
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 200

Chapter No. 1

RESEARCH

N early 40,000 years ago Paleolithic or Neolithic man

knew nothing about cloths, fires, houses, agriculture.
etc. Because of the vital instinct of search which is highly progressed
in humans only than animals they construct houses for shelter,
domesticated animals and water sources, fire, wheel, cloths and so
many things such as computers, vehicles, medicines etc. Thus search
became a continues process.
Research is the search again and again (Re - Search) for new
knowledge in a logical and scientific way. The English word,
‘Research’ is derived from the French word – „Rachercher‟ which
means to seek again.
In other words, Research is the quest for knowledge through
systematic way on specific topic for discovery and interpretation of
new knowledge.
It is also a way of obtaining data and information for solving
health care problems. Now it becomes a part and parcel of every
science, Institution, Government and P.G. Course also.
Dictionary meaning of research is a careful investigation or
enquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 201

According to American Philosopher, Charles Pierce there is

four methods of knowing facts and new knowledge. They are
Tenacity, Authority, Intuition, and Scientific Research.
Dr. Kerlinger defined it as, “Scientific research is a
systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among the
natural phenomenon”.
Thus a research is a systematic method consisting of:
 Definition of the problem.
 Formulation of hypothesis.
 Collection of data or information
 Analysis of data.
 Conclusion (testing of hypothesis).
 Generalization of the result.
Scientific research is based on facts and truths. The researcher used
„Induction‟ (Conclusion drawn from particular to general) to predict
what should happen and it is to be tested by tests of hypothesis.
Steps in any Research:
 Statement of the problem and need for its solution.
 Study of literature.
 Selection of the most promising method of solution.
 Listing of all the factors involved.
 Lying down the methods by verifying each factor.
 Experiments being conducted while verifying one or
more factor.
 Verification of methods by verifying the factors.
 Experimentation and analysis of the results.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 202

Successful Research Requires:

 Problem inventory.
 Problem appraisal.
 Programme selection.
 Solution of the research problems.
 Application of result.
 Follow up.

According to WHO:
Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent search or
investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interrelation of new knowledge.
According to C.A Moser:
Systematically investigation to gain knowledge about
phenomena and problems.
According to E. Bogardus:
Research is the investigation of the underlying process
operative in the lives of persons who are in association.
According to P.V. Young:
We may define research as scientific undertaking which, by
means of logical and systematized methods, aims to discover new
facts or verify old facts and to analyze their sequences,
interrelationship, causal explanations and the natural terms which
govern them.
According to F. L. Whitney:
Research includes a study of human group relationship.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 203

Elements of Research Method:

1] Empirical Investigation plan.
2] Conceptualization.
3] Hypothesis.
4] Mathematical precision and Accuracy.
5] Objectivity.
6] Verifiability.
7] Expertise.
8] Impartibility.
Types of Research:
a. Pure Research or Fundamental or Basic Research.
b. Applied Research.
c. Empirical Research.
d. Action Research.
It is very difficult job to classify Research into its types.

a. Pure / Fundamental / Basic Research:

It is called Pure because it is related to the main knowledge.
Theoretical part is not considered. This research has no practical
relevance.
b. Applied Research:
This type of research is more applicable in solving practical
problems where utility of knowledge is more empirical.
Most of the economical problems are solved by applied research.
c. Empirical Research:
Empirical research is based on everyone‟s personal
experience. Thus it is original research provided personal findings
must be based on experiments.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 204

d. Action Research:
According to Jane Franseth, Action Research is a systematic
examination conducted by individuals or groups studying their own
practices in search of sound answer to unsolved problem in their work
and aimed at improving their own performance on their own jobs.
The concept of action Research is based on the modern
human organization theory. The research has the capacity to solve the
problem and take the decision. Thus they improve and modify their
practices.
Action research is derived from the Social Psychology, where
Kurl Lenin explains the space in terms of person and goal.
The action Hypothesis is formulated on the basis of the cause
of the problem. Action Hypothesis requires one design of research
where one Hypothesis is tested at one time only. The action research
project is evaluated by the researcher himself and no external
evaluation is required.

Methods in Research:
Researchers applied either inductive or deductive logic while
conducting any type of research.
i) Inductive Method: where the conclusions are drawn from
particular to general premises.
ii) Deductive Method: where the conclusions are drawn from
general to particular premises.

Characteristics of Research:
 Research aims at finding out the new facts.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 205

 Research is based on the direct, systematic and precise

knowledge.
 Research is logical and objective in orientation.
 Research aims of quantification of the social facts.
 Research aims of investigation of the facts in depth and comes
out with a format.

Steps to be followed in Conducting a Research:

1) Selection or choice of the research problem.
2) Statement and definition of research problem.
3) Review of literature.
4) Preparation of research Design and formulation of
Hypothesis.
5) Selection of sampling methods.
6) Selection of different tools of data collection.
7) Pre-test and pilot study.
8) Execution of the research plan.
9) Coding and processing of research data.
10) Preparation of the brief.
11) Preparation of the final report.

Our Goals from a Research:

- How knowledge should be acquired.
- The form in which knowledge should be stated.
- How the truth of the knowledge should be evaluated.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 206

 Research Methods :
These are techniques, which are used for conduction of
research by researcher.
Example: Collection of data, Analysis of data and evaluation of data.

 Research Methodology:
It is the way to solve research problem systematically and
logically. Research method is one part of research methodology.
The following are some important methods followed in
research:
i] Historical Methods:
It is concerned with past events. Here the information or data
is systematically collected, analyzed, verified and reconstructed about
past events.
The aim of historical research is to show the importance of
past events in present situation. Here, the research solely depends
upon secondary data such as, library materials like, books, magazines,
Journals, publications, Historical records etc.
Therefore the result depends upon each individualistic
interpretations, reasoning and art. There are different conclusions
from same events. Therefore precautions should to be taken for
accuracy.
Knowledge of past is always beneficial as follows:
1) To be aware of previous mistakes and fallacies.
2) Study of evolution of civilization.
3) Discarded concepts in past became useful today.
4) Arrangement and management of future investigation.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 207

5) It fills the gap in human knowledge about past.

Limitations of Historical Research:

1) Over generalization of facts.
2) Subjectivity in drawing conclusions.
3) Limited sources of in formation / data.
4) Many assumptions found in historical research.
ii] Descriptive Method:
This method is widely used by many researchers. It is mostly
concerned with facts finding that is a process of accumulating facts.
Here, a well statemental problem is taken up for study,
Hypotheses are formulated, and laboratory tests or field‟s
investigations are conducted. This method is therefore become useful
for testing the existing theories.

Limitations of Descriptive Method:

1. It requires large group of investigators and their co-operation.
2. It requires much time and efforts.
3. It is costly than other methods.
4. It requires thorough knowledge of logic- reasoning, judgments,
And skill.
5. It requires high standard of objectivity.

iii] Experimental Method:

Here, we study cause and effect relationship under controlled
conditions. This is popular method of research in the fields of natural
science like Agriculture.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 208

The cause and effect relationship is investigated by exposing

one or more experimental group to certain treatments and the result
are compared with those of controlled group that is not receiving
treatment.
After identification of problem there is formulation of
hypothesis. To test each hypothesis the researcher controls all
conditions except independent variables.
The changes in dependant variables are observed and recorded
and then the independent variables are treated one by one to know the
effects of the relationship of dependent variables.
Therefore the results of this method are more RELIABLE but
there is great difficulty when human beings are considered in such
situations. Camball and Stanley have suggested „quasi- experimental
research‟ approach.

iv] Field Study Method:

Katz has divided field studies into two broad types:
i) Exploratory:
ii) Hypothesis Testing:
The purpose of this method :
- To discover significant variables in a field situation.
-To lay down a basis for more systematic testing of the hypothesis.
-To discover relationship among variables
In social science it is also known as „Survey method‟. This
provides scientific approach and gets reliable results.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 209

v] Case Study Method:

In this type of research method, the researcher makes a unit of
a person or his family or a whole community. He collects information
from this group about present situation and then a social phenomenon
is to be studied considering the individuality and behaviors of that
group.
Limitations of Case Study Method:
1) It is more expensive
2) Grand generalization done. (Where single case applied to
Entire population)
3) Individualistic interpretation, bias or prejudisation plays
role while drawing conclusion.
4) many times available information is scanty.
5) It is based on certain assumptions.

Social Research:
It is the systematic method of discovering new facts or
verifying old facts, their sequences, interrelationships, causal
explanations and the natural laws, which govern them. It is based on
the scientific investigation and behavioral science.
Social research therefore attempts to reveal the cause and
effect relationship exiting in various social phenomena.

Utility of Social Research:

 Control over social phenomena.
 Helps in social planning.
 Leads to social growth.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 210

 Useful in social predictions.

 Creates social understanding.
 Contributes to Human welfare.
 Satisfaction of Intellectual curiosity.
Objects of Social Research:
 Discovery of new concepts and truth.
 To deal with problems more effectively in a shorter time.
 To know the unknown and to explore the unexplored facts.
 Motivation for social research.
 To fill the gap in human knowledge.
 To improve methods and techniques used in social research.

Types of Social Research:

1) Fundamental Research.
2) Applied Research. (Empirical)
3) Policy Research.
4) Action Research.
5) Quesi – Social Research.

Requirements for Research:

Basic requirement for research are
a) Personal Qualities of a Researcher.
b) Supportive Environment.
a) Personal Qualities of a Researcher:
A successful researcher should have,
i) A sensitive mind.
ii) Objectivity.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 211

iii) Unprejudiced mind.

iv) Patience and perseverance.
v) Alertness and imagination
vi) Ability to search.
vii) Knowledge of concern subjects.
viii) Reflective thinking.
ix) Scientific thinking.
x) Creativity.
xi) Training of concern subjects.
xii) Democratic Behavior.
xiii) Open minded and Skillful.

b) Supportive Environments:
A researcher should provide following things for research:
i) Library and documentation facilities.
ii) Computers and Internet facilities.
iii) Recognition and appreciation.
iv) Financial support.
v) Team support.
vi) Application of research and feedback.

Research Approaches:
Two basic approaches to researches are as follows:
I. Quantitative Approach:
Here, formulation of data is in quantitative form. This
approach can be subdivided into,
i) Inferential Approach.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 212

ii) Experimental Approach.

iii) Simulation Approach.
i) Inferential Approach:
Here, a data base is to be formulated to infer characteristics or
relations of population.
Example: Survey research (Here, we select a sample from the
population to study and the results we generalize to whole
population).
ii) Experimental Approach:
Here, manipulation of same variables is done and observation
of this effect on other variables is studied. Here, there is much control
over research environment.
iii) Simulation Approach:
Here, there is creation of an artificial environment from which
the information and data can be generated. By this approach we can
ascertain dynamic behavior of a system under controlled conditions.
II. Qualitative Approach:
We get here, the results in qualitative forms like opinions,
attitudes and behaviors etc.E.g. Interviews.
Types of Research:
1) Health Research:
i) Biomedical Research.
ii) Behavioral Research.
iii) Health services Research.
2) Experimental Research:
i) Clinical Trials.
ii) Field Trials.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 213

3) Non – Experimental Research:

i) Exploratory (Analytical).
ii) Descriptive Studies.
- Historical Studies.
- Dynamic Studies.
(Cross sectional and longitudinal studies)
Planning for Research:
Planning is a process of analyzing a data or defining a
problem, assessing its needs formulating objectives, intervention, and
implementation and monitoring the system for evaluation a result.

The Purpose of Planning:

- To match the limited resources with many problems which is
essential for rational allocation of the limited resources?
- To eliminate non-useful data.
- To develop best course of action for research.
A plan is a blue print for taking action. It consists of
objectives, policies, programmes, schedules and budget.
Thus, the planning is teamwork, requires many specialists.
Planning for any research is an individualistic entity. It depends upon
ones ability, type of research, money and so many factors. However
there are some basic steps necessary to carry out research.
The Steps in Research are:
1) Research Problem.
2) Review of Literature.
3) Research Hypothesis.
4) Research Methods and Methodology.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 214

5) Actual Research Process.

6) Testing of Hypothesis.
7) Conclusion.
8) Presentation.

1. Research Problems:
This is the first step in any type of research. The researcher
should start the research problem which he selected for the study.
Here the researcher should also explain the importance of his research
to community or health activities or how his study will be useful for
Research workers, Medical students, Government and other
professionals.

2. Review of Literature:
Dr. Park says, „Those who fail to read history are destined to
suffer the repetition of its mistakes‟. Therefore study of old literatures
is necessary for research. Literature provides us very useful data for
research. Example: We can use source books for descriptive type of
study. Here we can also find out whether or not others have
investigated the same research previously.

3. Research Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is an important step for researcher because here
the researcher predicts the expected results. Therefore it should be
systematically and logically formulated. It guides the researcher
during whole research process by focusing his attention to more
important events. Hypothesis should be formulated only after
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 215

discussing with experts in their specific subjects. Many types of

research such as Descriptive research do not require Hypothesis.

4. Research Methods and Methodology:

These are the techniques and the ways to solve research
problem systematically. Here the researcher should mention his
methods and methodology in brief. Then he should design the whole
research process as per requirement. First of all he should mention his
research strategy that is whether research is Descriptive, Experimental
or combined form. Then he should arrange time, money, place for
study and skilled workers for research process.
The researcher should select variables that are treated in the
study. Here researcher should determine the sampling and its methods
for study. If, control group is used (in Experimental studies) it should
be mentioned.
For diagnosis of disease, laboratory tests and specific
investigations like, ECG, X – rays, USG, MRI, CT scan should be
arranged with concerned experts. Thus a research design should be
prepared.

5) Actual Research Process:

It explains research procedure systematically step by step. So
it is the ‘nucleuses of research process. Here the collected data is to
be classified / analyzed. The tabulated data is presented for statistical
tests. Software based analysis is to be preferred.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 216

6) Testing of Hypothesis:
After analysis, Coding and Editing the Hypothesis is to be
tested by tests of significance. The selection of statistical test depends
upon type of research. These tests will prove or disprove our
hypothesis. That is, these tests will decide whether research should be
accepted or rejected. The tests used for this purpose are Chi-square
test (x2), Z – Test, Student (t) test, F-test, ANOVA tests etc.

7) Conclusion:
After testing the hypothesis, the researcher should draw some
conclusion and prepared the project for presentation. Grand
generalization should be done if necessary.

8) Presentation:
This is the last step in research process. In the final report,
Title of our research, Forward, Acknowledgement and Contents
should be presented in first part. The second part should contain
Introduction to research, Actual research process, Research methods
and Methodology, Utility of research and Conclusion.
At the end it should contain Bibliography, Index and
Appendix (if required).

Format for Presentation of Any Research Work:

1. Title of the Article.
2. Abstract.
3. Introduction.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 217

4. Review of the Literature.

5. Materials and Methods.
6. Statistical analysis of result.
7. Discussion.
8. Conclusion.
9. Suggestion (if any).
10. Acknowledgements.
11. Appendices.

Research in Homoeopathy:
1. Basic or Fundamental Research:
i. Unexplained concepts like Miasms, Potentisation, and Vital
Force. Etc. is to be explained on the basis of Modern Science.
ii. Confirmation of cardinal principles of Homoeopathy
Example: Law of Similia.
2. Pharmacological Research:
Experimental type of research was also done by Dr.
Hahnemann in 1790. It includes:
i. Drug Proving.
ii. Clinical trial of accidental observations of certain drugs which
produces unwanted effects when administered to patients.
iii. Clinical verification and confirmation of symptoms of proved
drugs.
3. Clinical Research:
(i) Animal experimentation to asses Structural or Lethal –
Histopathological changes at Constitutional, Organ, and
Tissue and at Molecular level.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 218

(ii) Therapeutic purposes - single or combined drugs may be used

as specific drugs for specific diseases in clinical trials.
(iii) To evaluate cost effectiveness of Homoeopathic medicines.
4. Literary Research:
It means Research from the time of the discovery of
Homoeopathy. Example: Repertory- Its correction, revision
and improvement- A type of Literary Research Project.
5. Research in Preventive Medicine:
To assist in National health programmes (Control or
Eradication) governed by WHO.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 219

Chapter No.2

RESEARCH DESIGN

I t is the preparation of a place for any research project. It is

a conceptual structure, which is formulated before actual
research process.
Formulation of a Research Design:
a. Aims and objectives of the defined problem.
b. Nature and strategy of problems.
c. Importance of study in specific field.
d. Research setting including its location.
e. Resources available (Money, man power, time, other
instruments etc).
f. Population involved in study process.
g. Research methodology.

An Ideal Research Design:

A good research design should have following features:-
i) Internal and external validity.
ii) Reliability
iii) It should be cost effective.
iv) Having minimum errors and bias.
v) It should be based on truth and facts.
vi) It should be capable of giving maximum information and
knowledge.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 220

Types of Research Design

Experimental Observational Diagnostic Exploratory

(Screening design)

Randomized Non- Cross sectional Cohort Retrospective

Randomized Study design Study design cohort study
Design

Controlled Duplicate Block Uncontrolled Natural Comparative studies

Clinical Field Community Before and after comparison before and after
Studies without control compassion
Studies with
Control

Survey Concerning literature

Insight stimulating studies
Experience survey

Experimental Designs
Experimental studies are carried out under the direct control of
the investigator. Experimental studies are of two types:
A) Randomized Controlled Trials.
B) Non – Randomized (non-experimental) Trials.

A] Randomized Controlled Trials:

Evolution of the Randomized Trial:
Ronald Fisher, a Biometrist introduced the concept of random
allocation of treatments to divided parts of land to tests the
effectiveness of manures He was a followers of Karl Pearson and
William Gosset. Thus adopted their techniques. The Methodology of
randomized clinical trial is based on Agricultural research in England
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 221

(1920) Randomized controlled trials are mainly used for preventive

and therapeutic procedures.
Following are the basic steps in conducting randomized controlled
trials:
1) Preparation of protocol.
2) Selection of study population.
3) Randomization.
4) Manipulation.
5) Follow up.
6) Interpretation of outcome.
Design of Randomized Controlled Trials:
Select required population

Select sample

Make exclusions

Randomize

Experimental Control group

Group

Manipulation and follow up

Interpretation of outcome
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 222

1. Preparation of a Protocol:
The protocol consists of aims and objectives of the study,
criteria for selection of study, size of the sample, control groups, and
the procedure to be applied.
Sometimes, Pilot studies (Preliminary tests) have to be made
before preparation of a protocol to ass‟s efficiency of certain
procedures.
The protocol prevents bias and reduces the sources of errors.

2. Selection of Population:
i) Selection of Target Population:
It is the population to which findings of a trial are applicable.
It is also called as Reference population. It may be whole community,
village, city or a group of workers or students.
ii) Selection of Study Population:
It is actual population, which participates in experiments
derived from target population. It has some characteristics as that of
target population as it is selected randomly from them. During
selection the researcher should fulfill certain ethical criteria‟s.

3. Randomization:
It is a statistical process by which the population is divided
into two groups a study group and a control group. It is the chief
procedure of a control trial. It is necessary that certain variables e.g.
age, sex are to be classified within each group and then randomly
selected for study. Using a table of random numbers usually
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 223

randomization done. By the process of randomization every

individual gets an equal chance.

4. Manipulation:
Here the researcher manipulates the study group by
application or reduction of factors e.g. any medicine, vaccine, dietary
factors etc. as per study. Then final outcomes are measured.

5. Follow Up:
Evaluation of symptoms during follow up is very important
step during study. It may be short or may require many days
depending upon the study. Here one must consider the factors, which
are responsible for attrition like any ones death, migration,
psychological disturbance etc.
Here, examination of both the groups is done under same
circumstances.

6. Interpretation of Outcome:
The last step is the assessment of the outcome of the trial in
the terms of positive or negative conclusions. The result is compared
in both the groups and if differences found it should be tested by tests
of significance.
Many times bias may arise during entire study process.
Therefore to reduce these biases a technique is used called as
„Blinding‟.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 224

Blinding:
It can be done in 3 ways as follows:
i) Single Blind Trial:
Here, the participant is not aware whether he belongs to study
or control group.
ii) Double Blind Trial:
Here, both the researcher and participant are not aware of
group and treatment received.
iii) Triple Blind Trial:
Here, the participant, researcher and the person analyzing or
processing the data are not aware of any group or treatment received.
It is an ideal method of blinding.

Types of Randomized Controlled Trials:

1. Clinical Trials:
Clinical trials may be divided into Animal studies and human
experiments. The drug characteristics are generally assessed through
animal experiments or laboratory tests before they are recommended
for human use. After these experiments the drug ultimately tried on
human beings to ass‟s safety and efficacy of new drugs, vaccines lines
of treatment, their side effects and dosage – such trials are called
clinical trials.
In a clinical trial the effect of exposure or intervention of the
outcome of a group of subjects is studied.
Exposure or Intervention: Drugs, Diet, Surgery, Exercise or Health
education.
Outcome: - Recovery, Improvement, Surgical etc.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 225

Practical Problems in Long Clinical Trials:

1) Necessity of dedicated investigators because of the long
period of study.
2) Systematically maintained registers.
3) Drop-outs or withdrawals due to side effects or partial
improvement.
4) Patient consent and compliance.
5) Necessity of change in treatment due to ethical reasons.
6) In multicentric trials problem of keeping uniformity in the
methodology and execution of trial and data analysis.
7) Necessity of in term evaluation.
8) In multicentric trials, coping with conflicting results.
9) Specific statistical methods to analyze the end point results –
survival analysis.

Types of Clinical Trials:

a) Therapeutic Trials.
b) Safety Trials.
c) Efficiency Trials.
d) Prophylactic Trials.
e) Risk factor Trials.

a) Therapeutic Trial:
According to Austin Hill, Therapeutic trial is a carefully and
ethically designed experiment with the aim of answering some
precisely framed question. It is most rigorous form. It demands
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 226

equivalent groups of patients concurrently treated in different ways.

These groups are constructed by the random allocation of patients to
one or the other treatment. In principle, the method is applicable with
any disease and any treatment. I may also be applied on any scale and
does not necessarily demand large number of patients.E.g.
Clinical trials are mostly used for evaluation of therapeutic
agents like drugs or food supplements. E.g. trials of Cactus Grand. In
reducing cardiovascular mortality or trials of Beta Carotene on Cancer
incidence etc. Here one must be remembered that not all clinical trials
are to be blinded like any surgery Example: Appendectomy for
recurrent Appendicitis, Tonsillectomy for recurrent throat infection
etc.

Precautions in Clinical Trials:

Precautions will definitely reduce errors that occur in clinical
trials. .Therefore one should pay attention towards following
categories.
 Selection of Investigators.
 Time for Planning.
 Irregularities in Trial.
 Policing the Trial.

Field Trials:
These trials are carried out in a field or in hospitals. Example:
Vaccination or contraceptive trials as like clinical trials.
It requires large number of individuals and more time.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 227

Design of a Field Trial:

Whole population

Samples

Experimental group Control group

Vaccine administered Placebo given

Disease No disease Disease No disease

Types of Field Trials are:

i) Preventive Trials.

Ii) Risk factors Trials.

iii) Cessation Experiment.

i) Preventive Trials:
Here, primary preventive measures are mostly considered e.g.
trials of different vaccines and chemo prophylactic drugs. These trials
should be applied to groups than to individuals for accurate results.
ii) Risk Factors Trials:
Here the researcher disturbs the series in the development of
disease of those individuals who have risk factors for developing the
disease. For e.g. the risk factor for oral cancer is tobacco chewing.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 228

Therefore the intervention in oral cancer is cessation of tobacco

chewing, balanced diet etc. Risk factor trials can be „Single factor‟ or
„Multi-factor‟ trials.
iii) Cessation Experiments:
Here, suspected agent which is responsible for disease should
be removed by any measure which causes significant reduction in
disease. For e.g. Cigarette smoking and lung cancer. If one group of
smokers continues to smoke and other group stopped smoking, then
we find reduction in lung cancer in second group, which reveals
causal relationship between smoking and lung cancer.

Trial of Etiological Agents:

Here, confirmations of etiological agents are done. For e.g.
trial of an etiological agent Mycobacterium leprae for Leprosy
disease. In chronic diseases it is very difficult to confirm etiological
agents.

3. Community Trials:
In a community trial the unit of randomization is a group of
peoples or a community. Here, one community receives intervention
(Study group) and the other group should not receive intervention
(control group). Here, we study and compare the results of study
group and control group.

B] Non – Randomized Trials:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 229

These are the non-experimental trials where there is no place

for randomization process. Following are the indications for non-
randomized trials:
1) Where direct experimentation on humans is not possible.
2) Where preventative measures have to be applied only to groups or
community.
3) When disease frequency is low and the natural history of a disease
is long. Ex. CA cervix.
4) When follow ups require less days.

Types of Non–Randomized Trials are as follows:

1) Uncontrolled Trials:
In this type groups are not studied comparatively. Utility of
uncontrolled trials are as follows:
1) It is useful in evaluating whether a specific therapy appears to have
any value in particular disease.
2) To determine a dose.
3) To investigate adverse reactions.

2) Natural Experiments:
Here researcher makes different groups, which are
corresponding to natural phenomena‟s. It is used where experimental
studies are difficult to study in human beings.
Therefore peoples have separated into two groups naturally.
E.g. smokers and non-smokers, where researcher confirmed his
hypothesis regarding lung cancer and smoking.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 230

3) Comparison Studies:
These are the community trials having following two groups:

i) Before and after comparison studies without control:

Here, the experiment acts as its own control, which eliminates
all group differences. For e.g. Prevention of measures among children
by providing protein diet or prevention of Polio by Salk and Sabin
vaccines.
Here, several trials may be needed for confirmation of final
conclusion.
ii) Before and after comparison studies with control:
Here the researcher used a natural control group. If we want to
study one community for any measure we should select another
community as far as mostly similar in characteristics of that disease.
One of them is study group and the other is a control group.
E.g. Testing efficacy of Synz. Jamb. Ǿ for Diabetes mellitus.

Block Design :
i) Random Block Design (R.B. design):-
Here, the peoples are divided into certain groups or blocks.
The groups have same similarity at certain variables. Then one subject
from each group is selected randomly. Random block design can be
analyzed by two way ANOVA test.
ii) Latin Squares Design (L.S. Design):
This type of design is mainly used in Agricultural fields
because the crop production is mainly depends on environment that is
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 231

nature and geographical variation. For e.g. if we want to study the

effect of types of pesticides on production of Jawar considering
variables like nature of soil and variety of seeds. When we want to
asses the effects of the pesticide only, we should remove the other
variables that are nature of soil and variety of seeds. Therefore to
detect these factors we should use Latin square design. To analyze the
data of Latin square design two ways ANOVA test is useful.
iii) Factorial Design:
It is an extension of ANOVA test. It is used where effects of
more variables are to be studied. By using this design we can include
much number of factors in a single experiment. By using this we can
also examine whether some treatment work in a proper way or not.

Types of Factorial Designs:

1) Two Factor Factorial Design (Simple):
2) Multifactor Factorial Design (Complex):

1) Two Factors Factorial Design:

Here, we study the effect of two independent variables on
dependant variables. It may be 2 x 2 design or 3 x 4, 5 x 4 etc designs.
2) Multifactor Factorial Design:
Here we study the effects of three or more independent
variables. It is used in case of 3 factors with one experimental variable
having two treatments and 2 control variables. Therefore design thus
we get 2 x 2 x 2 complex factorial design.

II Observational Research Design:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 232

They are as follows

1) Descriptive Designs
2) Analytical Study Designs.

1] Descriptive Design:
i) Cross – Sectional Study Design:
This is an examination or cross section of a population in a
defined area. It is also called as „prevalence studies‟. Here the
investigator measures the disease.
Utility:
 It is used to find the prevalence rate of disease.
 To formulate the etiological hypothesis.
 It is also useful for screening of population groups
for undiagnosed disease.

Design: Target Population

Sample population (which is to be studied)

Exposure No Exposure

Disease No disease Disease No disease

ii) Longitudinal Study Design:

Here we measure the incidence of various diseases, natural
history of disease and association between risk factors and
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 233

development of disease, by repeated observations on a sample

population over a period of time. Here, no control group used,

Design: Target Population

Sample population (which is to be studied)

After observation

Change in study population

2. Analytical Study Design:

i) Case Control Study Design :- (Retrospective Studies)
Here, first of all we select the cases by random sampling
method. Then we select a control group either from a clinic or general
population provided cases and controls should be similar in all
characteristics. Then we measure the exposure in the study group and
control group.
Target Population

Persons with disease Person without disease

Risk factors Risk factors

Exposed Not exposed Exposed Not exposed

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 234

Utility:
 It is nothing but background looking study.
 It is mainly used for epidemiological studies.
 It is used for establishment of cause of disease by
investigating the association between risk factors and
occurrence of disease.
ii) Prospective Cohort Study Design:
It is a case control study design having forward-looking study.
Cohort studies are used to test the hypothesis. (Cohort is a group of
people having common characteristics).
Here first of all we select target population. From this we
select study population by random sampling method. From study
group we select two cohorts one is exposure to risk factors and other
is not exposed. After some period we analyze the data and find how
many peoples developed disease from exposed and non-exposed
peoples.
Target Population
Study population (selected randomly)
Exposed group not exposed group
Disease Disease

Developed Not developed Developed Not developed

iii) Retrospective Cohort Study (Historical Cohort) Design:

Here the results have already occurred before the start of the
study where we are not selecting the cases and control but we are
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 235

selecting only an exposed and not exposed group. Here the

investigator goes back for some specific period to select a study group
and control group from past records.

Present (Starting time of study)

After specific period

Past (Starting point of exposure)

III. Exploratory Research Designs:

It is mainly used for identifying and formulating a research
problem.
The exploratory designs are:
A. Survey concerning literature.
B. Experience surveys
C. Insight stimulating study.

A) Survey Concerning Literature:

Here, hypothesis is formulated by earlier workers and was
again evaluated by others for their further usefulness. In cases where
hypothesis have not been formulated the investigator will review the
old literature and construct a new hypothesis.
B) Insight Stimulating Study:
Here, the investigator examines the exiting records which are
useful for study. Then he formulated the basic structure of a
hypothesis.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 236

Example: Study of the behavior of individuals of specific

characteristics

C) Experience Surveys:
It is the survey of peoples who had experience with the
problem to be studied. Here the researcher should select skilled
persons for study. The purpose of this survey is to obtain insight into
the problem.

Utility of Study Designs:

 To determine frequency and burden of disease.
 To identify risk factors.
 To determine risk factors.
 To determine efficacy or effectiveness of new treatment.
 To evaluate community Programme.

Utility of Research Designs:

 Research design specifies the available resources and
types of information needed.
 It is a strategy specifying how to test the research
hypothesis and which are the statistical tests needed to
accept or reject the null hypothesis.
 It helps in collection of data and analysis of data.
 From research design we can predict time and money
required for study.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 237



Chapter No. 3

ANALYTICAL STUDIES

A nalytical studies include two main types of observational

studies. They are as follows:
A] Case Control Study
B] Cohort Study
Case control and Cohort groups are studied for,
i. To determine Statistical association between a
disease and its etiological factors.
ii. To determine strength (Intensity or Grading) of
disease and its suspected factors.
A] Case Control Study:
Case control studies are also called as „Retrospective Studies‟.
It involves two populations Cases and Controls. Here the unit of the
study is individual rather than the group where the cases and controls
are comparable with respect to known confounding factors such as
age, sex, occupation etc.Example: One can say as „Cases‟ – the
immunized children and use as controls non-immunized children and
then past history should be studied.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 238

Features of Case Control Study:

 Both exposure and diseased have occurred before the start of
study.
 The study precedes backswords from effect to cause.
 It uses a control or comparison group to accept or reject the
conclusion.
Utility of Case Control Study:
 It is mostly used to test the hypothesis.
 It is widely used in the chronic diseases problem when the
causal pathway may span many days.

Basic Steps:
Following are the basic steps in conducting a case control study:
1) Selection of cases and controls – collection of data.
2) Matching.
3) Measurement of exposure.
4) Analysis and interpretation.
1. Selection of Cases and Controls:
a) Selection of Cases:
The cases may be selected from hospitals or general
population during a specified period of time. The cases should be
representative of all cases in the community.
b) Selection of Controls:
The prerequisite criteria for controls are that it should be free
from any disease. Many diseases have subbed clinical nature therefore
such control individuals excluded.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 239

The controls may be selected from hospitals, relatives,

neighbors and general population. It is not compulsory that cases and
controls are from the same source.

2. Matching:
It is the process by which we select controls in such a way that
they are similar to cases in certain variables which influences disease
process.
Suspected etiological factors should not be matched because
matching lead elimination of etiology.
Types of Matching:
I) Group Matching:
Here groups are matched with each other, which are similar in
their characteristics.
ii) Pairs Matching:
Here, for each case a control is selected mostly similar in
variables such as age, sex, duration, and intensity of symptoms and
grading of disease.

3. Measurement of Exposure:
Information about exposure should be collected in the same
manner both for cases and controls by interviews, questioners and
from previous records.

4. Analysis:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 240

Here we have to find out exposure rates and Odd‟s ratio

(Estimation of risks).
Odd’s Ratio:
It is a measure of strength of the association between risk
factors and outcome.

Odd‟s ratio is depends on:

i) Diseases.
ii) Cases.
iii) Controls.
It is also called ‘Cross Product Ratio’.
Odds ratio can be derived from following formula:

Exposed persons x not exposed person

Odds ratio = who are healthy who are healthy
Exposed person who x not exposed
Are healthy person who is sick

Advantages of Control Studies:

 It is simple in procedure
 It is less expensive
 It requires few samples
 It is very useful in rare and undiagnosed diseases.
 Multi factorial etiology can be known to us by this method
 Many risk factors can be identified.
 It is used for prevention and control of many national
programs.
 It does not require follow up of peoples.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 241

Disadvantage of Control Studies:

 Many errors are found during study process.
 Control peoples are difficult to obtain from population
 We cannot differentiate between disease symptoms and its
concomitants.
 It is not useful for medicinal treatment.
 Incidence of disease is very difficult to measure here.
 It requires past history and records. Many times it becomes
Difficult to search previous records.

B] Cohort Study:
Synonyms: Prospective study, longitudinal study, Incidence study,
forward – looking study.
It is one of the types of observational study, which is
undertaken to obtain additional evidence to support the existence of
the relation between suspected cause and disease.
Meaning of Cohort:
It is a group of people who have common characteristics
within a defined time period.
Example: A peoples exposed to a common infection within a defined
period is called, ‟Exposure Cohort‟.
The basic approach in Cohort studies is to work from cause to
effect. ( In control study – effect to cause)
Indications for Cohort Study:
1) When there is good evidence of an association between
exposure and disease.
2) When exposure is rare but incidence of disease is high.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 242

Precautions to be taken before Cohort Study:

1) The cohorts must be free from the disease.
2) Study and control cohorts should be equally susceptible to
disease.
3) Both the groups should be comparable and easily
comprehensible.
4) The diagnostic criteria of the disease should be mentioned
before study.

Types of Cohort Studies:

On the basis of time of occurrence of disease Cohort should be
studied under following headings:
1. Prospective Cohort Studies.
2. Retrospective Cohort Studies.
3. Combined Cohort Studies.

1. Prospective Cohort Studies or Current Cohort Studies:

Here, the disease has not yet appeared at the time the
investigation begins.
Example: The long-term effects of exposure to asbestos were
evaluated by identifying a group of asbestos miners and a comparison
group of peoples not exposed to asbestos mining and by assessing,
development of lung cancer in both groups. Since the disease had not
yet occurred when the study was undertaken is called „Prospective
cohort study‟.

2) Retrospective Cohort Studies or Historical Cohort Study:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 243

Here, the disease occurred before the start of any

investigation. Therefore the investigator goes back to select study
group from past records up to the present. That‟s why it is called as
„Historical cohort study‟.
Example: Angiosarcoma of the liver has been reported Retrospective
Cohort study revels its relation to poly-vinyl chloride.
3. Combined Cohort Studies:
Here, both the prospective and retrospective studies are
combined. It this type of study the Cohort is identified from history
and is assessed of date for the outcome. The same cohort is followed
up prospectively into future.
Example: Patients who had received large doses of radiation therapy
for Arthritis to a certain period. (Say for 10 yrs) The outcome
evaluated was Leukemia or Aplastic anemia during these 10 years.
They found that these diseases were higher in their cohort than
general population.

Elements of Cohort Study:

1) Selection of study subjects.
2) Collection of data.
3) Selection of comparative groups.
4) Follow up.
5) Analysis.
1) Selection of Study Subjects:
The subjects of a cohort study are selected by two ways:
a) General Population.
b) Special Groups.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 244

a) General Population:
When the exposure or cause of death is fairly frequent in the
population cohorts should be selected from the general population. If
the population is very large an appropriate sample is taken and the
result can be generalized to the population.

b) Special Groups: It may be,

a) Select Groups: These are professional groups (e.g. Doctors,
Lawyers, and Teachers etc.) of homogenous population.
b) Exposure Groups: The cohort may be selected because of
special exposure to physical, chemical and other disease
agents. E.g. Radiologists exposed to X – rays.

2. Collection of a Data:
Information about exposure may be obtained from:
a) Cohort Members:
Through personal interviews or mailed questionnaires.
b) Review of Records:
Much information can be obtained from medical records.
E.g. Records of Surgery or Medicinal treatment.
c) Medical Examination or Special Test:
Some types of information can be obtained by medical
examination or special tests. E.g. Electrocardiogram, Blood
sugar level etc.
d) Environmental Surgery’s:
Here, information can be obtained form environment where
the Cohort lived or worked.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 245

3. Selection of Comparative Groups:

There are following ways of assembling comparative groups:
a) Internal comparisons:
Here, no outside group is studied, only a single cohort group is
studied. The information obtained is classified into many comparison
groups according to the degrees or levels of exposure to risk (e.g.
smoking, blood sugar level etc.) before the development of disease.
Then the groups are compared in the terms of morbidity and mortality
rates.
b) External Comparisons:
When information is not available then we can collect data
from external sources or by adding an external control.
Example: Cohort of Ophthalmologists compared with a Cohort of
Radiologists provided they are similar in variables.
c) Comparison with General Population Rates:
In many situations internal and external data is not available
then the mortality experience of the exposed group is compared with
mortality experience of general population in the same geographic
area.
Example: Comparison of frequency of cancer among asbestos
workers with the rate in general population in the same geographical
area.
4. Follow up:
Though it is practically difficult it should cover following
points:
i. Periodic medical examination of each member.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 246

ii. Maintaining Hospital and Death Records.

iii. Mailed questioners, Periodic visits, Calls
On an annual basis.
5. Analysis:
The data are analyzed in terms of either
a) Incidence rates or
b) Estimation of risk.
a) Incidence rates:
Here, we can determine incidence rates directly in those
exposed and those not exposed.
b) Estimation of risk:
This is done in terms of two indices that are relative risk and
attributable risk. It is the estimation of outcome that is disease or
death in the exposed and non – exposed cohorts.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 247

Chapter No. 4

HYPOTHESIS

H ypothesis is a prediction or explaination of the

relationship between two or more variables. Hypothesis
is different from „Assumption‟ and „Postulate‟. Hypothesis should be
based on logic and science. It translates the research problem into a
prediction of expected result.
It plays an important role in actual research project. The role
of hypothesis is to guide the researcher. It helps to pay his attention to
most important things. It also plays role in collection and analysis of
data. It stimulates the researcher to study. We can construct
hypothesis by exact observation of available data and suggestions
from the experts, friends, teachers, lecturers and investigators in that
field.
Many research like exploratory research, descriptive research
does not require hypothesis.
The word – Hypothesis is derived from two Greek words.
(One should not be confused by these terms)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 248

Which means presumptive statement of preposition?

According to Goods and Hat:
A hypothesis states what we are looking forward. It is
a proposition which can be put to a list to determine its validity. It
may prove to be correct or incorrect.

According to James Creighton:

It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which
seems to explain the situations under observation.
According to Lindbergh:
A Hypothesis is a tentative generalization. The
validity of which remains to be tested in its most elementary stage.
The hypothesis may be any such, guess imaginative idea which
becomes the basis for further investigation.
According to John Best:
It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and
provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to
guide in further investigation.
According to Cartor V. Good:
A Hypothesis is an informed guess or inference with a
reasonable chance of being right formulated and tentatively adopted
to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further
investigation.

An Ideal Hypothesis:
A good hypothesis should have following characteristics.
 It should be simple and easily comprehensible.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 249

 It should describe the relationship between dependent

and independent variables.
 It should be capable of measuring the variables.
 It should provide knowledge to research.
 It should be acceptable to presenting existing
knowledge.
 The concepts of hypothesis should be clear and
specific.
 A Hypothesis should be empirically testable.
 Hypothesis should be closed to things observable.
 Hypothesis should be related to available techniques
and theory.
 Hypothesis should be conceptually clear.
Hypothesis should be ready before starting the main study.

Sources of Hypothesis:
Portrait of Hypothesis depends upon its sources. There fore
researcher should pay more attention towards its sources. The
important sources are as follows:
i) Historical background of concerned subject
ii) Doctrine of Analogy explains relation between histories to present
Study.
iii) Observations, Results, Conclusions, Findings of other studies.
iv) Cultural / Empirical / Scientific Theories.
Role of Hypothesis:
1. It serves as a chain between theory and investigation.
2. It helps in holistic study as it links facts and information together
After organization.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 250

3. It prevents blind research.

Types of Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is of following types:
1) Descriptive Hypothesis.
2) Relational Hypothesis
3) Null Hypothesis
1) Descriptive Hypothesis:
Descriptive hypothesis describes the size, behavior and
distribution of study variable. It states the scientific examination of
propositions and the existence of empirical uniformities.
Example: Descriptive hypothesis like – the behavior pattern of special
groups, behavior pattern of some peoples, social behavior of certain
groups etc. Examples for size are mortality rate in ANC period in
developing countries as well as developed countries.
Many times descriptive hypothesis are not useful as it is based
on common sense and does not require testing for hypothesis because
It is based on facts.

2) Relational Hypothesis:
These are the propositions, which state the relationship
between two or more variables. They are related with analytical
variables – dependant and independent variables. Here, independent
variable has effect on the dependant variable where the number of
variables, which can be studied and separated, is limited only by
theory. Here we study how the independent variable influences the
dependent variable and how they are related to each other.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 251

3) Null Hypothesis:
If there is no difference between the two samples is called
as „Null hypotheses. If we get any difference it is only due to chance.
By applying statistical tests we can either reject or accept the
hypothesis. If null hypothesis is rejected then the alternative
hypothesis must be accepted.
Testing of Hypothesis:
Hypothesis testing is a process of deciding statistically
whether the findings of a research show chance or real effects at a
given level of probability. Therefore hypothesis testing is depending
on probability theory and sampling. It is just a procedure used to
obtain a result.
Descriptive studies do not require testing, as this research
describes the characteristics of certain population only.
Diagram for hypothesis testing:

State null and alternate hypothesis

Specify alpha level

Selection of random sample

Calculation of probability
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 252

Verification of probability

If, smaller then α/2 If, larger than α/2

Value in two tailed test value in two tailed test

Hypothesis rejected Hypothesis accepted

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 253

Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1. Sate the null hypothesis (Ho)
2. State the alternative hypothesis (HA)
3. Make statistical decision level (alpha or α)
4. Find out difference between two sample means, large or small.
5. Reject or accept hypothesis by observing difference between
Two mean samples.
6. Determine the value of X 1 - X 0 is significant or not.
7. Calculation of P value for d ( d = X 1 – X 0)
Example: Let us study the efficacy of Belberis Vulg. and
Lycopodium for the treatment of renal stone.
A researcher has said that, A 5 day‟s administration of Belb. Vulg. 3
pills TID has 95% cure rate with a Standard Deviation of 3%.
Previous records show 80% cure rate with a Standard Deviation of
4% with Lycopodium drug. Now let us study whether these results
have significant difference or not.
Solution:
- Statement of Alternative Hypothesis (HA) = 5 days. Belb. Vulg.
has highest cure rate than the Lycopodium. So here we states that two
treatment regimens have different cure rates.

- Statement of Null Hypothesis (Ho):

Both the drugs that is Belb. Vulg. and Lycopodium has the
same cure rate. The difference found is due to a chance. This 95%
cure rate with Bulb. Vulg. is due to variation. So the observed
difference between these two drugs therapies is due to sampling error.
Decision Level
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 254

Alpha should be set before the results are analyzed as it

depends on the researcher.
Alpha (α) should be set either as 0.01 or 0.05.
- It we set α = 0.01 then the probability of falsely rejecting a true Ho
is equal to 0.01.
- It we set α = 0.05 then the probability of falsely rejecting a true Ho
is equal to 0.05. That means the decision is wrong in 5 cases out of
100 cases.
In other words we can say that, smaller the the more sure the
researcher is that the result support the Alternative Hypothesis.
(That is Bulb. Vulg. has maximum cure rate than
Lycopodium) and the result is more significant.

Calculation the Probability of Ho being true:

Here we have to determine whether the value of X1 - X2 is
large or small.
Where the sampling distribution of X 1 – X 2 follows a normal
distribution with mean „o‟.

Standard deviation = 62 1 + 622

n1 n2

If, the value of X1 - X 2 is located two or more Standard

Deviation units away from „o‟. The difference is statistically
significant and thus we reject the Null Hypothesis.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 255

Calculation of Significance of Difference (SE Dx) - First of all we

have to calculate SE of difference between means.

S.E.D. = 62 1 + 622
n1 n2

= 32 + 42
100 100

= 9 + 16
100 100

= 0. 25

S.E.D = 0.5

Z = Observed difference
S.E.D

= 95 - 80
0.5

Z = 30.

Statistics Used in Hypothesis Testing:

For hypothesis testing we can use following measures. Selection

of a particular measure will depend on type of research and
researcher.
1) Averages: - E.g. Measures of central tendency – Mean, Median,
Mode etc.
2) Measures of dispersion: - E.g. Range, Quartile deviation.
3) Parametric tests:-E.g. Student„t‟ test, „Z‟ tests.
4) Non-parametric test:-E.g. Chi square (X2) test, Median test, U test,
Sign test, etc.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 256

5) Correlation and Regression.

6) Variance: - E.g. F-test, ANOVA test, Two-way ANOVA test etc.
7) Meta- Analysis.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 257

Chapter No. 5

COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

A Computer is a man made machine having capacity of

doing calculations at fast speed. A computer process a
large volume of data, its tabulation analyzes and present at fast speed.
There are many computer software‟s available in market in
each field like Arts, Science, Commerce, Space, Business,
Government, Institutions, Universities etc. where research is a
continuous activity. Research became an important part of any P.G.
course.
The use of computer can enhance research capability by
making it easier, by solving problems in little time. Here thousands of
calculations have to be done at fast speed. This speed has been
increasing rapidly since 1950 to 1980. The computer can calculate
very fast because the distance traveled by electrons arranged within
disc is shorter and shorter.

History of Computer:
Prof. Charles Babage (Cambridge University) is called
father of modern computers.
1) 1942-1955:
Vacant tubes were being used in computers which controls
electronic excitation. Here thousands of tubes are used. Therefore it
generates large amount of heat. In 1947 Transistor was investigated.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 258

2) 1955-1964:
Here transistors are used instead of vacant tubes which
required air conditioned environment which is costly.
3) 1964-1975:
During this period, micro electrons are investigated.
Therefore small electric silicon chips were used.
4) 1975-2006:
Here Small Scale Integration (SSI) technique is used where
100 parts are situated on a small chip is called Medium Scale
Integration. (MSI) Now days there are 30000 parts are situated on a
single silicon chip.
5) 2006-2007:
Japan started research on computer technology. They
investigated a software named as, Prolog (logical programming)
where a man can talk with the computer.

Features of a Computer:
Computer has following features:
Speed: Computer does calculations at very fast speed within 5 nano –
seconds (1 nano – second = 0.000,000,001 sec.)
Accuracy: It has high degree of accuracy and very less error and for
this error computer provides automatic error checking. There is
arrangement of alarm. With this the source of error can be easily
identified.
Memory: A computer has its own memory. It has capacity to
memorize large number of information and when there is need it can
use as it is.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 259

Simplicity: Today a computer became very easy to learn and

operative for every one.
Versatility: Computer can do number of functions for many times.
Adaptability: The system of computer can be modified as required
without changing its basic structure.
Compatibility: The computers are compatible from one generation to
another and from one place to other place.
Expendability: Many new information, ideas, and concepts are
Added by new peoples day by day. The impossible things become
Possible due to computers. This has opened new doors for
researchers.
Diligence: A Computer has high degree of diligence because it never
gets tired or fatigue even after much work for many hours / days /
years.
Automatic: Computer can take logical decision on various aspects of
research.

Functions of a Computer:
A computer performs many functions as follows:
i] Data Management:
The collected data can be systematically arranged by
computers and whenever necessary they meet the specific demand.
ii] File Management:
The stored information, which is complex in structure,
becomes easily comprehensible by separating them into number of
files.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 260

iii] Summarization:
With the help of computers a large mass of data we can
summarized into a short passage within a few seconds.
iv] Data Analysis:
In the process of data analysis, cost and time is considerably
reduced and therefore analysis becomes easily understandable by
using computer.
v] Data Presentation:
With the help of a computer we can present data in many
different ways for e.g. Data can be summarized as Tabulation,
different Graphs, Bar diagrams, Maps, Pictographs, Histograms etc.
vi] Predictive :
We can pretend many future trends and events with available
source of data.
vii] Decision:
Computer can take logical decision on various aspects of
research.
viii] Biostatistics:
We can use Computer in analysis of variance (ANOVA)
calculations. With the help of EDP machine (Electronic Data
Processing) we can analyze our data statistically.
ix] Chaos Theory:
It can be applied in hospitals for ventricular fibrillation and
mental disorders.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 261

Utility of Computers:
Important applications of computers in different fields are
summarized as follows :
 Government administrative processes.
 In the field of Commercial Banks.
 Transport and Communication.
 Health Department.
 Business and Industry.
 Scientific Research

Role of a Computer in Scientific Research:

 Data entry.
 Data processing and analysis.
 Designing study instruments.
 Sampling.
 Coding and editing.
 Monitoring.
 Correction of errors if present.
 Data storage and retrieval.
 Report writing.

Disadvantages of Computer:
The limitations of computer are as follows:
1) A computer should not be regarded as substitute of human
brain. Without instructions of an operator it cannot work.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 262

2) A computer has tremendous capacity for storage and quick

memory but it has no emotions, feelings, desires and
aversions.
3) Computer requires dust free air-conditioned room and
environment.
4) It is much costly.
5) Many times they are hazardous to human health by creating
eye and spinal problems.
6) It does not recognize the human languages.

Utility of Computers in Homoeopathy:

Computers are mainly used for following purposes in
Homoeotherapeutics:
1) Record keeping:
All the information regarding patients, own identity (Bio
data), his complaints, treatment and follow ups are to be recorded by a
computer and whenever necessary we can use it as it is.
2) Repertorisation:
Manual repatriation is very time consuming process. With the
help of a computer we can reach up to group of remedies within a few
seconds. Here, we can use many reportorial approaches at the same
time simultaneously. Analysis and evaluation, grading and intensity
of symptoms, drug filtrations become easy due to computers.
3) References:
We can use computer software‟s as quick references. E.g.
Literatures, Articles, Journals. Researches are stored in different
software‟s. Many textbooks of Materia Medica, Organon of Medicine
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 263

and Homoeopathic philosophy and Repertories are also available in

software‟s of a computer.
4) Comparative Study:
We can use computer for final selection of Homoeopathic
remedy by comparing many Homoeopathic remedies at the same time
simultaneously.
We can also compare different patients of same nosological
diagnosis at different states.
5) Presentations:
Computers are used for teaching purposes and case
presentation in conferences or in seminars where we can present our
data in different attractive ways. (E.g. Graphical, Pictorial
presentation) Computers in many research studies can show Statistical
inferences.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 264

Chapter No. 6

LABORATORY TESTS

A medical diagnostic laboratory is not only a valuable

tool in the hands of a physician but has a vital role to
play in saving a patients life because correct diagnosis means better
patient care.
Laboratory tests are required for:
A) Screening Tests:
They are done on healthy individuals.
Example: i) Donors of blood for grouping and cross match.
ii) Donor of organs.
iii) Routine periodic health check up which is useful for
Future ‘Reference’.
B) Diagnostic Tests:
They are done to confirm or to exclude the possibility
of diseases usually selected on the basis of previous history and
present clinical examination.

C) Course of disease under treatment:

Example: ESR in Acute Rheumatic Fever denotes either improvement
or exacerbation of disease.

D) Selection of proper treatment:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 265

E) Avoidance of further harms to patient:

F) Genetic counseling for parents:

G) Medico-legal proof: Especially in case of homicide, suicide,

accident, rape etc.
1) Sensitivity:
It means positivity in disease it gives a positive result in all
patients having the disease.
2) Specificity:
It means negativity in health. It gives a negative result in all
cases that are free from the particular disease.
3) Predictive Value:
Here a test result will predict the presence or absence of a
disease. It is either Positive Predictive Value or Negative Predictive
Value.
The predictive value of a test will depend upon:
I) Sensitivity
II) Specificity
III) Prevalence of the Disease

Formula for Calculation:

Sensitivity = TP TP
X 100
TP+FN TP+FN
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 266

Specificity = TN TN
X 100
TN+FP FP+TN

Predictive value of positive result = TP TP

` TP + FP X 100 TP+FP

Predictive value of negative result = TN

TN+FN X 100 FN+TN

TP= True Positive number of sick persons correctly classified by the

test.
FP= False Positive number of healthy subjects misclassified by the
test.
TN= True Negative number of healthy persons correctly classified by
the test.
FN= False Negative number of sick persons misclassified by the test.
Laboratory science has progressed to detect various diseases
accurately in minimum time and in early stages.
Though Homoeopathic science and its treatment is based on
symptomatology, Laboratory investigations plays an important role to
asses whether the disease is curable or non curable. Thus we know
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 267

our scope and limitations of our science. Following tests are widely
used in clinical practice:

Blood Analysis:
i) Hemoglobin:
Estimation of Hb% is essential for the diagnosis of anemia.
ii) White Blood Cells (W.B.C.):
White blood cell count is essential for the diagnosis of
metabolic disorders like Yellow atrophy of liver, Uremia, Diabetes,
Acidosis, Gout, and Eclampsia etc. In certain skin diseases like Kala
azar basophils may increase. In any suspected case of infection or
allergy to drugs the total and differential leukocyte count must be
examined to find out the type of infection and to differentiate it from
other conditions.
iii) Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR):
ESR is increased during pregnancy, and in conditions like
tuberculosis, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, and malignancy. It
is of more prognostic than diagnostic.
iv) Examination of Platelets:
Bleeding time, coagulation time, prothrombin time etc. should
be examined in all bleeding disorders.
v) Blood Grouping:
Investigation of blood group and Rh. - typing is necessary for
blood transfusion, in many acute cases and problems of Rh
incompatibility arising from pregnancy.

Bio – Chemical Tests of Blood:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 268

These tests are applied for:

i) Metabolic Disorders:
Screening tests: - Urinary glucose, fasting blood sugar, two hour
Post – prandial blood glucose etc.
Diagnostic tests: - Oral glucose tolerance test.
ii) Renal Conditions:-
Blood urea, creatinine, uric acid, serum electrolytes and serum
proteins are determined to ass‟s kidney functions.
iii) Liver Conditions:-
Liver function tests determine the presence of any liver
disease, type of liver disease and the extent and progression of liver
disease. It includes evaluation of bile pigments, bilirubin, SGPT and
SGOT.
iv) Heart Conditions:
Serum cholesterol, SGOT, SGPT, CPK, and LDH is of value
in the diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction.
v) Thyroid Conditions:
Examination of Thyroid hormone T3 and T4 for diagnosis of
Thyroiditis, Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism.
vi) Parathyroid Conditions:
Evaluation of serum calcium, phosphorus and alkaline
phosphates is useful for diagnosis of Tetany, Hypoparathyroidism,
Pancratitis, Osteoporosis and Hyperparathyroidism.

Serological Tests:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 269

Commonly used tests are as follows:

1) Widal Test: For the diagnosis of Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever.
2) VDRL / Wassermann and Khans Test: For the diagnosis of
Syphilis.
3) Monteux Test: For the diagnosis of Tuberculosis.
4) RA Test: For detection of Rheumatoid Factor.

Examination of Urine:
It is useful in renal diseases and also in other diseases e.g.
Sugar in Diabetes Mellitus. Acetone in Diabetic coma and starvation,
Urobilinogen in Hemolysis and in Viral hepatitis.
Bile salts and pigments are present in Jaundice. R.B.C.‟s are
present in calculi, Nephritis and even in Hypertension also. Crystal
and amorphous deposits in urine indicate the nature of calculus, casts
may be present in renal damages. e.g. Hyaline casts indicate passage
of excess of protein through the tubules.

Examination of Stool :
Macroscopically, inspection of faces may diagnose Parasitic
Infestation, Obstructive Jaundice, Diarrhea, Malabsorption, Ulcerative
Colitis, Dysentery and Gastrointestinal tract bleeding.
Microscopically, presence of pus in stool indicates Chronic
Ulcerative Colitis, Chronic Bacillary Dysentery, Localized Abscess
and Fistula. Presence of blood in stool indicates upper GIT bleeding.
E.g. In Gastric / Duodenal Ulcer, Gastritis, Hiatus Hernia. Bleeding
from rectum and anus – Hemorrhoids, Anorectal Fissure etc.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 270

Microscopically examination for cells and parasites diagnose

parasitic infestation.

Semen Analysis:
Examination of seminal fluid is useful in the cases of Sterility
and Infertility in males.
Examination of Sputum:
The volume, consistency, appearance, colour and odour of
sputum may be helpful for diagnosis of many respiratory diseases.
Microscopic examination and sputum culture are useful for the
diagnosis of Tuberculosis, Respiratory fungal disease, Lung abscess,
and Staphylococcal pneumonia.

Gastric Analysis:
It is an examination of the gastric contents at various phases of
digestion. The amount, colour, odour, character of gastric content may
be helpful for diagnosis of various gastrointestinal diseases.
Gastric lavage sediment is examined for Tubercular bacilli.
Gastric meal test is useful to ass‟s response of the stomach to stimuli
which may helps for diagnosis of gastric Carcinoma and benign
gastric ulcers.

Examination of Body Fluids:

i) Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF):
CSF examination is essential for the diagnosis of pyogenic
meningitis, Hemophilic Influenza, and Viral meningitis where there is
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 271

increase in number of Polymorphous. Proteins increase in Tuberculus

and Pyogenic Meningitis where glucose is reduced on the other hand.

ii) Synovial Fluid (SF):

In conditions like Trauma, Osteoarthritis, Rheumatic fever,
Systemic Lupus Erythromatosis, Gout, Tubercular Arthritis and
Rheumatoid Arthritis, contents of synovial fluid varies.
iii) Pleural Fluid:
Blood-red colored fluid may be found in Intrapleural
Malignancy, Pancreatitis, Pulmonary Infarction, Pleural infection and
in Tuberculosis. In Septic inflammation there is cloudy, turbid fluid.
Presence of fibrinogen indicates damages to capillary walls due to
neoplasm. Milky fluid may occur in Tuberculosis and Rheumatoid
Arthritis. Microscopically, Lymphocytic Effusion may be seen in
Cirrhosis, SLE, Cardiopulmonary disease and Mononucleosis.
Chemical examination may suggest Bacterial infections, Nonspecific
inflammation or Malignancy.
iv) Peritoneal Fluid:
Colour of peritoneal fluid diagnoses many diseases e.g. Pale -
yellow colour in Congestive cardiac failure, Hepatic vein obstruction,
Cirrhosis, Nephrotic syndrome etc.
Turbid fluids suggest Peritonitis due to Appendicitis,
Pancreatitis, Infracted intestine, Bacterial infection and Trauma.
Bloody fluid may be seen in Ruptured spleen or liver,
Peritoneal laceration etc.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 272

Greenish fluids in Perforated duodenal ulcer, Perforated

intestine, Cholecystitis, Perforated gall bladder, and Acute
appendicitis.
Microscopic and chemical examination may suggest many
diseases.
v) Pericardial Fluid :
The amount of pericardial fluid may be increased in
Congestive cardiac failure, early stages of inflammation and in Viral
pericarditis.
Cloudy nature may be associated with Rheumatoid or
Rheumatic inflammation, Myxoedema and Post myocardial infarction
syndrome. Bloody pericardial fluid is seen in Hemorrhagic
pericarditis, Post myocardial infarction syndrome, SLE, Tuberculosis,
Carcinoma and Rheumatoid arthritis. Milky pericardial fluid may be
due to Chronic Pericarditis, Tuberculosis and in Myxoedema.
Microscopically, high percentage of lymphocytes indicates
Tuberculus pericarditis.
vi) Bone Marrow:
Bone Marrow study is useful in many haemopoitic diseases
like Aplastic anemia and Leukemia.
vii) Laboratory Procedures for Microbiological Investigations:
Here, we examine the specimens of urine, sputum, skin, CSF,
pus and nose / vaginal / throat swab for detection of microorganisms.
The laboratory techniques used for identification of micro organisms
are as follows:

A] Microscopic Examination:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 273

i) Hanging Drop Method:

Direct examination of living microorganisms.
ii) Staining:
1) Gram Stain.
2) Zeihl Nelsan Stain.
B] Culture Methods:
E.g. Blood, Urine, CSF culture.
C] Bio–chemical Reaction.
D] Animal Inoculation.
E] Antibiotic Sensitivity Test.
F] Serological Tests.
i) Agglutination Techniques:
Agglutination tests are used for detection of Rheumatoid
factor, Antistreptolysin O, CT Reactive Protein, Coombs Test and
HCG detection in urine.
Tests Application
RA Test Detection of rheumatoid factor
ASO Titer Test Helpful in the diagnosis of
Streptococcal infections.
(E.g. Rheumatoid fever and
Glomerulonephritis)
Australia Antigen Test Detection of Hepatitis B –
Surface antigen.
C – Reactive protein Test Helpful in the diagnosis of
Acute myocardial infarction,
Rheumatoid arthritis, Infections,
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 274

Rheumatic fever, Carditis, and

Malignancies.
VDRL Test Helpful in diagnosis of Syphilis.
Coomb‟s Test Helpful in the determine of
HCG hormone.

3] Immuno Assays:
These methods may be applied to the measurement of the
amount of antigen or antibody in a specimen. Some of the tests are
listed below:
Tests Application
ELISA Test Used for detection of antigens,
(Enzyme linked Immuno Hepten and Antibodies e.g.
Sorbent Assay) Detection of HbsHg, HCG
levels in urine and blood,
Steroids, Hormones, Antibodies
to bacteria, Viruses and DNA.
Radio Immuno Assay Helpful in a laboratory diagnosis
of a Cancer.
Used for the determination of an
Antigen.
Endocrine Function Test:
The laboratory testing of endocrine functions and the
measurement of a specific hormone helps for diagnosis of a disease.
Now days, the Radio Immunoassay and Competitive Protein Binding
techniques were used for the detection of hormones. Some hormones
are given below:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 275

Hormones Deficiency Excess

Growth Hormone Dwarfism Gigantism and
(GH) Acromegaly
Corticotrophin Pituitary adrenal Cushing‟s Syndrome
Hormone insufficiency
(ACTH)
Thyroid Pituitary Hyperthyroidism
Stimulating myxoedema,
Hormone (TSH) Hypothyroidism
Follicle Hypogonadism, Precocious puberty,
Stimulating Infertility Dysfunctional uterine
Hormone (FSH) bleeding
Anti Diuretic Diabetes Inspidus
Hormone (ADH)
Thyroxin Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Porathormone Hypoparathyroidi Hyperparathyroidism
sm
Adrenal cortex Addison‟s Cushing‟s Syndrome
hormone Disease
Adrenal medulla Pheochromocytoma
Hormones
Insulin Diabetes mellitus

Histo-pathological Examination:
It is useful for diagnosis and stages of various tumors and
swellings. Therefore it suggests type and nature of the tumor. It is
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 276

also helpful to know the type of infection that is acute, chronic,

tubercular or fungal etc.
It is also helpful for assessment of hormone levels. E.g.
endometrial biopsy - Histological examination in premenstrual phase
suggests sterility. Biopsy of the lymph node is useful to ascertain type
of infection and metastasis.

Chapter No. 7

LATEST EQUIPMENTS AND

TECHNOLOGIES IN INVESTIGATIONS

M uch of the detailed technology involved for diagnosis

and prognosis of a disease is beyond the scope of this
chapter but a basic introduction to some of the advanced equipments
and techniques used is given below :

1. Investigation of the Molecular Basic of Disease (Genetics):

i) Karyotyping:
It is a genetic method that studies morphological appearances
of chromosomes associated with inherited disease. It identifies
disease- gene.
ii) Polymerize Chain Reaction (PCR):
The PCR technique developed in mid 1980. It allows specific
amplification of up to 1010 copies of a particular DNA by using PCR
machine.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 277

iii) DNA Sequencing and the Human Genome Project:

The Human Genome project (HGP) is used to determine the
sequence and structure of all functional human genes. Sequencing
methods are based on the DNA synthetic process. It deciphering the
sequence of bases along a stretch of prepared DNA.

vi) Positional Cloning:

It identifies the sites of novel disease genes. It characterizes
the disease gene interval in detail by distances between genetic
markers in the region.
v) Linkage Studies:
It is used in monogenic diseases, exploiting Mendelian
inheritance principles through large families. Linkage is tested
mathematically by assessing the likelihood of the allele inheritance in
affected and unaffected individuals due to chance and the likelihood
that the allele inheritance has occurred because the disease genes and
marker lie close together on the same chromosome.

2. Investigations of Cardiovascular Diseases:

A) Echocardiography (Echo):
This technique is based to study blood flow, structure of heart,
the movement of valves and cardiac muscles.
Indications:
 To diagnose and quantify severity of valve disease.
 To evaluate congenital heart disease.
 To asses ventricular function.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 278

 To identify sources of embolism.

 To detect pericardial effusion.

i) Two Dimensional or Cross sectional Echocardiography:

It is used for detection of intra cardiac-masses like thrombi or
tumors or end cardiac vegetations. It is also useful in detecting
complex structural abnormalities in congenital heart diseases.
ii) Transaesophageal Echocardiography:
It is used for investigating patients with mitral valve
dysfunction, congenital abnormalities and patients with systemic
embolism.
iii) Doppler Echocardiography:
It is valuable in detecting abnormal directions of blood flow
and in estimating pressure gradients.

B) Cardiac Catheterization :
Here a catheter is inserted via vein or artery into the heart
under radiographic fluoroscopic guidance.
i) Coronary Angiography:
It is used to detect stenosis and helps in revascularization
procedures like percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty to
diagnose coronary artery disease.
ii) Radio Nuclide Scanning:
Certain radionuclides are used for studying cardiac function.
Here the gamma rays are detected by means of a planer or
tomographic camera and thus images of heart to be reconstructed by
using following techniques.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 279

A. Blood Pool Scanning:

Here, an isotope is injected intravenously which mixes with
the blood. The gamma camera detects the amount of isotope –
emitting blood in the heart of different phases of the cardiac cycle. It
detects the size and shape of the cardiac chambers. This technique is
useful to measure left ventricular function and detects left ventricular
aneurysms.
B. Myocardial Scanning:
It is useful to identify and to distinguish between ischemic and
non-ischemic myocardium by using radioactive thallium, between
infracted and non-infracted myocardium by using radioactive
pyrophosphate.

3. Investigation of Respiratory Diseases:

i) Computed Tomography (CT):
It is used in determining the position and size of the
pulmonary nodule, mass, calcification or cavitations if present. It is
also useful in localizing lesions for percutaneous needle biopsy.
High resolution CT is useful for diagnosis of interstitial
fibrosis and for identifying bronchiectasis. It is also used in the pre-
operative assessment of patients with lung cancer and assessment of
metastasis.
ii) Ventilation Perfusion Imaging:
Using 133xe gas uses this technique for the detection of
pulmonary thromboemboli. It is also useful in pre-operative
assessment of the functional effects of lung cancer.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 280

iii) Pulmonary Angiography:

It is useful for detection of pulmonary emboli, measurement of
pulmonary artery pressure, and installation of streptokinase as a
thrombolytic agent. Now a days Digital Subtraction Angiography
(DSA) is useful than old method.

iv) Pulmonary Function Tests:

These tests detect abnormality and assess the effects of
treatment or progress of the disease. Some tests require skill and
much equipment. It is useful for:
a) Measurement of ventilatory capacity.
b) Measurement of lung volumes.
c) Measurement of gas transfer factor.
v) Arterial Blood Gas Analysis:
Here, special analyzers are used to find out PaO2. PaCo2 and
+
H ion concentration in arterial blood. It is useful in assessment of
Hypoxia, in the management of Respiratory failure, Asthma, and
Acute respiratory disease syndrome.

4. Investigation of Renal Diseases:

i) Renal Ultrasound :
It can show renal size and its position, diagnose obstruction,
distinguish tumors and cysts and show other abdominal, pelvic and
retro peritoneal pathology. Now a day‟s Doppler techniques are used
to show blood flow and its characteristics in extra renal and intrarenal
vessels.
ii) Intravenous Urography:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 281

It is useful for examine renal papillae, stones and urothelial

malignancy. Here, Radiographs are taken at intervals following
administration of an intravenous bolus of an iodine- containing
compound that is excreted by the kidney. After one minute of
injection, will demonstrate nephrogram.

iii) Xylography:
It requires the insertion of a fine needle into the pelvicalyceal
system under ultrasound or radiographic control. It is used to localize
obstruction Retrograde Pyelography can be performed by inserting
catheters into the ureteric orifices at cystoscopy.
iv) Micturating Cystourethrography:
This is used to diagnose vesico-ureteric reflux. Here, the
bladder is filled with contrast medium through a urinary catheter and
films are taken while the patient voids.
It is also used for investigating patients with recurrent urinary
tract infections, renal stones or renal failure of unknown etiology.
v) Renal Arteriography and Venography:
It is used to investigate renal artery stenosis, Hemorrhage, and
Renal tumors. Placing a catheter into the inferior vena cava via the
femoral vein does Venography. It is useful for the diagnosis of renal
vein thrombosis and renal tumors.
vi) Computed Tomography (CT):
It is used to identify lesions within the kidney or cysts with
masses. Now days Spiral CT is used for renal and adrenal images and
renal artery stenosis.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 282

Here, a bolus of intravenous contrast media is injected to

outline vascular structures.
vii) Magnetic Resonance Imaging:
It is used for images of renal vessels, renal artery stenosis and
Thrombosis. It offers excellent resolution and distinct between
different tissue. But it is expensive.

viii) Radio Nuclide Studies:

It is used for assessment of functions of each kidney
separately. Here a gamma ray emitting radio pharmaceutical
substance is injected which are taken up and down excreted by the
kidney, which can be monitored by the gamma camera. It is also used
for the diagnosis of renal artery stenosis in paediatric group.

5. Investigation of Gastro Intestinal Diseases:

i) Endoscopy:
It is especially used to examine the esophagus, stomach,
duodenum and therapeutic purposes. Here, a light was passed down
and the reflected light passed back on a colour television monitor.
Example: Arthroscopy, Sigmoidscopy, Colonoscopy and Endoscopic
Retrograde Cholagio Panorecatography (ERCP).
ii) Radio Isotope Tests:
Here, certain radioisotopes are used for functional information
e.g. for rates of gastric emptying study, 99m Tc sulphur isotope is
used. 14c Tc HMPAO is used for localization of abscess collection.
Sl Cr isotope is used for the diagnosis of recurrent gastro intestinal
bleeding.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 283

99m Tc–Per technetate is used for the diagnosis of Meckels

diverticulum in GI bleeding.
Here, an Isotope is injected intravenously and localizes an
ectopic parietal mucosa within diverticulum.

Magnetic Resonance CholangioPancreatography (MRCP):

MRCP is a non invasive technique. Not only has it given images of
organs but also its fluid content such as pancreatic Juice and bile also.
This procedure is performed by single shot fast spin echo technique.
Indications:
 It visualize biliary tract up to 3rd branch of intraheptic ducts
and pancreatic ducts. .
 It identifies biliary obstructions and its etiology (such as
biliary stones and strictures)
 It helps in the diagnosis of Acute Cole cystitis, Pancreatitis,
lesions of pancreas and pancreatic ductal Aden carcinoma and
Intraductal papillary mucinosis.

6. Investigations of Disease of Joints and Bones:

i) Synovial Fluid Analysis:
It is required for the quick diagnosis of joint infections
Arthropathies, and differential diagnosis of inflammatory and
degenerative Arthropathies.
ii) Arthroscopy:
It is useful for excluding meniscus tears in the knee joint and
to diagnose the Osteo arthritis and cartilage damages.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 284

iii) Radio Nuclide Bone Scanning:

It is useful for the diagnosis of metastatic bone disease and
Paget‟s disease.
Here a radiolabel led disphosphonate is inserted within newly
formed bone at sites of active remodeling with imaging of tracer
uptake by a gamma camera.

iv) Digital Radiography (DR):

Now a days instead of conventional X-rays Digital
Radiography is widely used which gives high quality digital images.
It dose not required any cassettes. Hence there is no question of
developing films which saves time of patient as well as physician.
Here computer are mainly used which provides quick images. We can
transmit these images to other places also for quick reporting,
diagnosis and treatment in emergency cases. While before treatment
and after treatment presentation we can use these stored images as a
quick reference.
DR technique can be obtaining either by direct or indirect
systems.

7. Investigation of Skin Diseases:

i) Diascopy:
It is useful for identification of a glaucomatous lesion having
„apple jelly nodule’. Here a glass slide is pressed firmly on a skin
lesion and observe blanching of lesion.
ii) Dermatoscopy (Epiluminescence Microscopy): It is useful for
examining pigmented lesion. Here an illuminated magnification lens
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 285

is used with oil immersion directly on the lesion. Especially it is used

for the diagnosis of malignancy.
iii) Ultraviolet Radiation:
Here, a special called woods light is used which has a nickel
oxide filter to eliminate visible light. It is used for diagnosis of scalp
ringworm. It is also useful for the diagnosis of various cutaneous
pigmentary abnormalities.
iv) Immuno Fluorescence:
Here a piece of skin biopsy can be frozen in liquid nitrogen for
direct immunoflorescence. This involves visualizing antigens, which
are present in the skin by identifying them with florescence labeled
antibodies. Then the florescence can be seen under a microscope. In
indirect immunofluorosence we can identify circulating antibodies in
the serum.
v) Electron Microscopy:
This technique is useful for the diagnosis of blistering
disorders like epidermolysis bullosa acquista.
vi) Photo Testing :
Here an exposure of the some part of skin to some
wavelengths of light can be reproduce some skin changes in the
photodermatoses.
vii) Patch Tests :
It is useful for detection of type IV hypersensitivity; here a
standard battery of nickel and chromate is applied to the skin of the
back under aluminum discs for 48 hrs.
Then the sites are examined for a +ve or –ve reaction after 96
hrs. which suggest IV hypersensitivity to that specific allergen
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 286

8) Investigation of Neurological Diseases :

i) Electroencephalography (EEG)
It is especially useful in diagnosis of Intracranial tumors,
Infraction, detection of sedating drugs, management of epilepsy,
Insomniac disorders, Dementias and Encephalitis.
Here, by using an electrode placed on the scalp produces an
electric activity in the cerebral corte.g. Then rhythmical waveforms
can be detected. When the eyes are shut the frequency over the
occipital cortex is 7-13/5 this is called as „alpha rhythm' and
disappears when the eyes are opened. Similarly other frequency bands
are seen over different parts of brain.
ii) Evoked Potentials:
Evoked potentials can be measured by visual, auditory or
somatosensory stimuli when electrodes are positioned. Abnormalities
of the evoked potential indicate damage to relevant pathway in the
form of conduction delay or reduced amplitude.
iii) Electromyography and Nerve Conducting Study:
Electromyography is useful for differential diagnosis of
denervation and structural muscle diseases and to investigate the
neuromuscular junction, it is also essential for the diagnosis of
Myasthenia gravis and Lambert - Eaton mysthenic syndrome.
In electromyography, fine concentric needle electrodes are
inserted into muscles bellies and the potentials from individual motor
units recorded. Changes in the shape and size of muscle potentials can
help for diagnosis.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 287

The Nerve conduction studies are useful for identifying

damages to peripheral nerves and to determine weather the damages
is focal or diffuse. It also gives some information about nerve roots. It
is also useful to calculate nerve conduction velocities of both sensory
and motor nerves.
Here, a nerve trunk is stimulated with a small electric potential
and then potential is to be recorded. We can use local coils for the
measurement of a potential in the cortex or spinal cord.
iv) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
It is used for diagnosis of structural changes, MR
Angiography and MR spectroscopy.
It gives better views of posterior fossa and temporal lobes.
Here magnetic resonance of different tissue depends on free hydrogen
or water content.
v) Radio – Isotope Imaging:
Here, Radio labeled isotopes bind to structures of interest. It is
applied for Position Emission Tomography and Single Photon
Emission Computerized Tomography from which we can demonstrate
blood flow and assess functions of cerebral hemispheres.

Role of Investigations in Homoeopathy:

It is true that Homoeopaths do not give much importance to
the pathological symptoms because they are found on the physical
plane and not on the dynamic plane and also they do not help in
individualizing the patients. But it is very essential for a Homoeopath
to know the investigations for the following reasons:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 288

1. The knowledge of laboratory investigations enlightens a

Homoeopath about causation of diseases. Dr. Hahnemann says in § 4
of his Organon of Medicine that a physician cannot remove the
disease unless he knows the causation of disease.
2. The study of pathology is impossible without the investigations,
which determines kinds of diseases. E.g. Acute or Chronic, Benign or
Malignant and Surgical or Medical.
3. Laboratory investigations help us to differentiate between the
common and uncommon symptoms of a disease and characteristic
symptoms of the patient. This is useful for the selection of final
remedy.
4. Investigations give us the information exactly by which we can
judge the progress of the disease or recovery from the disease. E.g. By
urine examination we can find out the condition of the diabetic patient
or by X-ray examination we can find out the condition of lungs. E.g.
in Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Emphysema etc.
5. By the knowledge of investigations we can understand the
deficiencies of certain substances. E.g. In cases of vitamin
deficiencies adequate supply of vitamins is essential with indicated
medicine or in certain conditions like Cholera, loss of water should
have to be replaced by intravenous fluids.
6. The knowledge of investigatory methods guides a Homoeopath in
preventing the spread of disease.
E.g. In cases of Pulmonary Tuberculosis by taking successive X- rays
we can asses the metastasis of a disease and physician advises the
isolation of the patient and regarding personal hygiene.
7. Certain Drugs in their proving produce pathological changes.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 289

These pathological changes are only ascertained after some special

investigations.
8. In certain conditions Homoeopathic remedies may prove dangerous
e.g. in case of Pulmonary Tuberculosis when there is cavity formation
with caseous necrosis, Silica, Phosphorous, or Sulphur should not be
used. Where investigation plays its important role of diagnosis a
disease.
9. Though bacteria‟s and parasites are the end products and ultimate
of the disease and not the cause of the diseases. The presence of
microorganisms in the body makes the person susceptible to certain
diseases and acts as exciting cause of diseases. Therefore knowledge
of Bacteriology and Parasitology is essential and for this we need
specific investigations for specific bacteria‟s or parasites.
10. Investigations determine underlying pathology, which gives
confidence to the physician.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 290

Chapter No. 8

RADIO ISOTOPES AND RADIATION

S ince the invention of hydrogen bomb in 1952 and

numerous nuclear tests the level of nuclear radiation has
markedly increased. Example: Waters have shown an increase in their
radioactive isotope of hydrogen concentration. Another isotope is
carbon 14 has shows an increase in 4 times within the air.
Carbon and hydrogen cycles plays important role in human
biochemical process. Therefore the effect of long-term exposure to
their radioactive isotopes is seen either somatically or genetically.

Effects of Radio – Isotopes:

As isotopes are beta – particle emitters they have following effects on
living organisms.
1) They have capacity to break the chromosome especially in the
presence of dissolved oxygen.
2) The spiral structures of DNA and RNA are susceptible to
radiation damage, which is responsible for functional changes.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 291

3) As the Purine and Pyramidal bases of DNA molecules are

liked together by weak hydrogen bond, constant exposure to
hydrogen isotope hampers the memory effect of DNA.
4) Ionizing radiation may cause the delay in meiosis and mitotic
division of cells and reduces the rate of protein synthesis and
metabolism.
5) Beta particles are nothing but electrons and where it is
concerned there is transfer of energy. The beta particles have
very high velocity. They affect atoms within the human body,
present in every cell. Example: Erythrocyte absorbs energy
liberated by radioisotopes.
6) The irradiation of water by ionizing radiation can lead to the
disruption of the chemical boding in the molecule and there is
formation of hydrogen (H+) and Hydroxyl ions (OH), which
are hazards to cells.

Biological Uptake of Radiation:

Heavier isotope is taken up less readily by living tissue due to
presence of radiological protective mechanism present in every tissue.
But there are many radioactive isotopes, which have very long term
effects on every living organism. Radiation may be taken into the
human body either by inhalation, ingestion or through broken skin.
Tissue damage is proportional to the degree of radiation exposure.

Homoeopathic Concept:
 Potentisation :
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 292

According to the Quantum theory, radioactive energy is

emitted in discrete quanta. Naturally the quanta has affinity for tissue
and thus during succussion the emitted radiation produced by
radioisotope has an effect on nuclei of cells.
 Homoeopathic Vehicles :
Homoeopathic physicians used lactose and ethanol for
trituration and succussion processes during the preparation of higher
potencies. Recent research reveals that, there may be possibility that,
these compounds may produce radiation effects into the remedies thus
altering the effects of the manifestations of the remedies.
 Impurity :
Homoeopathic remedies are generally contaminated by
Tritium and Carbon - 14 by atmospheric exchange. We can reduce
this contamination in laboratory at certain stage.
 Detoxication :
The role of detoxication is very important in Homoeopathy for
efficiency and accuracy of Homoeopathic medicines. Some methods
should be investigated for reducing the contamination of the human
body by Tritium and Carbon - 14.

Role of Radiation Remedy in Homoeopathy:

Radiation remedy should not nullify or block the effects of
radiation since radiation up to some extent is a part and parcel of this
ecology where man lives. On the other hand it will help the human
organism to assimilate the harmful effects – somatic and or genetic of
radiation and their harmful effects are balanced by specific positively
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 293

directed energy holded Homoeopathic medicines. If, not transmitted

insidiously from one generation to other generation.
Attention must be focused on the remedy, which has capacity
to modify the genetic code on DNA molecule and thus messenger
RNA- the transmitting agent for genetic data is produced.
Dr. Laurence potentised nucleic acids and used in
Homeopathy. Chemicals cause radiosensitisation within cells making
them more susceptible to radiation because such chemicals are
incorporated into the nucleic acids of the nucleus of cells. For e.g.
Lead is used to influence the DNA molecule homeopathically, that
protects the radiation hazards.
An isotopic substance is a substance in which light is
transmitted with the same velocity in all directions and the radiation is
away from the center, which explains further law of similia
scientifically. Further research shows that, combination of lead and
sulphur in one remedy shows good result by brining a „balance’,
which gives rise to a state of electrical neutralizing within the
molecule which is expressed outwardly as a ‘relief‟ from presenting
complaints. Therefore now a days DNA molecule and lead sulphide
triturate together followed by dilution and succussion. The remedy,
which we will get, seems to be most effective one, as these elements
have opposite ionic charge.
Dr. Paterson states that malignant diseases are associated with
radioactive contamination from nuclear sources. Dr. Laurence and Dr.
Westlake shows that radiation effects are transmitted through genetic
code, which was Dr. Hahnemann in his miasmatic states – Psora,
Syphilis and Sycosis in chronic disease, previously state.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 294

Thus Homeopathy is the only known system of medicine,

which removes the effects of radiation in its whole extent.



Chapter No. 9

ADVANCED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

A Surgeon without knife is like a barber without laser.

That means there is no any researcher who is devoid of
its instruments. For any type of research we have to use certain,
sophisticated – advanced instruments.
Following instruments are used commonly for research:

MICROSCOPE:
It provides the microphotographs of object with magnification.
This palorthoplan microscope has camera attachment with automatic
exposure control (WILD MPS45).
The result in form of negative of microphotograph on 35mm
Black and White or colour film.
Model - Orthoplan - Polariser microscope.
Make - Ernst Leitz, - West Germany.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 295

Magnification 25 x to 250 x
Applications - It is used in the field of Medicine, Life sciences,
Metallurgy, Material sciences, Polymer sciences and Agriculture.

SPECTROPHOTOMETER:
Model and Make: 330 Hitachi Japan
The model 330 is used for measuring transmittance and
absorbance of liquid, solid and gas samples in the visible, ultraviolet
and near infrared region.
The light emitted from the light source passes through two grating
monochromatic for preparing a monochrome beam, and then is split
into two beams. After passing through the sample compartment, the
monochrome beams are converged and then converted into an electric
signal by a detector – Photo multiplier Tube or PbS cell. The electric
signal provided from the detector is amplified by a preamplifier and
immediately converted into a digital variable by 16 bit A/D converter.
The result is displayed directly to the recorder.
Specifications:
Range - 187nm to 2500 nm
Model - Transmittance (%T) - 0 to 100
- Absorption (Abs) - 0 to 6
Applications- It is used in the fields of Chemical,
Pharmaceutical, Medical Science, Industries etc. as follows:
a. Qualitative and Quantitative analysis.
b. Impurities detection, determination of molecular
weight.
c. Dissociation constants of acid and base.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 296

d. Study of kinetic reactions.

e. Functional group detection.
f. Determinations of structure of natural products i. e.
vitamins, protein complexes etc.

ULTRA CENTRIFUGE:
Ultra Centrifuge is an instrument, which separates the
components of the mixture from the liquid samples when rotated at
great speed at predetermined physical condition. SCP 854 has
maximum speed of 85,000 rpm and it can be carried out at users
determined condition. The ultimate vacuum pressure of the rotator
chamber is of the order of 103 Torr (0.1) and temperature can be
controlled between 0 to 450 c with 10 ± tolerance.
Make - HITACHI
Model – SCP 85H
Applications: (In the field of life sciences to study the biological
molecules):
a. It is used for separation of biological molecules
(Nucleic Acid, Proteins, Lipoproteins, and Glycols
etc.)
b. It is used to study density, shape, and weight of
biological molecules.
c. It is used for separation of cells and its organelle.
d. It is used for separation of bacteria.
e. It is used for separation of virus.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 297

X–RAY POWDER DIFFRACTORMETER (XRD):

Powder Diffractometer is mainly used for identification of
compounds by their diffraction patterns. A diffract meter utilizes a
monochromatic beam of radiation, to yield information about spacing
and impurities from crystalline powder. The collected data is required
for structure determination and can be used for qualitative and
quantitative phase identification. We provide this facility for room
temperature and for high temperature. The high temperature
attachment permits high temperature studies to be made by X-ray
methods at temperatures of up to 16000 C under vacuum conditions.
Model – PW3710/PW1710 PHILIPS, Holland
Angle - [20] = 50 to 1200
Target – Cu, Fe, Mo. and Cr.
Normal Mode – PW3710/Pw1710 APD Controller.
Specimen – Fine Powder (quantity approximately 1
cm3)
Applications – It is used for crystallographic studies,
Quantitative analysis of organic, inorganic minerals, Metals and
Alloys etc.
It is also used in Research universities, Chemical mining,
Pharmaceuticals, Metalliferous industries etc.

INFRA RED (IR):

Infra red spectroscopy gives structural information and
thereby purity and presence of various functional groups.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 298

A molecule when subjected to the low energy IR radiations,

get absorbed to different frequencies of molecular vibrations. Thus
resulting in absorption bands of different frequencies.
PE – 783 is depressive dual beam, ratio – recording type of
instrument where in percentage transmittance is recorded with respect
to wave number. It utilizes gratings as monochromatic, thermocouple
as detector and separate microprocessor. The synchronization
between grating movement and chart roll result in accurate plotting of
the data.
MODEL - PE – 783
MAKE - PERKIN – ERMER, USA
RANGE - 4000 - 200 CM –1
APPLICATIONS - It is used for detection of functional
groups present in the unknown sample. Determination of bond
structure and purity.

HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPH (HPLC):

The waters – 2690 separation module is an integrated solvent
and sample management platform. This integration of two traditional
high performance liquid chromatography components streamlines all
critical functions. The sample management system in waters – 2690
separations module uses five carousels with total capacity of 120
vials. A carrier rotates the carousels to the injection section in the
sample compartment. The 2690 is coupled with detectors and
operation terminal.
Make – Waters, Austria.
Columns - C 18, C8, Cation exchanger
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 299

Vial Capacity – 120 Vials

Detectors - I) 2410 Differential Diffractometer
II) 2487 Absorbance Detector.
Software - Millennium
Recordation – Result in print out form with Pentium III
processor application.

Application: - In the field of Biochemical or Biomedical

Separation of amino acids peptides and proteins, Biogenic
Amines related compounds of enzymes lipids, nucleotides,
Nucleosides, the steroids, beverages, vitamins, therapeutic etc.

ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER:

The estimation of the elements from liquid samples on tracer
levels can be done on Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Analyst
– 300. It is fully computer – controlled system and provides
sequential multielement analysis. It offers exceptional light through
out and correspondingly exceptional performance with all popular
sample techniques, flame, and graphite furnace. It consists of optical
double beam system, which compensate for any changes that may
occur in lamp intensity or detector response characteristics. It consists
of motorized lamp turret and lamp adjustment. Fuel flow adjustment
is fully automatic through computer control. The sensitivity check for
the sample is about 1 ppb.
Model – An Analyst 300.
Make – Perkin – Elmer, USA.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 300

Sensitivity – 1 ppb.
Lamps available - As, Au, Ca, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Co, Hg, In,
Mg, Mn, Ni, Fd, Se, Zn, K, Ag, Na, Li, Rb, Be, B, Ga, Mo, V, AI,
Ti, Sr, Ba, Y, Zr.
Applications: - It is used for analysis of soils, plant tissues,
inorganic fertilizers, serum and plasma of blood, seawater, natural
water, foodstuff, alcoholic beverages, paints, ores etc.
THERMAL ANALYZER (TG- DTA-DSC):
It measures the heat flow and weight changes associated with
transitions and reactions in material over the temperature range from
RT to 15000 C. These experiments can be carried out in optional
environments like N2, 02, air at pre-decided flow-rate (ml/min) and
heating rate (0C/min).
The gas-switching accessory is used to turn on and off or to
switch between two different purge gases during SDT experiment-
Heat flow accuracy is  2% and temperature and weight accuracy is
 1% where as DTA sensitivity is 0.0010C and that weight is 0.1
Ugm. This SDT –2960 controller is connected to PC and the social
software makes the thermal analysis. It stores the data as well as runs
the analysis programs.
Applications: - It is used for melting point, crystallization behavior,
glass transition specific heat, and reaction kinetics etc. of various
substances. It is also used in industries in the filed of Metallurgy,
glass, Ceramics, earth sciences, building material energy food etc.

FLOWCYTOMETER:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 301

Flowcytometery is well-established powerful technique for

identifying, examining, counting, sorting cells and their components
in to different fractions. Cells are stained with a light – sensitive dye
and then passed in narrow stream through a laser beam and the cell
identified based on the fluorescence emitted by each cell.
One of the most popular of the applications is in monitoring
disease progression and therapy in HIV and Leukemia patients.

Chapter No. 10

RECENT ADVANCES IN MEDICINE

T hough Homoeopathic science is based on

symptmatology and certain fixed principles laid down
by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, the advances that are occurring in the
field at Bio-technology and Genetics will definitely help a
Homoeopath.
Study of Molecular Biology, Genetics and Nanotechnology
will open new doors for Homeopaths.
The recent advances and technologies used in medical field
are follows:

Bio-Technology:
Biotechnology is an integrated application of Bio-chemical,
Micro-biological and Engineering science to the technological
employment of micro organisms, cell cultures or their components.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 302

It is utilization of biological knowledge and techniques by using

either livings organisms or natural substances from organisms like
enzymes and thus modifying genetic structure of certain organisms.
Biotechnology includes wide range of technological processes.
Recombinant DNA technology helps to detect and cure
genetic disease even before the birth of child.
Cell culture and Protoplast Fusion Technology have made
possible the production of Intervener and Site-specific Hybrids.
Biotechnology was born after the discovery of DNA molecule
which opens the doors for Genetic engineering, development of
Monoclonal antibodies, Protein engineering, Bioinformatics, Tissue
Culture and Computer linkages of reactors and process.

Genetic Medicine:
This science studies genes their functions and their influence on
humans during health and disease. It plays important role to the
diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases.
i) Gene Chips:
These are nothing but DNA chips. They classifies genes which are
active in different diseases Here few cells are focused on a gene-chip
for the scanning and thus elicit and disease for e.g. Cancer. These
chips also predict whether an individual is predisposed to develop
certain disease or not. Gene chips are also used in Geno typing
procedures which help in preventing gene induced diseases like
Neurofibromatosis, Retinoblastoma etc.
ii) Gene Mutation:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 303

Mutation of Genes takes part in protein metabolism

many inherited diseases like Diabetes.melllitus, Hypertension, and
Cardio vascular diseases are due to genes mutation. Modern science
uses DNA vaccine with plasmids containing genetic code which
expresses its antigens on their cell wall which is recognized by T
lymphocytes.
Now a days Tissue engineers made blood products, artificial
skin for grafting for rehabilitation.

Nano Technology:
The molecular machine builds universal assembler having
capacity of assembling objects by atom or molecule by molecule with
a Nono Scale Robotic Arm under control of a computer.

Bio-Sensors:
The stable but sensitive Biosensors are operated by ion –
channel in a lipid membrane having biological property of
recognition with a physical transduction .It plays an important role in
converting biochemical events into an electrical signal ( like ECG )
which are sensitive to Pico molar concentrations of proteins. Today
Biosensors are used for measuring blood glucose. For detection of
blood glucose one can use a light emitting reaction couplet with a
receptor or an enzymes for a biochemical substance to a filament
placed in a blood vessel can give the amount of concentration of
glucose.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 304

Stem Cell Therapy:

Stem cells are nothing but primordial undifferentiated cells
having capacity of cell division and renew themselves for long
periods.
At certain conditions they can be induced to become cells
with certain functions. Stem cells can be derived from embryo, bone
marrow, umbilical cord or peripheral blood. Stem cell therapy
consists of generating special healthy cells from stem cells to repair
damaged and diseased body parts.
Indications: Stem cell therapy is mainly indicated in following
clinical conditions:
1) For treatment of Diabetes Mellitus, Parkinson‟s disease and
Stroke.
2) For regeneration of hair cells, cardiac tissues after Myocardial
infarction.
3) For treatment of patients having past history of spinal cord
injury.
4) For haemopoietic diseases like Leukemia.

Cloning:
It is making the Similimum or Identical from original one. The
first cloning performed in 1997 (Dolly- Sheep). It consists the union
of somatic cell with an enucleated egg or the transfer of a nucleus of a
somatic cell into an enucleated egg. We can derive somatic cell / egg
from different individuals or from the same individuals.
Indications:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 305

1) Reproductive :
Here, cloning done by nuclear transfer of differentiated
somatic cell in other species than humans. Human
reproductive cloning is unethical according to some experts.
2) Therapeutic :
This technique is just like an Auto Transplantation where
cells / tissues / organs which are to be transplanted back into
the same individual who donated already that cell. This
technique reduced chances of transplanted organ rejection.

Chapter No. 11

DRUG PROVING

I n § 105 of his sixth edition of Organon of Medicine Dr.

Hahnemann says that Drug proving is a process of
acquiring a knowledge of the instruments intended for the cure of the
natural disease. In our words, it is a systematic process of
investigation of the pathogenic power of medicine by administering it
in different healthy human beings of both sexes and at various ages.
 No proving records are available on pathological changes in
Materia Medica. The drugs are withdrawn before the
occurrence of Pathological changes.
 No proving remedies on lower animals are observed.
 The pathological symptoms are collected from previous
records of poisoning and clinical practice. Therefore they are
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 306

mostly generals and not characteristics, which determine

remedy.
 Symptoms of the Materia Medica are not of the same value,
They are relative in value
 Symptoms are either increase or decrease or alteration of
function.

Human Experiments:
Dr. Wagner got himself injected with radio- labeled drug
(Carfentanil) there by obtaining the first „Positron Emission
Tomography‟ of the opiate receptors in the human brain.
 After an invention of X-rays in 1895, Roentgen took
a picture of this own hands.
 Forssmann and Cournand passed a cardiac catheter
in their own veins and observed its progress through
the vessels to the heart.
 John Hunter got himself injected with the discharge
from a Syphilitic chancre and got the chancre and
Gonorrhea himself.
 Head (1905), Trotter and Davis (1909-1913) and
Boring (1916) cut their own sensory nerves in the
forearm to study sensory loss and the restoration of
sensory activity on regeneration.
 Lanier (1935) injected alcohol into his own
cutaneous nerve to observe its effects.
 James Carroll volunteered to be bitten by infected
mosquitoes and developed yellow fever.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 307

Recently, The British Medical Research Council during

an experiment on „Artificial production of the common cold‟,
concluded that human experiments were essential because there has
been no success in inducing Cold in animals like rats, guinea pigs,
monkeys, mice etc.
In 1747, James Lind performed a human experiment in which
he added different substances to diet of some soldiers who were
suffering form scurvy. Then he divided his patients into pairs and
supplemented the diets of each pair with cider, vinegar, garlic,
mustard, oranges and lemon daily. All the peoples were studied for
one week. At the end of a week the peoples who received oranges and
lemon recovered form scurvy and other peoples are remaining as it is.
Edward Jenner‟s experiment (1796) on cowpox and then
humans are also a good example of human experiment. Finely and
Reeds experiment (1881-1900) shows mosquito born nature of yellow
fever. These experiments have played roles in investigating etiology,
testing therapeutic and prophylactic measures. The WHO (1980) has
laid down a strict code of practice in connection with trials.
There are many peoples like Paracelsus, Charak, and
Hippocrates who feels the necessity of drug proving. Albrecht von
Haller is one of them who saw the necessity of drug proving. In 1829
Johannes Purkinje-Physiologist experimented upon himself the action
of Belladonna, Stramonium, Camphor, and Turpentine. But Dr.
Hahnemann was the first medical person who systematized it.
After the disgusting allopathic practice, Hahnemann studied
different languages and started translation from English, Italian,
French, into German literature, while translating Cullen‟s 2nd volume
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 308

„Treatise of the Materia Medica‟ in 1789, he come across a stanza

regarding medicinal effects of Peruvian bark. Cullen wrote 20 pages
about it. This is enough stimuli for an intelligent man like Hahnemann
and therefore Hahnemann make experiments upon him self with this
drug.
In this way Hahnemann proved drugs near about 6 yrs. upon
himself, on his family and friends and established a „Law of Similia‟.
He verified his many symptoms again and again. Finally
published his work – “Fragment de various medicament rum positive
sive in sono corpore humuno observation” in 1805. It was the first
collection of symptoms of medicines upon healthy human beings in
the History of Medicine. Experiments after experiment Hahnemann
classified the symptoms of each drug into two groups – One contain
more striking, singular, peculiar and uncommon characteristic
symptoms and other group there is symptoms - common, specific
symptoms and founded a concept of Individualization.
The necessity of single dose administration during proving is
noted in „Medicine of Experience‟ published in 1806. Hahnemann
proved 99 drugs and published his proving in Materia Medica Pura in
6 parts from 1811 to 1821.
Hahnemann was very much conscious about his selection of
provers like Dr. Franz Hartman, Staph, Gross, Hornburg, Franz,
Wislicenos, Teutnom, and Rukert... etc. Dr. Franz Hartman gave a
detailed notes of Hahnemann„s provings. Hahnemann gave instruction
regarding proving in his 6th edition of Organon of medicine (§.105 –
145).
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 309

Hahnemannian Methodology of Drug Proving:

Hahnemann used Non-Blind Trial Method for proving and not
using a control group (placebo). He proved drugs on healthy human
beings on both sexes and at various ages. This is called classical
proving by Hahnemannian Methodology.
After Hahnemann his followers like Dr. Boenninghausen,
Hering, Kent, Clarke, continued his work with same methodology.
Professor Joerge of Leipzig included Temperament and Constitution
in Hahnemann‟s proving.
There are many known and unknown Homoeopaths who
contributed many things to drug proving. The concept of Double
Blind trial and Placebo in a National proving of Belladonna was
introduced in America in 1906, when Homoeopathy was under a
Government pressure and in the phase of declination and most of
rules and regulations is added by them in techniques of proving which
Hahnemann did not use.

The Study of Proving:

Homoeopathic drug proving is one of the researches in
Homoeopathy, which is based on a science and philosophy. There are
3 components in proving as follows:
1) The test substance.
2) Proving team.
3) Methodology.
1) The Substance to be tested:
The detail understanding of drug that is to be tested is
important. The principle of single remedy forms the basic feature of
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 310

proving. Here we should aware about source of drug its nomen

culture in scientific language, its method of preparation, its
pharmacological characteristics or properties, potency used, its
toxicological effects etc.
The route of administration and potency used should be as per
susceptibility of that patient should be mentioned.

2) Proving Team:
Homoeopathic proving is teamwork. Chief fixes the role of
each member in a team. Following persons plays important role, in
proving.
I) Project Director:
He is a chief person of all team. He plans the methodology and
entire proving procedure. Therefore he is called as Master Prover.
Master prover decide protocol of proving, drug substance and its
potency. He should be blinded to the remedy, which is to be proved.
ii) Adviser:
The adviser assists to the Master Prover and provided him the
knowledge of drug substance. Therefore he must be a Botanist,
Zoologist or a Chemist who has thorough knowledge about source of
a drug.
iii) Supervisor:
They monitor the records of the provers and check each
symptom recorded in day book whether it was complete or
incomplete. They are experienced Homoeopaths.
They keep a contact with the prover from first day to last day.
If any change in the state of health of prover seen they immediately
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 311

informed this altered state and its nature to the chief personnel. They
also need to be blinded from medicine that is proved.
iv) Provers:
Hahnemann said that, „Homoeopathic physician himself is an
ideal prover.‟ His concept of an ideal prover is that it should be
Healthy, Intelligent, Delicate, Sensitive, Irritable, Unprejudiced,
Honest, Trustworthy and Lover of truth.
Guidelines for Selection of a Prover:
 Prover should be healthy.
 He should be examined carefully and certified by authorized
medical physician.
 Some groups of peoples should be made according to
environmental, biological and social variation.
 Different age groups should be considered to ascertain the
pathogenic power of a drug.
 Both sexes should be considered for proving as per their race,
religion and geographical distribution.
 Pre – proving education regarding actual proving and
Homoeopathy is essential.
 Hysterical, maniac, impulsive personalities should not be
taken for proving.
 Breast feeding, pregnant and immunological deficient persons
should be avoided.
 Ideally they should be free from any harassment, hurry,
tension and any disturbances.

3. Methodology:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 312

Conventionally, methodology of actual drug proving is

described under following headings:
i) The Pre- Proving Protocol
ii) The Proving
iii) Post – Proving Protocol

i) Pre – Proving Protocol:

The time, place and money required for proving are to be
fixed. Here certain rules, regulations and guidelines are to be made for
proving and post proving protocol and this is the responsibility of a
project director and his team.
Here, project director either select a new drug for proving or
old drug for re- proving. He selects the members of team and samples
from population. During this phase all the emergency instruments
including antidotes of that specific drug should be kept ready.
Team leader prepare the initial medical report Performa. The
team workers and provers are to be educated and instructed by chief
regarding proving and its importance. Consent should be obtained
from all provers. Safety of provers and ethics should be considered.
ii) The Proving:
In Hahnemann‟s method provers were fully aware of the
nature of the substance that they were proved. But today Modern
styles of proving are modified from this concept. Today Double –
Blind trial methods used for proving considering variations in mode
of Living, Habits, Weathers, Constitution, Temperaments and
Susceptibility.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 313

During meeting, Daybook and instructions regarding proving and

book should be provided.
Nature of Trials:
(Randomized Double Blind, Double Controlled Proving):

1) Double – Blind Trials:

Here either the proving master or the provers are aware of the
drug, suggested the double – blind trial or the control (Placebo)
received by each of provers.
Here, first of all the drug is to be proved and each single
prover are to be coded. Code number arranged alphabetically for
convince by committee which was not involved in records of provers.
2) Control Trials:
Here, placebo is used for proving. Placebo should be
physically similar to original drug substance that means it should be
identical in all aspects. Placebo should not have any medicinal
property ideally.
3) Cross – Over Studies:
In this type of study two groups of provers are to be made. To
one group the drug substance is given at one phase and then placebo
during the later phase and to other group vice versa. So that we can
ascertain the pathogenic power of drug and placebo also on each
prover separately. But here the major drawback of this double control
study is that, many Homoeopathic drugs are long acting and during
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 314

administration of placebo the effect of previous administered drug

still remains latently.

Committee:
There is a separate committee of well-known Homoeopaths
and experts in medical science to assist to chief director and his team.
They organize the publication and account of proving.

Recording of Symptoms:
It is very very important phase of proving. Each prover has
provided a daybook to make a record of all sings and symptoms
(Subjective or Objective) Sensations or any alterations during
proving. Prover should begin to take notes 7 days before taking
remedy.
Each symptom should be as far as possible complete one. How
to note symptom and what should be included and excluded are to be
thought by chief.

Criteria for Including Symptoms:

 New symptom that were never experienced before.
 High intensified current symptoms.
 Altered or modified current symptoms.
 Present symptoms disappeared during proving called a cured
symptom.
 Symptoms that excites or make discomfort to prover should be
excluded.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 315

 Doubtful symptoms are excluded or should be kept in

brackets.
 All the recorded symptoms are to be categorized by the
supervisor in presence of provers. E.g. (NS = New Symptom,
US = Unusual Symptom. etc)
 A meeting of chief supervisors and provers are to be arranged
for discussion.

iii) Post – Proving Protocol:

It is very difficult to say that proving is completed. Therefore
time schedule should be fixed for proving after completion of proving
all the records of symptoms thoroughly analyzed and arranged
systematically.
The data should be indexed as per any repertory. Kent‟s
Repertory preferred first of all.

Analysis of Record:
This is time consuming stage of proving. Every symptom
should be extracted, collected, analyzed and repertories and included
in Materia Medica. For this process knowledge of repertory and local
languages are essential because without local language knowledge we
cannot convert them in to correct rubrics.
1. Extraction:
Here the recorded symptoms converted into the format of
Materia Medica after extracting of valid symptoms. Then it is to be
compared to control or cross over group.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 316

2. Collation:
In this stage all the provings from separate provers are
synthesized and make into single notes under each section modalities
are expressed as per persons holistic nature. Therefore it should be
represented separately. Intensity of each symptom should be clearly
mentioned.
3. Repertorisation:
Each symptom is analyzed interpretated accurately and
converted into repertory language that is into rubrics. If necessary
new rubrics should be investigated and added in case of reproving of
already proved drug. For this process ones logic and art is essential.
4. Theaming the Symptoms:
Theaming of proving is the practical outcome of entire
proving project. The symptoms are studied under generalities and
particulars.
5. Publication:
The whole data should be summarized after discussion with all
the members of project. The conclusions of proving are indexing
according to schema of repertory (e.g. Kent‟s Repertory) the aims and
objects of proving / reproving are mentioned in the introductory part
of the proving article including Materia medica, reperatorization and
all the relevant information of that specific drug.

Evaluation of Proving Process:

Now days we have to face many problems because we used
placebo for comparative study. Statistical analysis of Homoeopathic
drug test has to be based on comparison between the totality of
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 317

symptoms obtained during proving and the totality of symptoms from

placebo.
Therefore confirmation of drug specificity for a single
symptom in a test is impossible as provers differ in expression.
(Individualization) Therefore statistical analysis and placebo studies
never demonstrate drug - specificity for a particular or specific
clinical condition. For evaluation of proving trials we must pay
attention towards:
1) Evaluation of Drug.
2) Evaluation of Provers.
3) Evaluation of Methodology.

Registration:
A Centralized authority – recognized by the State government
or the Competent Homoeopathic Body are in charge of Homoeopathic
drug proving.
Each proving should be first pre-registered with the central
registered authority responsible for Homoeopathic drug proving. They
keep a record and checking of provings carried out in different
research institution and then accepted.

Clinical Verification of Symptoms:

Clinical Verification in Homoeopathy is complementary to
drug proving and goes a long way in establishing clinical validity of
the data collected thorough drug proving on healthy human beings.
The verified symptoms are often used as prescribing
symptoms and form the basis of successful prescription besides being
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 318

included in Materia Medica. Clinical verification studies so for made

indicate great therapeutic potentiality of these drugs.
Clinical verification in Homoeopathy forms the basis of
evolution of reliable data of drugs form the pathogenesis generated
during the proving of drugs on healthy human beings. It is an
important as original proving and verified symptoms are often used as
prescribing indications and form the basis of successful prescription.
It helps in segregating the common symptoms form the
characteristic features of a drug along with addition of certain
additional or new symptoms relieved during verification trials in the
pathogenesis.
Clinical verification therefore acts as a screening process for
shifting out the data of doubtful utility from the pathogenesis.
There are many drugs in Homoeopathy which are mentioned
in literature on the basis of empirical or traditional use or are not
extensively proved and no systematic studies have been carried out to
verify their affectivity. It is here that a clinical verification helps great.
Clinical verification is the process of evaluating the clinical
applicability of newly proved drugs and drugs with fragmentary data
(Partially proved drugs). This process also guides to reliable
indications for-therapeutic application in future use.

Institutes or Units engaged in Clinical Verification Research:

The cases for clinical trial under the assigned drugs are
selected at the out patient level and the drug, which is nearest to the
symptomatology recorded during case taking, is prescribed. During
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 319

each visit of patient a detailed follow ups of each symptom is

recorded as to its frequency, degree and disappearance.
At the end of year, all the cases of one drug are collected,
analyzed with respect to the response after prescription and follow up.
Since lesser-known drugs are not very well proved one may not
achieve the status of cure, yet relief to a marked degree is sufficient to
evaluate the efficacy of drug.
During the verification trials, symptoms not available in
literature of that drug also get relived wholly or partially along with
the prescribing symptoms, are considered as additional symptoms
when these are carefully compiled and again relived. After subsequent
confirmation. They are included in the pathogenesis of the drug.
These symptoms are mentioned separately under each drug.

Clinical Verification of Symptoms of Homoeopathic Medicines

through Repertory:
There are many criteria‟s for selecting homoeopathic remedy
though totality of symptoms is only criteria for selection of samarium.
There fore on that particular criteria depends verification and
confirmation of symptoms of that particular remedy.
Now days there are so many repertories available in the
market. Therefore it is need of the homoeopathic physician to confirm
the proving and or clinical symptoms of the remedy for better result
as per Hahnemann‟s ideal cure.

Indications for Clinical Verification of Symptoms:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 320

 To prove that repertory contain the proving symptoms as well

as clinically verified and confirmed symptoms of remedy
 To collect clinical symptoms of remedy which have not
developed in provers during proving, but occasionally these
symptoms gives relief to patients.
 To collect verified and confirmed symptoms of remedy for
clinical trail in specific disease. Example: Arsenic Album in
Diabetes Mellitus, Cuprum Metalicum in Cholera etc.
 To understand pathological nomenclature or clinical diagnosis
used in Repertory.
 To relocate certain rubrics given in that Repertory which are
present in other sections? Example: Pains in different sections
of repertory.

First Stage (Source Books):

A Researcher should take a particular rubric from
the beginning of the chapter of a particular Repertory, and go through
every medicine given in source books which are used by an author of
that Repertory. While observing these source books he has to observe
whether the symptom in source book is either Bold, Italic or of
ordinary type. Thus, verified symptoms from the source books, many
times it is seen that, the complete symptom which is recorded in
source books has many component like Location, Sensation,
Modalities etc. is divided in to many rubric which is scattered through
out the book.
It is mandatory that only one source book is to be given to
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 321

only one researcher for verification of all remedies which are listed in
that particular rubric starting from first to last chapter of that
repertory.

Second Stage (Clinical Verification of Symptoms):

In this phase, verification and confirmation of
symptoms from the first stage of the remedy prescribed either on the
basis of totality or clinical basis done on patients (IPD or OPD) with
single remedy with diagnostic laboratory reports.

Third Stage (Gradation of Remedies):

Now a days in many editions of the Repertories, additions are made
without any confirmation and or verification from various sources
which leads doubtful grading of remedies, ultimately select a wrong
remedy. There fore Errors or Mistakes during gradation of remedies
in certain rubrics in subsequent editions of Repertory are to be
corrected carefully.

A] Format for verification of drug:

Proving Staff at Unit:
iii. Dr……………. (Research officer).
iv. Dr. …………... (Assistant Research officer).
v. Dr. ……………. (Assistant Research officer).
Consultants:
1. Neurologist
2. Psychologist
3. Gynecologist
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 322

4. Radiologist...etc.
Pathogenesis:
1) Mind: Symptoms.
2) Head: Symptoms.
--- “ ---
--- “ ---
--- “--- All Particulars
--- “ ---
10) Generals
B] Format for New Drug Proving:
1) Drug Name :
E. g. Arsenic Album.
2) Proving Conducted at :
E.g. Place of Drug proving.
3) Period of Proving :
E.g. 2005 – 2006.
4) Potencies Proved :
E.g. 200, 30, Q in descending order.
5) Source of Drug :
E.g. Name of Manufacturing Company
6) Provers List.
Place of proving --------- Proving Code: 7004
Sr. Code Name of Age Sex Rx
No. No Provers (Yrs.)
1 700 401 Miss. ----- 10 F ----
2 700 402 Mr. ------ 29 M Control
3 700 403 Miss.-----. 25 F ----
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 323

4 700 404 Mr.------ 50 M ----

5 700 405 Mr.------ 36 M Control

Name of the Prover …………..

Providing code no. ……………
Quota No………………………

PROVER’S DAY BOOK PROFORMA

Date Time of Symptoms experienced Any change in normal

Intake of in order of their by the Prover in
drug Test appearance respect of daily habits
substance pertain to diet living
conditions etc.

Note:
 Ordinary or habits of life must observe and ordinary work
maintained.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 324

 Change from routine might cause deviation from the normal

balance. In the case any change is effected it must be
reported.

Provers Signature

Animal Studies or Experimentation:

 Malpighi (1628 – 1694) was the first to formulate the
analogy principle there by laid the theoretical
foundation of the animal model of human disease.
According to him, the studies in lower animals could
be predictive for higher animals like humans.
 Vesalius, Servet, Harvey and De Graff made animal
experiments for acquiring knowledge of Anatomy and
Physiology.
 Claude Bernard (1813-1878) introduced the
„Methodological Approach‟ in animal experimentation.
Animal studies are contributed to our knowledge of Anatomy,
Physiology, Pathology, Genetics, Chemotherapy and so many others.
In 20th century Webster from USA and Topley, Wilson and
Greenwood form England had curried out animal experiments. They
studied epidemics and immunology in animals.

Advantages of Animal Studies:

 Animals can be domesticated and manipulated easily
according to the wishes of a researcher.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 325

 Their reproduction rate is higher than the humans.

Therefore they are useful in genetic science.
 Ascertaining basic knowledge (Anatomy, Physiology)
of an organ, cell, system or whole body.
 Understanding the pathogenesis of diseases.
 Invention of new techniques or remedies for Cure as
well as Prevention of diseases.
 Animals can be used for teaching surgical procedures.
 Animal experimentation may be helpful for diagnostic
tests.

Demerits of Animal Studies:

 Human and animal diseases are not exactly similar to each
other.
 Subjective symptoms are not found during study.
 Mental symptoms cannot be studied, as animals cannot narrate
their feelings emotions will etc.
 Animals cannot give any modalities, which is essential for
differentiation for Homoeopathic drugs.
 The effect of same drug on animals in many cases is different
from those on human beings. Even the action of same drug
varies from one species to other. E.g. Opium on horses does
not impress as it does on human beings.

Significance of Drug Proving in Homoeopathy:

Dr. Hughes says that, „Thus our pathogenic knowledge when
truly obtained and registered, is like a picture gallery, in which the
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 326

discovering eye may perceive the lineaments of all morbid condition

known or like to occur. When we examine a patient for certain
clinical state we proceed in exactly the same way as we observed this
state during proving.
 Homoeopathic Materia Medica is understood only by drug
proving on healthy human beings on both the sexes and at
various ages. Because all the observations, signs and
symptoms are studied during drug proving process.
 It gives knowledge of drug sources, its collection, preparation
and presentation.
 It gives knowledge of posology.
 Doctrine of signature can be assessed only by drug proving.
 It gives information regarding idiosyncrasy and susceptibility
of a person.

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 327

Chapter No. 12

META ANALYSIS

I t is a combination of the results of many clinical studies on

the same subject to derive a conclusion. The term Meta
analysis was first of all introduced by Glass in 1976.
Meta analysis is a scientific discipline that critically revises
and statistically combines the results of previous research.

Objectives of Meta Analysis:

 To increase statistical power for primary end points and for
subgroups.
 To resolve uncertainty where reports disagree.
 To answer question not posed at the start of individual trials.
 To estimate the variability of findings within a single study
and the variability from one set of results to another.
Meta Analysis is a scientific discipline therefore it should be
conducted like a scientific experiment.

Steps Involved In Meta Analysis:

1) Review of Literature.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 328

2) Identification of Research Problem.

3) Analysis of Result.
4) Derivation of a Single Conclusion.

Utility of Meta analysis:

 It explains why research results differ from each other.
 It gives new direction for research.
 It helps in the study of new diseases having idiopathic
etiology.
 It provides clinical approach to a problem.

Meta – Meta Analysis:

It is the evaluation of quality of combined results of many
clinical studies on the same subject.
A study published in the 27th August 2005 issue of „The
Lancet‟ explains that Homoeopathic remedies are no better than
placebo Therefore, the studies has been criticized through out world
by many Homoeopaths. The Lancet study was a Meta Analysis. – A
study that compares a selection of research studies to see what the
overall consensus is.
Here, Dr. Aijing Shang, Ph. D. described the types of
Homoeopathic studies. They included in their Meta analysis as
follows: -
i) Clinical Homoeopathy:
Here, patients did not receive a comprehensive Homoeopathic
history and all patients received a single, identical remedy.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 329

This accounted for 44 – 48 % of the Homoeopathy studies

analyzed.
ii) Complex Homoeopathy:
Here, patients did not receive a comprehensive Homoeopathic
history and all patients received a mixture of many Homoeopathic
drugs. This accounted for 32 – 35 % of the Homoeopathy studies
analyzed.
iii) Classical Homoeopathy:
Here, patients were given a comprehensive history and
received a single individualized remedy. This accounted for 16 – 18
% of the Homoeopathic studies analyzed.
iv) Isopathy:
Here, patients did not receive a comprehensive Homoeopathic
history and all patients received a diluted substance that was believed
to be the cause of the disorder e.g. Pollen in seasonal allergies. This
accounted for 7-8 % of the Homoeopathy studies analyzed.
But the fact is that, there is no such thing as clinical
Homoeopathy. Homoeopathy is based on the universal law – Like
Cures Like where doses are given in dynamic forms. Example: If we
brought together 50 peoples with Bronchial Asthma and interviewed
them they would not have the same symptoms and signs. Because of
certain factors, which would aggravate symptoms in some but not in
others? Here, a Homoeopath plays his role. He distinguishes between
these various subtypes and finds an individual remedy that matches a
patient.
For every one a same remedy for a certain disease is not
Homoeopathy. The Lancet meta-analysis included studies that may
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 330

have been statistically sound, but should have been excluded because
they lacked a fundamental understanding of laws of Homoeopathy.
The use of complex Homoeopathy and Isopathy as merely educated
guesses because here the patients receive remedies that again are not
individualized but are used for such Homoeopathy will not end by
pseudo analysis.
Randomized control trials are not applicable to Homeopathy
because it cures the disease and not the patient. Instead of nosological
diagnosis Homoeopathy advocates person diagnosis.
Randomizatition of patients, placebo controlled trials and
administrating pre-determined medicines or selecting one or a very
few medicines to different patients randomly, do not it to the tenets of
Homeopathy. Trials should be done under similar circumstances.
Condition. Here there are many chances of selecting a wrong remedy.
This should not be the end of our Homoeopathy; instead our
understanding of this subject will continue to grow.


BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 331

Chapter No. 13

SIGNIFICANT TESTS

A fter any experiment we get some results, but we are not

sure about this result whether the result occurred by
chance or a real difference. That time to find truth we will use some
statistical tests, these tests are termed as, ‘Tests of Significance‟.
Selection of Statistical Tests:
The selection of the appropriate statistical test is depends upon:
1) The scale of measurement e.g. Ratio, Interval.
2) The number of groups e.g. One, Two or More.
3) Sample size e.g. If the sample size is less than 30. Students „t‟ test
is to be used.
4) Measurements e.g. Repeated or Independent measurements.
Selection of Test of Significance:
Scale Two groups Three / More groups

Independent Repeated Independent Repeated

Interval Z test Z test ANOVA test ANOVA

and Ratio t test t test (F test) (F test)
Ordinal Median test Wilcox an Median Friedman
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 332

Mann test Kruscal test test

Whitney
Nominal X2 test Mc Nemar Chi– Square Cochron‟s
test Test test

For application of test sample should be selected randomly.

There are two types of tests:
1) Parametric Tests
2) Non – Parametric Tests
1. Parametric Test:
When quantitative data like Weight, Length, Height, and
Percentage is given it is used. These tests were based on the
assumption that samples were drawn from the normally distributed
populations.
E.g. Students t test, Z test etc.
2. Non – Parametric Test:
When qualitative data like Health, Cure rate, Intelligence,
Color is given it is used. Here observations are classified into a
particular category or groups.
E.g. Chi square (x2) test, Median tests etc.
I) T – Test:
W.S. Gosset investigated this test in 1908. It is called Student
t – Test because the pen name of Dr. Gosset was student, hence this
test is known as student’s t – test. It is also called as „t- ratio’ because
it is a ratio of difference between two means.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 333

Aylmer Fisher (1890-1962) developed students „t‟ test where

samples are drawn from normal population and are randomly
selected.
After comparing the calculated value of „t‟ with the value
given in the „t‟ table considering degree of freedom we can ascertain
its significance.

Rule of Significance:
1) If, the calculated value of „t‟ is higher than the value given at
P = 0.05 (5% level) in the table it is significant.
2) If the calculated value of „t‟ is less than the value given in „t‟
table it is not significant.
Degree of Freedom:
It is the quantity in a series which is one less than the
independent number of observations in a sample is called – Degree of
freedom.
E.g. In unpaired t test df = N – 1 and in paired t test df = N1+ N2 – 2
(Where, N1 and N2 are the number of observations.)

There are two types of t – test:

a) Unpaired t - Test.
b) Paired t - Test.
A] Unpaired t – Test:
Indications for Unpaired t – Test:
i) When, samples drawn from two population
OR
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 334

When, unpaired data of independent observations of two

different groups are given.
Calculation for Significance Tests:
Following steps are taken to test the significance of difference.
Steps:
1) Find the observed difference between means of two
samples. (X1 - X2)
2) Calculate the SE of difference between means or SEn.
That is S ( X1– X2) = 612 + 622
N1 N2

3) Apply formula for t

That is t = X1 - X 2
61 2 + 62 2
N1 N2
4) Find the degree of freedom.
Example: 1) Raulfia Ø is given to each of the 8 patients resulted in the
following changes in the Blood pressure from normal.
-5, 3, 4, -2, 7, 3, 0, 2
Calculate by students „t‟ - test whether changes is significant or not.
Solution:
Calculation of mean:
X = ∑X
N
= 12
8
= 1.5
Calculation of S.D:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 335

X X– X =x x2
-5 - 5 - 1.5 = - 6.5 42.25
3 3 - 1.5 = 1.5 2.25
4 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 6.25
-2 - 2 - 1.5 = - 3.5 12.25
7 7 - 1.5 = 5.5 30.25
3 3 - 1.5 = 1.5 2.25
0 0 - 1.5 = - 1.5 2.25
2 2 - 1.5 = 0.5 0.25
N=8 ∑ x2 = 98

= S. D. = ∑ x2
N-1

= 98 = 14 = 3.74
7
Now, t = X x N
S.D.
= 1.5 x 2.82
3.74
= 1.13
Degree of freedom =N-1
=8-1
=7
Here, calculated value of „t‟ is less than the given value in t
table hence the difference between the two means is significant.
E.g. 2) The weight of an untreated group of six persons are 60kg,
40kg, 45kg, 50kg, 65kg, 70kg. The weight of another group persons
from the same population other treatment with Phytolacca drug was
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 336

obtained as, 45kg, 35kg, 40kg, 45kg, 60kg, 65kg and 45 kg. Apply t
test to find out significance of difference between means of two
groups.

Solution:
Calculation of Mean:
Untreated Weight X1 X1 – X1 = x x 12
Persons
1 60 60 - 55 = 5 25
2 40 40 - 55 = -15 225
3 45 45 - 55 = -10 100
4 50 50 - 55 = -5 25
5 65 65 - 55 = 10 100
6 70 70 - 55 = 15 225
∑X1 = 330 ∑x12 = 700

Mean of first group = X1 = ∑X1

N1
= 330
6
= 55
Treated Weight X2 X2 – X2 = x2 x22
persons
1 45 45 – 47.85 = -2.85 8.12
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 337

2 35 35 – 47.85 = -12.85 165.12

3 40 40 – 47.85 = -7.85 61.62
4 45 45 – 47.85 = -2.85 8.12
5 60 60 – 47.85 = 12.15 147.62
6 65 65 – 47.85 = 17.15 294.12
7 45 45 – 47.85 = -2.85 8.12
N2 = 7 ∑X2 = 335 ∑x22 = 692.84

And Mean of 2nd group = X2 = ∑X2

N1
= 335
7
= 47.85

Now, calculate combined S.D. by applying formula:

Combined S.D. = ∑ (x1- X1) 2 + ∑ (x2 – X2) 2
N1 + N2 - 2
= 700 + 692.84
6+7–2
= 1392.87
11
S.D. = 11.25
Calculation of „t‟ by applying following formula:
t = X1 – X 2
6 N1 + N2
N1 + N2

= 55 – 47.85
11.25 6+7
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 338

6+7

= 7.15
11.25 x 13
13

t = 7.15
11.25 x 1

= 7.15
11.25 x 1

t = 0.635
Here, the calculated value for t. (0.635) is more than that given
in the „t‟ table for degree of freedom N = (N1 + N2 – 2 = 6+7 – 2 =
11).Hence, the difference between two means is not significant.

b] Paired ‘t’ – Test:

Indications for Paired t - Test:
i) When paired data of independent observation from one sample only
given.
Calculation for Significance Test:
Following steps are to be taken to test the significance of
difference.
Steps:
1) Find the difference in each set of paired observations before
and after treatment ( X1 – X2) = x.
2) Calculation of Mean of Difference that is x.
3) Calculate S.D. of difference and S.E. of Mean from the same,
S.D.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 339

N
4) Apply formula for „t‟ that is t = X – 0 = X
5 SEd
N
5) Find the degree of freedom.
Example: 1. Two research centers carry out independent estimates of
calcium carbonate content for water made by a certain firm. A sample
is taken from each place and sent to the two centers separately. They
obtain the following results.
Percentage of Calc. Carbonate content in water.

Place No. 1 2 3 4
Center A 8 5 6 3
Center B 6 6 5 4

Is the testing reliable?

Solution:
Ho; μD = 0.
Here, the testing will be reliable if the mean difference
between the results from the two-research centers does not differ
significantly form zero. So we assume the hypothesis that the
observed differences are the random observations from a population
with mean zero.
Calculation of mean difference and standard error:
Place Center Diff. of
No. results
Center A Center B D=B–A D2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 340

1 8 6 -2 4
2 5 6 1 1
3 6 5 -1 1
4 3 4 1 1
Total 22 21 -1 7

Here, D = - 1 = - 0.25 and μ = 0

4

∑ (D – D )2 = ∑ D2 – (∑ D)2

=7– (-1)2
4
= 7 – (- 2)
4
= 7 – (- 0.5)
= 6.5

S.E of D = ∑(D- D)
N (N -1)

= 6.5
4 (4 -1)

= 6.5
12
= 0.735
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 341

t= D-μ = - 0.25 - 0 = - 0.340

S.E. of D 0.735
D. f. = 4 –1 = 3.
Since the observed value of the t = (- 0.340) is less then the
value of t at 5% level of significance for 3 df. So it is non significant.
Hence the hypothesis will be accepted that is the testing is reliable.
Example 2. The effect of Synz. Jamb. drug on 8 patients showed
concentration of glucose (mg/hr) after 24hrs as follows:

Patients Before After

treatment treatment
(B) (A)
1 2.4 2.2
2 2.8 2.6
3 3.2 3.0
4 6.4 4.2
5 4.3 2.2
6 2.2 2.0
7 6.2 4.8
8 4.2 2.4
Is the testing reliable?
Solution:
Patients Before After Difference
treatment treatment B–A=D D2
(B) (A)
1 2.4 2.2 0.2 0.04
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 342

2 2.8 2.6 0.2 0.04

3 3.2 3.0 0.2 0.04
4 6.4 4.2 2.2 4.84
5 4.3 2.2 2.1 4.41
6 2.2 2.0 0.2 0.04
7 6.2 4.8 1.4 1.96
8 4.2 2.4 1.8 3.24
∑D = 8.3 ∑D2 =
14.61

Here,
∑D = 8.3
N=8
∑D2 = 14.61
D = 8.3 = 1.0375
8

Standard deviation of the different between means.

= ∑D2 – (∑D)2
n
N -1

= 14.61 - (8.3)2
8
7

= 14.61 - 68.89
8
7

S. D. = 14.61 - 8.6112
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 343

= 0.8569
S. D. = 0.9257
Now, standard error of the difference (SED)
. = S D = 0.9257 = 0.9257
N 8 2.8284

S. E. = 0.3272

t = D = 1.0375 = 3.1708
S ED 0.3272

Here, the calculated value for „t‟ exceeds the tabulated „t‟
value at p = 0.05 level with 7df. Therefore the glucose concentration
by the patients after treatment is not significant.

Utility:
It is widely used in the field of Medical science, Agriculture
and Veterinary as follows:
 To compare the results of two drugs which is given to same
individuals in the sample at two different situations? E.g.
Effect of Bryonia and Lycopodium on general symptoms like
sleep, appetite etc.
 It is used to study of drug specificity on a particular organ /
tissue / cell level. E.g. Effect of Belberis Vulg. on renal
system.
 It is used to compare results of two different methods. E.g.
Estimation of Hb% by Sahlis method and Tallquist method.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 344

 To compare observations made at two different sites of the

same body. E.g. compare blood pressure of arm and thigh.
 To study the accuracy of two different instruments like
Thermometer, B.P apparatus etc.
 To accept the Null Hypothesis that is no difference between
the two means.
 To reject the hypothesis that is the difference between the
means of the two samples is statistically significant.
F – Test:
A statistician R.A. Fisher introduces it. That is why it is also
called as Fisher‟s test (F – test) test.
Definition: It is the ratio of two independent chi-square variables
which is derived by dividing each by its corresponding degree of
freedom.
Ψ12
F= V1
Ψ22
V2

Here, two variances are derived from two samples. The values
in each group are to be normally distributed. Therefore the variation
of each value around its group mean that is error is remain
independent of each value provided the variances within each group
should be equal for all groups.
Calculation for F Test:
Tests of hypothesis about the variance of two populations: -
Steps:-
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 345

1) Null hypothesis should be H0 = 6ˆ12 = 6ˆ22 and Alternative

hypothesis H0 = 6ˆ12 = 6ˆ22 (two tailed test)
2) Calculation of F test statistic :-

F = 6ˆ12
6ˆ22 if, 6ˆ12 > 6ˆ22

OR

F = 6ˆ22
6ˆ12 if, 6ˆ22 > 6ˆ12

3. Take the level of significance α = 0.05

If α is not known.

Rules for Significance:

1) If calculated F < tabled Fα2 then accept H0.
2) If, calculated F > tabled Fα2 then reject H0.

Steps for One Tailed Test:

1. Set the Null Hypothesis (H0): 6ˆ12 > 6ˆ22 in such a way that the
rejection appeases in the upper tail by numbering the population
variance.
Format: H0: 6ˆ22 < 6ˆ12
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 346

If, H0 is of the form 6ˆ12 < 6ˆ22 then we calculate F = 6ˆ12 / 6ˆ22
which has F – distribution but with n2 - 1 d.f. in the numerator and
n -1 d.f. in the denominator.
2. Calculation of test statistics:
F statistics = 6ˆ12
6ˆ22
3. Set the level of significance α = 0.05 if value of α is not
known to us.
4. Rules for Significance:
If calculated F α table F2 α then accept the null hypothesis H0
and reject H0 if calculated F > table Fα.
Example:
1) Random samples are drawn from the two sets of students and
the following results were obtained.

Sample A: 10, 12, 18, 14, 16, 20.

Sample B: 14, 16, 20, 18, 21, 22.
Find the variance of two populations and test whether the two
samples have same variance.
Solution: Null hypothesis H0 = 6ˆA2 = 6ˆB2 that is the two samples
have the same variance.
Alternative hypothesis H0: 6ˆA2 ≠ 6ˆB2 (Two tailed test)
Calculation of test statistic:
We have the following table to evaluation 6ˆA2 and 6ˆB2
A–A (A – A)2 B–B (B – B)2
A (A – 15) (A – 15)2 B (B – (B –
18.5) 18.5)2
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 347

10 -5 25 14 - 4.5 20.25
12 -3 9 16 - 2.5 6.25
18 3 9 20 1.5 2.25
14 -1 1 18 - 0.5 0.25
16 1 1 21 2.5 6.25
20 5 25 22 3.5 12.25
∑A= ∑ (A – ∑B= ∑ (B – B)2
90 A)2 = 70 111 = 47.5

We know, A = 90 = 15.
6
B = 111 = 18.5 (we know x = ∑ x)
6 n
6ˆ12 = ∑ (A – A)2 = 70 = 14
n1 – 1 5
6ˆ22 = ∑ (B – B)2 = 47.5 = 9.5
n2 – 1 5
Test statistics: F = 6ˆ22 = 9.5 = 0.6785
6ˆ12 14
Conclusion:
The calculation value of F = 0.6785,
< Table value F 0.05 the null hypothesis H0 is accepted.
The two samples have the same variance.

Testing the Homogeneity of Variance between Groups:

We have following formula,

F = Largest Variance
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 348

Smallest Variance

Where the ratio is directly proportional to its significance. E.g.

Standard Deviation was in three groups of students for their marks in
statistics conclude the variance between groups significantly differing
from each other.

Sr. No. Group (1) Group (2) Group (3)

1 Sample size N = 10 N = 13 N = 15
2 Standard deviation 0.2757 1.213 0.5512
3 Variance (SD)2 0.076 1.47 0.303

Here, the largest variance is group (2) and smallest variance is

group (1).
Variance Ratio (F) = Largest variance
Smallest variance

= 1.47
0.076

df = 13 – 1 = 12

And = 10 – 1 = 9

Find out at df 12, 9 table F value, If the calculated F is greater

than tabulated value it indicates that variance are not homogenous and
vice versa.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 349

II] Non Parametric Tests :

1. Chi–Square Test (x2):
It is one of the non – parametric tests where qualitative data is
considered. It is used to test the significance of overall deviation
between the Observed and Expected frequencies. Chi-square is
derived from the Greek letter – Chi-x.
Prof. A.R. Fisher developed this test in 1870. It was Karl
Pearson who improved Fisher‟s Chi-square test in its latest form in
1900.
It is the test of significance of overall deviation square in the
observed and expected frequencies divided by expected frequencies.

x2 = ∑ (0 – E)2
E
OR

x2 = ∑ (fo – fe)2
fe

Where, O or fo = Observed frequency.

E or fe = Expected frequency.
N = Total number of observations.

Rules for Significance:

BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 350

1) If the tabular value is lower than the calculated value then the
results are significant.
2) If fo = fe then the value of x2 will be zero (but due to chance
error this never happens).
Example:
1) There are two factors showing dominance X and Y. Suppose in A
the progeny were in the ratio of XY = 436, Xy = 122, xY = 120 and
xy = 64 out of 646 individuals.
Test the hypothesis that an „A‟ gives 6: 2: 2: 1 isolation.
Solution
Steps:
1) XY = observed = 436.
Expected = 646 x 6 = 352.36
11
O – E = 436 – 352.36 = 83.64

(O – E) 2 = (83.64) 2 = 6995.6496

(O – E) 2 = 6995. 6496 = 19.85

E 352.36

2) Xy = observed = 122,
Expected = 646 x 2 = 117.45
11

O – E = 122 – 117.45 = 4.55

(O – E) 2 = 20.7025

(O – E) 2 = 20.7025 = 0.1762
E 117.45
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 351

3) xY = observed = 120.

Expected = 646 x 2 = 117.45

11

O – E = 120 – 117.45 = 2.55

(O – E) 2 = 6.5025

(O – E) 2 = 6.5025 = 0.05536
E 117.45

4) xy = observed = 64.

Expected = 646 x 1 = 58.7272

11

O – E = 64 – 58.7272 = 5.2728

(O – E) = 5.2728

(O – E) 2 = 27.8024 = 0.4734
E 58.7272

Now, using the formula,

X2 = ∑ (0 – E) 2
E
= 19.85 + 0.1762 + 0.05536 + 0.4734

= 20.554
In all such cases degree of freedom (df) will be n = k – 1
(where k is the number of classes).
Thus we have in this case degree of freedom „n‟ = 4 – 1 = 3
Now, table value of x2 is 7.815 t 0.05 for 3 degree of freedom, which
is much less than the obtained value that is 20.554
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 352

So we reject the hypothesis of 6 : 2 : 2 : 1 in this case.

Utility:
 It is used for comparisons with expectations of the Normal,
Binomial and Poisson distributions and Comparison of a
sample variance with population variance.
 It is used for testing the Homogeneity, Correlation and
Proportion and Independence of sample variances, Attributes
and Expectation of ratio.
 It is useful in the field of Genetics for detection of linkage.

2. Median Test:
It is used to observe if two groups come from population
having same median. Here, by using this test we will test the
hypothesis of no difference between these two groups.
3. Mann – Whitney (U – Test):
i) For Small Samples:
This test is used for un-correlated data. Here, samples should
be randomly selected and independently drawn. One of the two
samples must have more than nine values.
ii) For Large Samples:
It is a substitute for F test where either N1 or N2 is larger than
20. (Where, N = number of samples)
4. Kruscal Wallis H – Test:
This test is used whether or not a group of independent
samples are from the same or different population. If the number of
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 353

cases in the sample is from one to five. Specific tables are used in
interpretation of H (Kruscal Wallis table) and if samples contain five
or more cases H is interpreted as Chi-square test.
5. Sign Test:
This test is especially used for correlated data where the scores
are in pairs. Here, it is assumed that the variable is distributed
continuously.
6. Wilcoxan Test:
In this type of test we are having matched pairs and we are
giving ranks to the differences of pairs.
ANOVA Test (Analysis of Variance):
There are four types of ANOVA tests:
i) One way ANOVA.
ii) Two way ANOVA.
iii) Single factor repeated measures design
iv) Nested design
ANOVA test is applied for comparison of Means of several
groups.
Before application of ANOVA test following assumptions
should be considered.
1) Random sampling should be used for selection of variables.
2) Collected samples should be independent.
3) Variables should follow normal distribution.
4) Using variance ratio test for their homogeneity should test
variables.
5) Degree of skew ness may not affect the significance test.
1] One way ANOVA Test:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 354

In this type of test the presented data should be classified

according to one variable only. It is an extension of Student t test.
Steps in Calculation :
i) Calculation of total sum of squares (that is all values) = (SS all)
SS all = ∑ X2 – (∑ X) 2
N
ii) Calculation of ‘between’ sum of squares (that is between
groups)
∑x2b = ∑ (X – X all)2 n

Calculation of ‘between’ sum of squares:

Steps:
a) Calculate mean of each group (X).
b) Calculate mean of means X all.
c) Calculate deviation of means form means of means ( X –X all).
d) Square above deviation (X – X all) 2.
e) Multiply it by number of individuals in that group...
f) Add all these values together.
Thus we get following formula,

∑ X2 b = (∑X1) 2 + (∑X2) 2 + (∑X3) 2 - (∑X all) 2

n1 n2 n3 N
Where, n = group total
N = grand total

OR
∑x b2 = ∑ (∑X) 2 - (∑X all)2
n N
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 355

iii) Calculation of ‘within’ sum of squares (ssw) that is within

group.
∑x2 = ∑ X2 – (∑ X) 2
n
SSw = SS all - SS between

iv) Calculation of Mean Sum of Squares:

Mean sum of squares = SS all SS between SS within

Df Df Df

v) Calculation of F:

F = Mean sum of squares between groups

Mean sum of squares within groups

vi) Calculation of df:

- df for total groups = Total number of cases minus 1.

- df for between groups = Number of groups minus 1.

- df for within groups = Number of cases in each group

And adding them that is (first group – 1)

+ (2nd group – 1)

2] Two – Way ANOVA Test:

In this type of test, the presented data should be classified
according to two variables.
Steps in calculation:
1) Derive total sum of squares, that is SS all
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 356

= ∑ X2 – (∑X)2
N
2) Derive sum of squares of Rows, that is SS rows
= x12 + x22 + x32 - - - xn2 – (∑X) 2
xn N

3) Derive sum of squares of columns that is SS columns

= x12 + x22 + x32 - - - xn2 – (∑X) 2

Xn N
4) Calculate Error sum of squares that is SSe:
= SS all – (SS rows + SS columns)
5) Calculation of F.
6) Calculation of reliability of rating

Chapter No. 14

DEMOGRAPHY

D emography deals with Fertility, Mortality, Marriage,

Migration and Social Mobility, which are intermingled
with each other. Therefore it has great importance in community
medicine.
It is the scientific study of human population. It is of two types,
1) Static Demography.
2) Dynamic Demography.
1. Static Demography:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 357

It is the study of structure of communication and their

surrounding environment in a given population e.g. Population size,
Population distribution etc.
2. Dynamic Demography:
It is the study of working nature or functions of
communication e.g. Mortality, Migration etc.
It includes:
1) Changes in population size.
2) Composition of the population.
3) Distribution of the population.
Some Statisticians believe that there is a demographic
cycle of 5 stages (Inclining declining population size) through
which every country passes.

Collection of data for Demography:

It should be collected from following sources,
1. Population census
2. Records
3. Reports
4. Publications
5. Miscellaneous
1. Population Census:
It is the process of collecting, analyzing and presenting data at a
specific time to all the persons in a country is known as population
Census.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 358

Here, data may be demographic, social or economic forms.

Therefore health information can be obtained accurately. Previously
census was carried out to count peoples for various needs.
In India, the first census was carried out in 1872. And since
then it is being done at every 10yrs. Here an investigator visited every
house and collect information on the specified dates in the first
quarter of the first year of each decade.
It is conducted under the Indian Census act 1948. Govt.
appointed a commissioner for census.
Duties of a Census Commissioner:
 Educating peoples regarding census method.
 Preparation of a census schedule and time table.
 Training of enumerators.
 Pilot study.
 Presentation.

Utility of population census in health system:

 It is used for the calculation of health indices like, death rates,
birth rates, morbidity rates etc.
 It helps in the process of managing health services and
national control programs.
 At every 10 years from census we can ascertain population
growth rate.
 From population growth rate we can provide social welfare
services e.g. Primary health center, primary school etc.
2. Records:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 359

Another important source of demography data are records of

vital statistics, health departments and health institutions.
I) Records of Vital Statistics:
Civil registration system provides data for vital statistics every
country or its states have own system.
Historically this idea came form John Graunt (1620) and
William Farr (1839), Great Britain. Bengal was the first state in India
who introduced this concept and passed birth and death registration
act, in 1873. Then it spreads throughout country. From 1970, the
registration is made compulsory within 14 days of birth and seven
days of death. In, 1964 sample registration system introduced to
provide birth and death rates at rural or urban, state and national
levels and also measures of mortality and fertility. In 1982 model
registration scheme introduced which provides causes of rural deaths.
ii) Records of Health Institutions :
The records include IPD and OPD records of hospitals
and general dispensaries with diagnosis and results. Monthly or
weekly records are sent to the state or district officer of health
services. This data is useful to recognize certain disease, which are
epidemic in certain areas. It helps in prevention and therapeutic
measures.
iii) Records of Health Departments :
Patients suffering from communicable disease like, Smallpox,
Plague, Cholera should be registered by rural health worker or
medical officer. The reports are sent to health officer. But in rural
areas provided data is usually unreliable and incomplete, therefore it
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 360

should be corrected and examined at state level from which the

reports are sent to the W.H.O.

3. Reports :
It includes epidemiological surveys about disease incidence,
prevalence, before and after treatment, morbidity etc. which provides
valuable data about health status in given area. Nutritional surveys
give data regarding dietary status in a community. An epidemiologist
should conduct a survey.

4. Publications :
Periodic publications are helpful in the study of health
statistics like publications of General Registers World Health
Organization, State or National Health Directors etc. Their reports are
published weekly, monthly or annually as per requirement and
demand.

5. Miscellaneous :
It includes other health agencies like Insurance companies,
Industrial companies where morbidity and mortality data was
recorded which provides valuable information regarding death and its
cause.

Presentation of Data :
All the collected data should be arranged logically, tabulated
and presented systematically at District / State / National /
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 361

International levels. Here we can use suitable computer software s for

Collection, Storage, Analysis, Accuracy and Presentation of data.



Chapter No. 15

OPERATIONS RESEARCH (OR)

I t is said that, the beginning of operations research was from

military services.(world war II) During this period there
was an urgent need of resources to the various military operations and
activities.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 362

Therefore the British and USA military forces appointed

scientists to apply a scientific approach and for solving technical
problems and thus they started research on military operations. This
group of scientists was the first team of „Operation Research‟.
They developed new techniques and methods like Radar and
thus played a role in wining the battles.
After 1950, these scientists and some businessman had
introduced the use of operation research to a variety of fields like
Business, Industry, Government and Medical field etc. But the
problem of complexity and specialization in organization was still
there. The introduction of computers in operation research solves this
problem. A large amount of calculations is required for operation
research and doing this manually is most difficult and time consuming
task. But the development of electronic digital computers performs
many calculations within a second.
After the war, many scientists who had participated on
operation research group were motivated for further research and
development.
Example: Simplex method for solving linear programming problems
developed by Dantzig in 1947, Dynamic Programming Queuening
Theory, Inventory Memory etc.

Operation Research:
As name suggests it involves – research on Operation /
Activities, which is applied to problems concerned with organization.
It is widely used in various fields like, Transportation, Manufacturing,
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 363

Construction, Telecommunication, Medical, Military and Public

Services. Some times it is also called as Management Science.

Phases of an Operations Research:

 Defining the problem.
 Collection of data.
 Observation and interpretation of data.
 Construction of a scientific model (Typically mathematical).
 Hypothesis.
 Testing the hypothesis.
 Model validation (that is modification or verification of
hypothesis).
 Conclusion and implementation operation research requires a
team of skilled persons than a single individual, for
conducting a research program.

Operations Research Techniques:

Following are the some techniques of operation research:
1. Linear Programming
2. Dynamic Programming
3. Integer Programming
4. Nonlinear Programming
5. Goal Programming
6. Network Programming
OR should be studied as both science and art. It is a
science because it contains many mathematical techniques and it
is an art because the success and achievement of all the phases
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 364

that precede and succeed the solution of the mathematical model

depends on the ability or creativity and experience of the
operation research team.
Sir Willemain says that, “Effective OR practice
requires more than analytical competence. It also requires, among
other attributes, technical judgment.”(e.g. when and how to use a
given technique)



Chapter No. 16

MEDICAL ETHICS

M edical ethics are the special rules and regulations from

the point of view of Morality, which a medical man
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 365

should obey. Its violation is not an offence legally but is disgraceful

and shameful from the point of view of profession.
The word „ethics‟ is derived from the Greek word- ethos’s,
which means custom or practice, a characteristic manner of acting, a
more or less constant mode of behavior in the deliberate actions of
men.
In other words, it is a science which studies the morality of
human acts through the medium of natural reason. It teaches us how
to judge accurately the moral goodness or badness of any human
action.
The ethics is basically divided into following types:
i) General Ethics
ii) Special Ethics
i) General Ethics:
General ethics establish the basic principles of the moral
science. E.g. General Chemistry, General Physics, General Biology
which present fundamental principles upon which all other sciences
are based.

ii) Special Ethics:

It is an application of general ethical principles to the solution
of the moral problems of particular profession. E.g. Medical ethics,
Ethics of community etc.
Here, we have to study Medical ethics only. It is concerned
with the application of general principles to the moral problems of the
medical profession.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 366

The State Medical Council prescribes a code of ethics for

regulating the professional conduct. The „Medical Ethics‟ is the
subject concerned with normal principles for the members of the
medical profession in their dealings with each other, their patients and
the state. The aim is to honor and maintain the noble traditions of the
medical profession. E.g. A medical practioner should not take charge
of a patient who is under the treatment of another practioner. He
should not refuse to give professional service on religious grounds. A
medical practioners must remember his duty.

Historical Background:
The older code of medical ethics is the „Hippocratic Oath‟. It
is now restated in modern style and known as the „Declaration of
Geneva‟. The Medical Council of India as the code of ethics follows
it. Accordingly every applicant, at the time of registration shall submit
the written and signed declaration to the concerned Register.

International Code of Medical Ethics:

It contains:

 Duties of doctors in general.

 Duties of doctors to the sick.
 Duties of doctors to each other.

Declaration of Helsinki:
It is the worlds most widely recognized source of ethical
guidance on Bio-medical research on humans.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 367

The ICMR code consists of:

i) Statement of general principles on research using human subjects in
Bio-medical research.
ii) Statement of specific principles on research using Human subjects
in specific areas of biomedical research.

Bio-medical Ethics in India:

The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) released a
„Policy Statement on ethical considerations involved in research on
human subjects‟ in 1980.

Bio medical Ethics in Homoeopathy:

Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of Homoeopathy also
laid down ethics regarding practice of Homoeopathy before 200 yrs.
back. The concerned aphorisms in his Organ on of Medicine are:
§ 1. Mission of physician.
§ 2. Explains Quick, Gentle, and permanent relief / Cure from disease.
§ 6. Explains unprejudiced observation and practice of medicine.
Organon also teaches us holistic approach to healing.
After, Hahnemann, „Homoeopathic Medicine Research Group
by European Commission in 1994 regulated and codify
Homoeopathic practice.
Central Government of India has made the
Homoeopathic (professional conduct, etiquette and code of ethics)
regulations in 1982 to monitor the practice of Homoeopathy.
It consists of:
 Declaration and Oath.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 368

 General principles.
 Duties of Homoeopathic practioners to their patients.
 Duties of practioners to in profession.
 Duties of practioners to in consultation.
 Duties of practioners to the public.
 Professional misconduct.
A survey of the texts of the various oaths as applicable to
medical practioners, can serve as an introduction to medical ethics.
Each country has its own code of ethics, usually modeled on
the lines of the international code. However, Charak, 4700 yrs. ago
mentioned an oath.
As Homoeopathic drugs are proved on human beings on both
the sexes and at various ages. There fore here only ethics concerned
with humans are considered.

Ethical Guidelines for Bio- Medical Research involving

Human subjects:
The first international guidelines on the ethics of medical
research – The Nuremberg code was resolved in 1947. These codes
protect research subject, conduct of research in humans and their
consent. In 1948, the universal declaration of human right was
adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations.
All research on humans should be conducted, considering 3
basic principles as follows:
1) Respect for persons.
2) Beneficence that is kindness.
3) Justice that is impartially.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 369

Research Involving Humans Includes:

1) Studies of a Physiological, Pathological and Biochemical
processes or a specific intervention in healthy individuals.
2) Randomized controlled trials for Preventive, Therapeutic or
for Diagnostic purpose considering individuality.
3) Study of Psychological symptoms at various circumstances
and situations.
Only a qualified investigator should carry out research in humans, as
per given protocols.

Protocol:
It contains:
i) Aims and objectives of research.
ii) Reasons for conducting the research on humans.
iii) Any risks / hazards in research process should be mentioned.
iv) Consent.
Any new drug or vaccine must be tested on human subjects in clinical
trials only.
Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences
explains certain rules for conducting any research in humans. These
are concerned with following points:
- Ethical justification and scientific validity of biomedical research
Involving human subjects.
- Ethical review comities.
- Ethical review of externally sponsored research.
- Individual informed consent.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 370

- Essential information for prospective research.

- Obligations of sponsors and investigators inducement to participate.
- Benefits and risks of study participation.
- Special limitations on risk when research involves individuals who
Are not capable of giving informed consent.
- Research in population and communities with limited resources.
- Choice of control in clinical trials.
- Selection of groups in research.
- Research involving vulnerable persons.
- Research involving children.
- Research involving individuals who have psychological problems
And are not capable of giving consent.
- Women as research participants.
- Pregnant women as research participant.
- Safe regarding confidentiality.
- Right of injured subjects to treatments.
- Strengthen capacity for ethical and scientific review and
Biomedical research.
- Ethical obligation of external sponsors to provide health care
Services.
- International assistance in research.
- Researchers relations with the Media and Publication practice.
- Statement of specific principles for clinical evaluation of drugs or
Vaccines.
- Clinical trials with surgical procedures.
- Rules and regulations for diagnostic agents, radioactive material, X-
rays etc.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 371

- Clinical evaluation of Herbal and Medicinal plants.

Ethical Aspect of AIDS:

The British Medical Council has passed a resolution in 1991
that no physician shall undertake compulsory testing of blood unless
the patients have given the consent.
United States of America after privacy to physicians, HIV
infected patients and strict confidentiality has to be maintained with
respect to all information regarding HIV patients and his family
members.
In India, a bill was passed in Parliament – AIDS prevention
Bill in 1989.

Statements:
 Every physician should report each case of HIV
infected patient to Government.
- He should treat the patient as far as possible.
- He should educate the patients regarding its spread.
- Isolate the patients (if necessary).
Criticisms:
AIDS is not a contagious disease because it is not transmitted
through water, air or through vectors. But AIDS is a communicable
disease that is it spreads from one person to others by sexual contact
or blood. Therefore it is not epidemic disease. Thus isolating these
patients are not logical for prevention or spread of disease.
W.H.O. and U.S.A. committee statement includes following
features:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 372

i) No compulsory testing that is right to refuse to undergo HIV test.

ii) Protecting through confidentiality that is confidentiality about HIV
Status of the person who has undergone the test.
iii) Ensuring non-discrimination against them that is right against
Discrimination in employment.
Those who are concerned with treatment of AIDS patients
such as Doctors and other Hospital Staff should have the facility for
free testing of blood at certain intervals with free insurance.
Therefore a comprehensive programme is necessary such as
Education, Research and Therapeutic measures for high-risk countries
like India preventive measures should be followed strictly.
Protecting confidential information serves two interests as follows:
i) The interests of person are protected.
ii) The public interests that is not disclosing such information. If it is
disclosed patient will suffer from Psychological problems such as
Fear, Insomnia, and Anorexia etc. So protection of confidentiality
information is necessary.


Chapter No. 17

THESIS (DISSERTATION)

T hesis / Dissertation is a Scholarly Presenting the result of

an individuals own work.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 373

According to Oxford dictionary, „Dissertation is a spoken or

written discourse upon or treatment of a subject in which it is
discussed at length‟ and „Thesis is a proposition laid down or stated
explicitly as theme to be discussed and proved or to be maintained
against attack‟.
So, here we find little difference between dissertation and
thesis. For e.g. For M.Phill, Ph.D. courses the word –Thesis is used
and for Medical Post-Graduate course like M.D. the word –
Dissertation preferred.

Presentation of Thesis:
Thesis writing is compulsory for the completion of M.D.
Course. (As per Curriculum for M.D. (Hom.) Post Graduate Degree
Course Regulations 1989.) Therefore before proceeding to write a
thesis one should pay attention towards following things.
1. Thesis must be typed on computer than typewriter.
2. The paper size should be A4 or letter size having 50 mm thickness
for black and white pages and 70 mm should be used for color
pages.
3. The pages should be numbered. (Except title page)
4. Ideally the volume of thesis should be single one.
5. The binding of thesis should be simplest but attractive one.
6. Students should submit seven copies of their thesis. Four for
university, one for guide or examiner, one for central council of
Homoeopathy and one for self.
7. It should contain minimum errors and mistakes.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 374

8. As far as possible thesis should be written in our own and simple

language.

Structure of an Ideal Thesis:

1. Introductory Part:
i) Title page.
ii) Acknowledgement.
iii) Declaration and Certificates.
iv) Bio-data
v) An Index of Contents (Tables, Illustrations and Abbreviations).
vi) Preface.

2. Text Part:
i) Introduction.
ii) Aims and Objectives.
iii) Review of literature.
iv) Materials and Methods.
v) Discussion and Results.
vi) Summary and Conclusion.
vii) Cases (usually 30 cases)

3. Appendix Part:
i) Reference (Arranged alphabetically).
ii) Supplements (if necessary).

For the sake of students the whole thesis is divided into 3 main
Parts:
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 375

 Introductory.
 Text part.
 Appendix part.
Introductory:
It is the first part of our research work. It consists following
components.
i) Title Page:
Here, we have to mention the Problem, Type of Study and
Purpose of the whole project. This consist of Name of an investigator
his Guide / Co- guide and name of his Institution and University.
ii) Acknowledgement:
Research is a teamwork and therefore many peoples helped us
like Statistician, Computer operator, Guide, Friends and Teachers etc.
Therefore we should acknowledge our thanks and express sincere
gratitude‟s for their immerse support and valuable guidance to all
those who have contributed for this study.
iii) Declaration and Certificates:
In the Declaration part student must mention that the research
has been done by him only and is not submitted to any other
University or published previously.
The certificates are signed by the Guide and or Co-Guide,
Head of Institution or Department and Dean faculty of Homoeopathy
in concerned university.
iv) Bio –Data:
It consist of researchers Full name, Year of admission, P.G.
Course (Regular/External), Appearing month / year, M.D first
examination year, Specialty subject, Correspondence address, Clinic
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 376

address with phone, Residence address, E-mail address, Teaching /

Professional / or Practice Experience (of a student) any book
published, Any Specialty in Homoeopathic subject and any specialty
of Practice or Profession should be mentioned by the researcher.
v) An index of Contents:
Here we must mention the List of Tables, main heading and
sub-heading or major topics, Illustrations and Abbreviations with
number of pages if used any.
vi) Preface :
Here, majority of students are confused with introduction that
is information regarding thesis subject. For e.g. If, a student is worked
on a Diabetes Mellitus subject. Where unfortunately he describes
Diabetes mellitus, its types, classification, clinical sings and
symptoms and so on which are ideally not required here.
Here the researcher should mention the previous studies and
their results on his subject. Inclusive and exclusive criteria‟s must be
clearly mentioned. Student should also mention Purpose of study,
Scope, and Limitations and Solutions and Steps taken for research, its
Methods and Methodology and „Theme‟ of his research. Here the
student should explain why he selects this study only.
Text Part:
It is the 2nd part of our thesis. It consists of following
components. It is further subdivided in to 2 parts as follows:
i) Introduction:
It consists of the Purpose, Methods, Scope and Limitations of
our study with Examples in detail. We can describe the proper part of
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 377

subject here. Here we can make different sections for presenting

different essays.
ii) Aims and Objectives:
In this part we should mention our Aims, Goals and
Objectives for research, which is already mentioned in our Synopsis.
Here we can also mention the relevance of our study to Health
department, Community and to Nation. Ideally one or two aims and
objectives should be mentioned.
iii) Review of Literature:
First of all we should mention the sources of collected
literatures and the names of authors. The review of literature should
be done chronologically order that is from past literature to present
literature – prospective study which connects our work from past to
present.
iv) Materials and Methods:
Materials are the substances, instruments or peoples, which
are used for research while methods, are the techniques that are used
for conduction of our research. Here student should mention specific
parameters that are used for any investigations medicines used (E.g.
Dilutions, Biochemic, 50 – Millisimal or Mother Tinctures) with
appropriate potency, and the statistical tests applied for analysis. The
materials and methods will depend upon types of our study. For
Experimental Study, only a small group of peoples selected (Random
sampling method) which represents the whole population and size of
sample should be fixed before study. The collected data should be
logically analyzed and presented as per standard format. The data
should be presented in the forms of Tabulations, bar diagrams, Pie
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 378

diagrams, Scatter diagrams, Maps, Pictograms etc. We can draw any

sketch which reflects our interpretation.
v) Discussion and Results:
Here, we have to state our Results or Findings after our
experiments and research process logically and systematically. The
results are expressed in the terms of Simple Tabulation and Graphs
where we can take the help of a Statistician. In other words it is
nothing but an extension of our review of literature. We should
mention our opinion regarding old literatures that is whether we are
agree or disagree with available literature with logical reasons. Then
we have to make a discussion over this result. Here, we should
mention its relevancy to community.
vi) Summary and Conclusion:
Summary writing should not be confused with abstract writing
(of synopsis) – which is done before research work. After discussion
and interpretation we have to draw certain conclusions and must be
expressed it in summarized form. Summary contains Restatement of
problem, Nature of work, Methods and Methodology and result in
brief. Any suggestions and additions required for further study should
be mentioned at the end of the summary.

vii) Cases:
Case studies are the essential part of an experimental study.
Student should present at least 30 cases with investigations (before
and after the treatment) and Follow ups in detail. Many Descriptive
types of researches need not require cases. At the end, all cases should
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 379

be tabulated in one table with their respective results. (E.g. Improved,

Dropped out, Cured etc.)

Appendix Part:
This is the last part of our thesis. This part is further
subdivided as follows:
I) References:
The References or Bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically. For e.g. first of all you should mention the name of the
author and then title of book, its edition, place and year of publication
volume numbers, Publishers name or company and pages
successively. As far as possible, we should mention large number of
references, which will reflect our depth of knowledge and hard work
taken for it.
ii) Supplements:
This part is not a compulsory part of any thesis. If a student
may feel that something should be added which is not given in
previous part he has an opportunity to present his additions in this
part. For e.g. List of latest equipments or instruments used of research
process. We can make this appendix part more attractive by using
different graphs, maps or diagrams with their significance in research.


LOGARITHMS
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 380

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 5 9 13 17 21 26 30 34 38
0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 4 8 12 16 20 23 27 31 35
0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 33
12 3 7 11
0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 3 7 10 14 18 21 25 28 32
0969 1004 1038 1072 1106 14 17 20 24 27 31

13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29

1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 29
14 1461 1492 1423 1553 1584 6 6 9 12 15 19 22 25 28
1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 3 6 9 12 14 17 20 23 26
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 3 6 9 11 14 17 20 23 26
1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 22 25
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 3 6 8 11 14 16 19 22 24
2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2404 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
2430 2455 2480 2504 2529 3 5 8 10 12 15 17 20 22
18 2553 2557 2601 2625 2648 2 5 7 9 12 14 17 19 21
2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2 4 7 9 11 14 16 18 21
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2 4 9 7 11 13 16 18 20
2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3569 3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
23 3616 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
24 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
25 3979 3979 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4897 5011 5024 5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
32 5051 5065 5092 5098 5105 5019 5132 5145 5159 5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5541 5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
42 6232 6243 6253 6264 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6955 6964 6972 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 381

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
61 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
64 8062 8079 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8816 8122 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
88 9445 9445 9450 9455 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9803 9808 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

ANTILOGARITHMS

v 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Δm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
+ ADD
.00 1000 1002 1005 1007 1009 1012 1014 1016 1019 1021 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
.01 1023 1026 1028 1030 1033 1035 1038 1040 1042 1045 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
.02 1047 1050 1052 1054 1057 1059 1062 1064 1067 1069 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
.03 1072 1074 1076 1079 1081 1084 1086 1089 1091 1094 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
.04 1096 1099 1102 1104 1107 1109 1112 1114 1117 1119 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.05 1122 1125 1127 1130 1132 1135 1138 1140 1143 1146 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 382

.06 1148 1151 1153 1156 1159 1161 1164 1167 1169 1172 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.07 1175 1178 1180 1183 1186 1189 1191 1194 1197 1199 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.08 1202 1205 1208 1211 1213 1216 1219 1222 1225 1227 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.09 1230 1233 1236 1239 1242 1245 1247 1250 1253 1256 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.10 1259 1262 1265 1268 1271 1274 1276 1279 1282 1285 3 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.11 1288 1291 1294 1297 1300 1303 1306 1309 1312 1315 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.12 1318 1321 1324 1327 1330 1334 1337 1340 1343 1346 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.13 1349 1352 1355 1358 1361 1365 1368 1371 1374 1377 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.14 1380 1384 1387 1390 1393 1396 1400 1403 1406 1409 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.15 1413 1416 1419 1422 1426 1429 1432 1435 1439 1442 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.16 1445 1449 1452 1455 1459 1462 1466 1469 1472 1467 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.17 1479 1483 1486 1489 1493 1496 1500 1503 1507 1510 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.18 1514 1517 1521 1524 1528 1531 1535 1538 1542 1545 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.19 1549 1552 1556 1560 1563 1567 1570 1574 1578 1581 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.20 1585 1589 1592 1596 1600 1603 1607 1611 1614 1618 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.21 1622 1626 1629 1633 1637 1641 1644 1649 1652 1656 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.22 1660 1663 1667 1671 1675 1679 1683 1687 1690 1694 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.23 1698 1702 1706 1710 1714 1718 1722 1727 1730 1734 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.24 1738 1742 1746 1750 1754 1758 1762 1766 1770 1774 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.25 1778 1782 1786 1791 1795 1799 1803 1807 1811 1816 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.26 1820 1824 1828 1832 1837 1841 1845 1849 1854 1858 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.27 1862 1866 1871 1875 1879 1884 1888 1892 1897 1901 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.28 1905 1910 1914 1919 1923 1928 1932 1936 1941 1945 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.29 1950 1954 1959 1963 1968 1972 1977 1982 1986 1991 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.30 1995 2000 2004 2009 2014 2018 2023 2028 2032 2037 5 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.31 2042 2046 2051 2056 2061 2065 2070 2075 2080 2084 5 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.32 2089 2094 2099 2104 2109 2113 2118 2123 2128 2133 5 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.33 2138 2143 2148 2153 2158 2163 2168 2173 2178 2183 5 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 383

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Δm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
+ ADD
.34 2188 2193 2198 2203 2208 2213 2218 2223 2228 2234 5 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.35 2239 2244 2249 2254 2259 2265 2270 2275 2280 2286 5 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.36 2291 2296 2301 2307 2312 2317 2323 2328 2333 2339 5 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.37 2344 2350 2355 2360 2366 2371 2377 2382 2388 2393 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.38 2399 2404 2410 2415 2421 2427 2432 2438 2443 2449 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.39 2455 2460 2466 2472 2477 2483 2489 2495 2500 2506 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.40 2512 2518 2523 2529 2535 2541 2547 2553 2559 2564 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.41 2570 2576 2582 2588 2594 2600 2606 2612 2618 2624 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.42 2630 2636 2642 2649 2655 2661 2667 2673 2679 2685 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.43 2692 2698 2704 2710 2716 2723 2729 2735 2742 2748 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.44 2754 2761 2767 2773 2780 2786 2793 2799 2805 2812 6 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.45 2818 2825 2831 2838 2844 2851 2858 2864 2871 2877 7 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
.46 2884 2891 2897 2904 2911 2917 2924 2931 2938 2944 7 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
.47 2951 2958 2965 2972 2979 2985 2992 2999 3006 3013 7 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
.48 3020 3027 3034 3041 3048 3055 3062 3069 3076 3083 7 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
.49 3090 3097 3105 3112 3119 3126 3133 3141 3148 3155 7 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
.50 3162 3170 3177 3184 3192 3199 3206 3214 3221 3228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
.51 3236 3243 3251 3258 3266 3273 3281 3289 3296 3304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.52 3211 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3365 3372 3381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.53 3388 3396 3404 3412 3420 3428 3436 3443 3451 3459 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.54 3467 3475 3483 3491 3499 3508 3536 3524 3532 3540 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.55 3548 3556 3565 3573 3581 3589 3597 3606 3614 3622 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.56 3631 3639 3648 3656 3664 3673 3681 3690 3608 3707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.57 3715 3724 3733 3741 3750 3758 3707 3776 3784 3793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.58 3802 3311 3819 3828 3837 3846 3855 3864 3873 3882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
.59 3890 3899 3908 3917 3926 3936 3945 3854 3963 3972 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
.60 3981 3990 3999 4009 4018 4027 4036 4046 4055 4064 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
.61 4074 4083 4093 4102 4111 4121 4130 4140 4150 5159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.62 4169 4178 4188 4198 4207 4217 4227 4236 4246 4256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.63 4266 4276 4285 4295 4305 4315 4325 4335 4345 4355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.64 4365 4375 4385 4395 4406 4410 4426 4436 4446 4457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.65 4467 4477 4487 4498 4508 4519 4529 4539 4550 4660 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.66 4571 4581 4592 4603 4613 4724 4634 4645 4656 4667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
.67 4677 4688 4699 4710 4721 4732 4742 4753 4764 4775 1 2 3 4 5 7 7 9 10
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 384

V 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Δm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
+ ADD
.68 4786 4797 4808 4819 4831 4840 4853 4864 4875 4887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
.69 4898 4909 4920 4932 4943 4955 4966 4977 4989 5000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
.70 5012 5023 5035 5047 5058 5070 5082 5093 5105 5117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
.71 5129 5140 5152 5164 5176 5188 5200 5212 5224 5236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
.72 5248 5260 5272 5284 5297 5309 5321 5333 5346 5358 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
.73 5370 5383 5395 5408 5420 5433 5445 5458 5470 5483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
.74 5495 5508 5521 5534 5546 5559 5572 5585 5598 5610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
.75 5623 5636 5649 5062 5675 5689 5702 5715 5728 5741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
.76 5754 5768 5781 5794 5808 5821 5834 5448 5861 5875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
.77 5888 5902 5916 5929 5943 5957 5970 5984 5998 6015 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
.78 6026 6039 6053 6067 6081 6095 6109 6124 6138 6153 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
.79 6166 6180 6194 6209 6223 6237 6252 6206 6281 6295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
.80 6310 6324 6339 6353 6368 6383 6397 6412 6427 6442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
.81 6457 6471 6486 6501 6516 6531 6536 6551 6577 6592 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
.82 6607 6622 6637 6653 6668 6683 6699 6714 6730 6745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
.83 6761 6776 6792 6808 6823 6839 6855 6871 6887 6902 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
.84 6918 6934 6950 6966 6982 6998 7015 7031 7047 7063 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15
.85 7079 7096 7112 7129 7145 7161 7178 7194 7211 7228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
.86 7244 7261 7278 7278 7295 7311 7328 7345 7362 7379 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
.87 7413 7430 7447 7464 7482 7499 7516 7534 7551 7568 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
.88 7586 7603 7621 7638 7656 7674 7691 7709 7727 7745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
.89 7762 7780 7798 9816 7834 7852 7870 7889 7907 7925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16
.90 7943 7962 7980 7998 8017 8035 8054 8072 8091 8110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
.91 8128 8147 8166 8185 8204 8222 8241 8260 8279 8299 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
.92 8318 8337 8356 8375 8395 9414 9433 9453 9472 8492 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
.93 8511 8531 8551 8570 8590 8610 8630 8650 8670 8690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
.94 8710 8730 8750 8770 8790 8810 8831 8851 8872 8892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
.95 8913 8933 8954 8974 8995 9016 9036 9057 9078 9099 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 17 19
.96 9120 9141 9162 9183 9204 9226 9247 9268 9290 9311 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
.97 9333 9354 9376 9397 0419 9441 9462 9484 9506 9528 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 17 20
.98 9550 9572 9594 9616 9638 9661 9683 9705 9727 9750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
.99 9772 9795 9817 9840 9863 9886 9908 9931 9954 9977 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 385

AREAS OF A STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

7. .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0160 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 0.517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .0714 .0753
0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .1141
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517
0.4 .1554 .1591 .1628 .1664 ..1700 .1736 .1772 .1808 .1844 .1879

0.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2157 .2190 .2224
0.6 .2257 .2291 .2324 .2357 ..2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2517 .2549
0.7 .2580 .2611 .2642 .2673 .2703 .2734 .2764 .2794 .2823 .2852
0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2995 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3133
0.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .3315 .5340 .3365 .3389

1.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
1.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .3907 .3925 3944 .3962 .3980 ..3997 .4015
1.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4162 .4177
1.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4318

1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 ..4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4429 .4441
1.6 .4452 .4463 .4474 .4484 .4490 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
1.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 ..4591 .4599 .4608 .4614 .4625 4632
1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4708
1.9 .4713 .4719 .4726 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4756 .4761 .4767

2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .4861 .4864 .4868 .4871 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
2.3 .4893 .4896 .4898 .4901 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936

2.5 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4972 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4979 .4980 .4981
2.9 .4981 .4982 .4982 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986

3.0 .4981 .4987 .4987 .4938 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 386

PERCENTILE VALUE for STUDENTS ‘t’ DISTRIBUTION

(with v degrees of freedom)

Po t.955 t.89 t.975 t.85 t.90 t.80 t.75 t.79 t.60 t.35
1 63.66 31.82 12.71 6.31 3.08 1.376 1.000 .727 .325 .158
2 9.92 6.96 4.30 2.92 1.89 1.061 .816 .617 .289 .142
3 5.84 4.54 3.18 2.35 1.64 .978 .765 .584 .277 .137
4 4.60 3.75 2.78 2.13 1.53 .941 .741 .569 .271 .134

5 4.03 3.36 2.57 2.02 1.48 .920 .727 .550 .267 .132
6 3.71 3.14 2.45 1.94 1.44 .906 .718 .553 .265 .131
7 3.50 3.00 2.36 1.90 1.42 .806 .711 .549 .263 .130
8 3.25 2.90 2.31 1.86 1.40 .889 .706 .546 .262 .130
9 4.03 2.82 2.26 1.83 1.38 .886 .703 .543 .261 .129

10 3.17 2.76 2.23 1.81 1.37 .879 .700 .542 .260 .129
11 3.11 2.72 2.20 1.80 1.30 .876 .697 .540 .260 .129
12 3.00 2.68 2.18 1.78 1.30 .873 .695 .539 .259 .128
13 3.01 2.65 2.16 1.77 1.35 .870 .694 .538 .259 .128
14 2.98 2.62 2.14 1.76 1.34 .868 .692 .537 .258 .128

15 2.95 2.60 2.13 1.75 1.34 .866 .691 .536 .258 .128
16 2.92 2.58 2.12 1.75 1.34 .865 .690 .535 .258 .128
17 2.70 2.57 2.11 1.74 1.33 .863 .689 .534 .257 .128
18 2.88 2.55 2.10 1.73 1.33 .862 .688 .534 .257 .127
19 2.86 2.54 2.09 173 1.33 .861 .688 .533 .257 .127

20 2.84 2.53 2.09 1.72 1.32 .860 .687 .533 .257 .127
21 2.83 2.52 2.08 1.72 1.32 .859 .686 .532 .256 .127
22 2.82 2.51 2.07 1.72 1.32 .858 .686 .532 .256 .127
23 2.81 2.50 2.07 1.71 1.32 .858 .685 .532 .256 .127
24 2.80 2.49 2.06 1.71 1.32 .857 .685 .531 .256 .127

25 2.79 2.48 2.06 1.71 1.32 .856 .681 .531 .256 .127
26 2.78 2.48 2.06 1.71 1.32 .856 .684 .531 .256 .127
27 2.77 2.47 2.05 1.70 1.31 .855 .684 .531 .256 .127
28 2.76 2.47 2.05 1.70 1.31 .855 .683 .530 .256 .127
29 2.70 2.46 2.04 1.70 1.31 .854 .683 .530 .256 .127

30 2.76 2.46 2.01 1.70 1.31 .854 .683 .530 .256 .127
40 2.70 2.42 2.02 1.68 1.30 .851 .681 .529 .255 .126
60 2.66 2.39 2.00 1.67 1.30 .848 .679 .527 .254 .126
120 2.62 2.36 1.98 1.66 1.29 .845 .677 .526 .254 .126
x 2.56 2.33 1.96 1.645 1.28 .842 .674 .524 .253 .126
 BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 387

PERCENTILE VALUE for THE CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION

(with v degrees of freedom)

y x2995 x2989 x2975 x2.95 x2.80 x2.75 x2.50 x2.23 x2.10 x2.05 x2.025 x2.01 x2.005
1 7.88 6.68 5.02 3.84 2.71 1.32 .455 .102 .0158 .0039 .0010 .0002 .0000
2 10.6 9.21 7.38 5.99 4.61 2.77 1.39 .575 .211 .103 .0506 .0201 .0100
3 12.8 11.3 9.35 7.81 6.25 4.11 2.37 1.21 .584 .352 .216 .116 .072
4 14.9 13.3 11.1 9.49 7.78 5.39 3.36 1.92 1.06 .711 .484 .297 .207
5 16.7 15.1 12.8 11.1 9.24 6.63 4.35 2.67 1.61 1.15 .331 .554 .412
6 18.5 16.8 14.4 12.6 10.6 7.84 5.35 3.45 2.20 1.64 1.24 .872 .676
7 20.3 18.5 16.0 14.1 12.0 9.04 6.35 4.25 2.83 2.17 1.69 1.24 .989
8 22.0 20.1 17.5 15.5 13.4 10.2 7.34 5.07 3.49 2.73 2.18 1.26 1.34
9 23.6 21.7 19.0 16.9 14.7 11.4 8.34 5.90 4.17 3.33 2.70 2.09 1.73
10 25.2 23.2 20.5 18.3 16.0 12.5 9.34 6.74 4.87 3.94 3.25 2.56 2.16
11 26.3 24.7 21.9 19.7 17.3 13.7 10.3 7.58 5.58 4.57 3.62 3.05 2.60
12 28.3 26.2 23.9 21.0 18.5 14.8 11.3 8.44 6.30 5.23 4.40 3.57 3.07
13 29.8 27.7 24.7 22.4 19.8 16.0 12.3 9.30 7.04 5.89 5.01 4.11 3.67
14 31.3 29.1 26.1 23.7 21.1 17.1 13.3 10.2 7.79 6.57 5.63 4.66 4.07
15 32.8 30.6 27.5 25.0 22.3 18.2 14.3 11.0 8.55 7.26 6.26 5.23 4.60
16 34.3 32.0 28.8 26.3 23.5 19.4 15.3 11.9 9.31 7.96 6.91 5.81 5.14
17 35.7 33.4 30.2 27.6 24.8 20.5 16.3 12.8 10.1 8.67 7.66 6.41 5.70
18 37.2 34.8 31.5 28.9 26.0 21.6 17.3 13.7 10.9 9.39 8.23 7.01 6.26
19 38.6 36.2 32.9 30.1 27.2 22.7 18.3 14.6 11.7 10.1 8.91 7.63 6.84

(Contd.)
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 388

(Contd.)
y x2995 x2989 x2975 x2.95 x2.80 x2.75 x2.50 x2.23 x2.10 x2.05 x2.025 x2.01 x2.005
20 40.0 37.6 34.2 31.4 28.4 23.8 19.3 15.5 12.4 10.9 9.59 8.26 7.43
21 41.4 38.9 35.5 32.7 29.6 24.9 20.3 16.3 13.2 11.6 10.3 8.90 8.03
22 42.8 40.4 36.8 33.9 30.8 26.0 21.3 17.2 14.0 12.3 11.0 9.54 8.64
23 44.2 41.6 38.1 35.2 32.0 27.1 22.3 18.1 14.8 13.1 11.7 10.2 9.26
24 45.6 43.0 39.4 36.4 33.2 28.2 23.3 19.0 15.7 13.8 12.4 10.9 9.89

25 46.9 44.3 49.6 37.7 84.4 29.2 24.3 19.9 16.5 14.6 13.1 11.5 10.5
26 48.3 45.6 41.9 38.9 35.6 30.4 25.3 20.8 17.3 15.4 13.8 12.2 11.2
27 49.6 47.0 43.2 40.1 36.7 31.5 26.3 21.7 18.1 16.2 14.6 12.9 11.8
28 51.0 48.3 44.5 41.3 37.9 32.6 27.3 22.7 18.9 16.9 15.3 13.6 12.5
29 52.3 49.6 45.7 42.6 39.1 33.7 28.3 23.6 19.8 17.7 16.0 14.3 13.1

30 53.7 50.9 47.0 43.8 40.3 34.8 29.3 24.5 20.6 18.5 16.8 15.0 13.8
40 66.8 63.7 59.3 55.8 51.8 45.6 39.3 33.7 29.1 26.5 24.4 22.2 20.7
50 79.5 76.2 71.4 67.5 63.2 56.3 49.3 42.9 37.7 34.8 32.4 29.7 28.0
60 92.0 88.4 83.3 79.1 74.4 67.0 59.3 52.3 46.3 43.2 40.5 37.5 35.5

70 104.2 100.4 95.0 90.5 85.5 77.6 69.3 61.7 55.3 51.7 48.8 45.5 43.3
80 116.3 112.3 106.6 101.9 96.6 88.1 79.3 71.1 64.3 60.4 57.2 53.5 51.2
90 128.3 124.1 118.1 113.1 107.6 98.6 89.3 80.6 73.3 69.1 65.6 61.8 59.2
100 140.2 135.8 129.6 124.3 118.5 109.1 99.3 90.1 82.4 77.9 74.2 70.1 67.3
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 389

Conversion of Pearson’s ‘r’ into corresponding

Fisher’s ‘z’ coefficient
(r‟s under 0.25, may be taken as equivalent toz‟s)

r z r z r z r z r z r z
.25 .26 .41 .42 .55 .62 .70 .87 .85 1.26 .950 1.83
.26 .27 .42 .44 .56 .63 .71 .89 .86 1.29 .955 1.89
.27 .28 .43 .45 .57 .65 .72 .91 .87 1.33 .960 1.95
.28 .29 .44 .46 .58 .66 .73 .93 .88 1.38 .965 2.01
.29 .30 .45 .47 .59 .68 .74 .95 .89 1.42 .970 2.09
.30 .31 .46 .48 .60 .69 .75 .97 .90 1.47 .975 2.18
.31 .32 .47 .50 .61 .71 .76 1.00 .905 1.50 .980 2.30
.32 .33 .48 .51 .62 .73 .77 1.02 .915 1.53 .985 2.44
.33 .34 .49 .52 .63 .74 .78 1.05 .920 1.56 .990 2.65
.34 .35 .50 .53 .64 .76 .79 1.07 .925 1.59 .995 2.99
.35 .37 .51 .54 .65 .78 .80 1.10 .930 1.62
.36 .38 .52 .55 .66 .79 .81 1.13 .930 1.66
.37 .39 .53 .56 .67 .81 .82 1.16 .935 1.70
.38 .40 .54 .58 .68 .83 .83 1.19 .940 1.78
.39 .41 .55 .60 .69 .85 .84 1.22 .945 1.74
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 390

Spearman’s rank difference correlation

(For one-tailed test)
(For two –tailed test the P valve of 0.05 and 0.01 will be 0.10 and
0.02 respectively)

N 0.05 0.01
5 0.900 1.000
6 0.829 0.943
7 0.714 0.893
8 0.643 0.833
9 0.600 0.783
10 0.564 0.746
12 0.506 0.712
14 0.456 0.645
16 0.425 0.601
18 0.399 0.564
20 0.377 0.534
22 0.359 0.508
24 0.343 0.485
26 0.329 0.465
28 0.317 0.448
30 0.306 0.432



EXERCISE
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 391

1. Give principles of sample survey. State how sample survey is

more advantageous than method.
2. Draw an experimental design to prove efficacy in the
prophylactic effect of a Homoeopathic remedy.
3. How data of effective Homoeopathic Rx. can be presented
with diagrams and graphs.
4. Explain with suitable examples the term Dispersion. Mention
some common measures of dispersion and describe the one,
which you think to be most important of them.
5. A Homoeopath has decided to prescribe 2 drugs Lachesis 30
and Crot.Hor. 30 to 100 heart patients as follows :
30 get Crot.Hor. 30
40 get Lachesis 30
30 gets placebo
Lachesis 30 reduces probability of heart complaint by
25% and Crot.Hor.30 reduces the probability by 30% and
placebo cases keep probability same 100 patients were chose
so that each has 70% chance for getting heart problem. If a
randomly case had a heart complaint what probability that a
patients was given Lachesis 30.
6. Discuss the importance and significance of Biostatistics in
research and applied research programmes.
7. Explain the meaning of the terms Qualitative data.
Quantitative data of cumulative frequency.
8. What is the use of Analysis of Variance? Describe steps of
one-way analysis of variance.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 392

9. Describe planning of Homoeopathic drug proving.

10. What are the various survey methods in medical science give
advantage and disadvantage of each method.
11. What do you mean by Medical statistics? Why every
Homoeopath must have the basic knowledge of Medical
statistics.
12. Describe the characteristics of research problems.
13. Describe latest equipments and technologies used in
investigations.
14. Describe the role of Radioisotopes in medical research,
Radiation and their biological effects.
15. How will you present your research work?
16. What do you mean by Percentiles and Quartiles? Describe its
concept, application and uses.
17. What are statistical methods we can use for data analysis in
retrospective study?
18. Total 1000 children of one years of age subjected to body
weight estimation. The mean was found to be 8 Kg, with
standard deviation of 2 Kg. Find out number of children
having weight more than 12 Kg. How do you fix normal range
of weight?
19. Scope and limitations of Bio-statistics in Homoeopathic
Research.
20. Write a short notes on :
A] Probability.
b] Coefficient of variation.
c] Scattered diagram.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 393

21. What is correlation? Mention different types of correlation

How will you describe the degree of correlation with the help
of relating diagram.
22. On the basis of information given below about the Rx of 200
persons suffering from a disease state explain whether the new
Rx is comparatively superior to the conventional Rx.
Rx No. of Patients
Favorable No Response
Response
New 60 20
Conventional 70 50

23. Classify presentation of statistical data. Describe various

sources of primary data.
24. How will you conduct reproving of a short lesser known
remedy? Outline a proving data from proving records;
clinically confirm you‟re proving data to present findings in a
conference.
25. How will you conduct a double blind switch over drug
proving experiment and write a scientific paper on it to be
presented before learned audience.
26. What kind of explainatory research or confirmatory research is
now going on in our country and how for the result of such
research would enhance a technique of prescribing in the
professionals?
27. Discuss the need and utility of learning of statistical design.
Explain the steps involved in conducting a clinical trial.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 394

28. What do you mean by central tendency? Describe the various

methods of measuring it and point out the usefulness of each
method. What are the desirable properties for an average to
possess?
29. What are the statistical methods we can use for data analysis
in retrospective study?
30. Differentiate primary and secondary data. Write the sources of
secondary data in case taking.
31. Differentiate between case control study and Cohort study.
How do you proceed to conduct randomized control trials?
32. Classify presentation of statistical data. Describe various
sources of primary data.
33. Describe research design of epidemiological studies.
34. What are the principles of sample survey?
35. What are the advantages of samples survey over census
method?
36. Discus the importance and significance of Biostatistics in
Research and applied Research programmes.
37. Describe the different methods of sampling techniques.
38. What are the basic principles of graphical representation?
Explains any one, graphical method in data analysis.
39. Two treatments A and B were tried to control a certain disease
in identical conditions. Test the efficacy of the both the
treatments using the data given below :

Infected Non – Infected

Treatment A 19 160
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 395

Treatment B 20 190

(For df = 1, Chi-square = 3.841 at P = 0.05 and Chi-square =

6.635 at P = 0.01)
40. a) Differentiate between case-control study and cohort study.
How do you proceed to conduct a Randomized control trials?
c) Pyrogen was administered to 468 males out of 740 in
Mumbai locality to test its efficacy against Typhoid fever.
The incidence of Typhoid is shown below. Find out the
effectiveness of Pyrogen against Typhoid.

Infected males No infected Total

Males
Administering Pyrogen 148 320 468
Without administering 196 76 227
Pyrogen
Total 344 396 740

41. The table given below shows the data obtained during an
epidemic of cholera.
Attacked Non- Total
Attacked
Inoculated 31 469 500
Not 185 1315 1500
inoculated

Test the effectiveness of inoculation for preventing the attack of

cholera.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 396

42. Discuss the need and utility of learning of statistical design.

Explain clearly the steps involved in conducting a clinical
trial.
43. What are the statistical methods we can use for data analysis
in retrospective study?
44. On the application of a certain protocol before administrating
a drug, 25 of an experimental group were above the general
median score and 15 below. After the drug, 16 were above the
median and 24 below. 11 are above the median both before
and after. Set up a contingency table and compute chi-square.
45. Two drugs X and Y were administered to control a certain
disease in identical conditions. Test the efficacy of using the
data given below.
Infected Non- infected
Drug X 48 192
Drug Y 12 228

(For df = 1, chi-square = 3.841 at P = .05, and 6.635 at p = .01)

46. Two types of diets were administered to two groups of boys

for increase in weight and the following increases in weight
(in lbs.) were recorded after 20 days.
Diet A: 4 3 2 2 1 0 5 6 3
Diet B: 5 4 4 2 3 2 7 1
Test whether there is any significant difference between the
two diets with respect to increase in weight.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 397

47. A group of 5 patients treated with medicine a weight 42, 39,

48, 60 and 41 kgs. Second group of 7 patients from the same
hospital treated with medicine B weight 38, 42, 56, 64, 69 and
62 kgs. Do you agree with the claim that medicine „B‟
increases the weight significantly?
48. An IQ Test was administrated to 5 persons before and after
they were trained. The result are given below :
Candidates 1 2 3 4 5
IQ before training 110 120 123 132 125
IQ after training 120 118 125 136 121

Test whether there is any change in IQ after the training

programme.
49. On the basis of the information given below about the
treatment of 200 peoples suffering from a disease state
whether the new treatment is comparatively superior to the
conventional treatment

No. of patients
Treatment Favorable response No response
New 60 20
Conventional 70 50

50. Calculate different measures of Central Tendency from

following data collected for serum Hemoglobin levels (gm %)
of 16 college students.
12.14 14.26 16.18
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 398

13.12 14.30 16.30

13.26 14.62
13.40 15.10
13.65 15.24
14.10 15.62
14.18 15.80
51. The Hb. values (gm %) of 26 patients were recorded in Modi
Hospital, Jaysingpur are as follows:
11.8 12.2 10.5 12.2 13.2 12.2
11.4 12.9 11.2 14.6 14.6
10.4 12.3 12.4 12.6 18.5
14.6 10.8 14.7 13.3 13.0
10.8 12.0 12.8 12.9 13.8

Calculate the range; inter quartile range and Standard

deviation of above observations.

52. P.G research recorded protein intake of 320 families by

students in Modi Hospital, find out standard deviation and
coefficient of variation among the observation.

Protein intake
(Consumption No. of Families
Unit/Day gm)
15 – 25 20
25 – 35 10
35 – 45 90
45 – 55 80
55 – 65 70
65 – 75 20
75 – 85 30
Total 320
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 399

53. A Survey of 1000 Student graduated form Shivaji University

in different major areas in academic year have sought
employment in different fields of medicine result following
information:

Faculty Major Areas

Teaching Hospital Govt. Service Private Practice Other
(B I) (B II) (B III) (B IV) (B V)
Modern
Medicine 20 30 10 30 10
Ayurveda 40 40 20 30 20
Homoeopathy 30 50 40 15 15
B.Sc. Nursing 150 00 10 50 40
Other 110 130 70 25 15
Systems

A Graduate is selected at random from this group find out probability

that he or she is
1) M.B.B.S
2) B.H.M.S employed in Hospital
3) B.A.M.S employed in Ayurveda College
4) Other systems of medicine given that he or she is
employing in teaching post in college.

54. A Card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards and then 2nd card is
drawn. What is probability that both cards drawn are Queens?
55. Calculate mean, median and mode from following data :-
2, 14, 13, 15, 18, 19, 16, 17, 19, 20
56. 10 Anemic patients were given Fer.Met. Medicine for one
month regularly. Their Hb values were recorded before and
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 400

after treatment. Find weather difference is statistically

significant or not?

Hb % before treatment Hb % after treatment

X Y

6 8
5 8
8 12
4 6
7 11
8 12
6 8
4 7
6 9
5 8

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REFERENCES
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 401

1. Arum Bhasme : How to study Homoeopathic Materia Medica.

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British Homoeopathic journal 2001
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Wiley, New York, 1967.
BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 402

17. Hamdy Taha : Operation Research an- Introduction 6th

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18. Harald Walich :Documentation and Cohort studies in
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BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 403

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40. Sundarrajan : Medical Statistics.

41. Todd Rowe : Homoeopathic Methodology.
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46. Zoitchur R : New Technologies in Medicine Bio-

Technology and Nanotechnology.
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BIO – STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 404

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