REGULACION DE VOLTAJE

ING RUBEN DARIO ARIAS

CURSO REGULACION DE VOLTAJE

ITEM CONCEPTO
1 Introducción
2 Puentes de tiristores
3 Fuentes de excitación
4 Descripción básica de un AVR
5 Funcionamiento en modo Manual
6 Funcionamiento en modo Automático
7 Circuitos de protección
8 Limitadores
9 Ajustes de loops de control
10 Pruebas en vacío
11 Pruebas con carga
12 Diagrama Unifilar AVR
TOTAL (Horas)

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INTRODUCCIÓN

A power supply system consists of three main components: 1) power generation

units, 2) a grid and 3) loads, which are the customers. The primary aim of a power
supply system is to meet the demands for energy imposed by the customers.

The function of the grid depends on the size of the power supply system. If the
amount of generated, distributed and consumed energy is of considerable size,
the grid is divided in a transmission grid (high voltage) and a distribution network
(medium and low voltage).

The activities related to .large., deregulated, power supply systems, i.e.

generation, transmission and distribution, are in general widely different.
Therefore, these activities are (or may be) covered by different supply
organisations, e.g. power generation companies, transmission system operators
and distribution system operators. The function of the transmission grid is to
transmit energy from large power generation plants to the distribution networks,
whereas the distribution networks distribute the energy from the transmission grid
or from small/local power generation plants to the customers. The main objective
of the power generator companies is to produce power at a cost efficient price.

Meanwhile the two other organisations have a number of objectives to pursue,

which may be summarised by the following goals: to achieve an acceptable level
of reliability, quality and safety for the power supply at an economic price . since
the price a customer has to pay is determined by the costs of the associated
generation, transmission and distribution. Moreover, the transmission system
operators are responsible for the overall energy production planning in their own
area.

To be able to fulfil the objectives of reliability, quality and safety for the power
supply at an economic price, the system operator of the transmission grid has to
attend to a number of tasks, e.g.:

• To form and specify Power Station Specifications.

• To plan further development of the transmission grid.

• To contribute to optimal allocation of resources, including balancing of the

requirements on various types of plants.

• To ensure the properties essential for the power system operation as regards
reliability, power quality and security of supply in the short term as well as in the
long run.

On a distribution network level, the same tasks are valid for the system operator of
the distribution network.

The key issues for the last task are: power system control and power system
specifications. The purpose of power system specifications is to ensure certain
abilities and characteristics in the power input for use in the operation and control

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of the power system. In this way, it becomes possible to operate and control the
power system under various load conditions and disturbances. Thus, the main
control aspects are power system stability and power quality.

In the rest of the report, focus will be on power quality. Other important issues,
which will not be discussed, are various economic items.

4.2 Power Quality and other Demands to Grid Connection

The used term .Power Quality. is usually considered to include two aspects of
power supply, namely Voltage Quality and Supply Reliability (CIGRE WG14- 31,
1999).

The Voltage Quality part includes different disturbances such as: rapid changes,
harmonics, interharmonics, flicker, unbalance and transients, whereas the
reliability part involves phenomena with a longer duration, like interruptions,
voltage dips and sags, over and under voltages and frequency deviations.

Figure 52 gives a simplified view of the characterisation of Power Quality. To give

a complete idea of Power Quality, also a third phenomenon may be introduced,
i.e. information (Thomsen, 1999).

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Information about planned outages and information after faults and disturbances,
give the customer a better impression of the quality of supply, and of the supplier.
So as to complete the term Power Quality a figure like Figure 53 can be drawn.

With the emergence of computers, a high level of automation with sensitive loads
and modern communication, reliable electricity supply with a good voltage quality
has become necessity.

Electricity is fundamental to economic activity, to the standard of living and quality

of life. Over the last ten years the customers perception of reliability has changed.
Outage times of a few cumulative hours per year are no longer considered as an
characteristic of an extremely reliable supply for an increasing number of sensitive
customers, in particular industrial and commercial customers.

A few cycles interruption or a voltage reduction to less than 90 % may cause

serious problems for industrial customers.

The number of voltage dips and swells and their duration becomes more
important than the cumulative outage time per year (CIGRE WG14-31, 1999). The
variety of disturbances that may affect customers. equipment are the parameters
that describe Voltage Quality and Reliability, and these parameters, and
equipment to compensate for their influence, will be described in the following.

4.2.1 Categorisation and characterisation of disturbances in the grid

According to (Dugan et al., 1996) and (Thomsen, 1999) the different disturbances
may be classified as in Table 8.

4
These categories and the description of the different disturbances in Table 8 are
important to classify measurement results and to describe the actual phenomena,
which may cause the Power Quality problem.

5
These disturbances are not all new, and the utilities are aware of them. However,
they have to take a new look because of the rapidly changing customers. needs
and the nature of loads (CIGRE WG14-31, 1999). This may force the utilities to be
able to provide value-added options to industrial and commercial customers
relating to their specific needs. The way to give some customers better service
than others is by using Custom Power equipment to secure better reliability and
improved voltage quality.

Another way to categorise the different disturbances is to look at possible causes

for each kind of disturbance and to look at the consequences they might give.
They are summarised in Table 9.

6
In Table 9, the distortion caused by DC-offset is not taken into account. This is not
considered by IEC. The DC-offset may occur from geomagnetic disturbance or due to the
effects of half-wave rectification. Also voltage setting on equipment with iron cores, or
short circuits close to the generators can give DC-offset in the voltage. The consequence
of a DC-offset is that transformer cores may be biased, so they can saturate in normal
operation, leading to heating and loss of transformer life. DC-current can also cause
electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and other connectors (Dugan et al., 1996).

Also interharmonics are not mentioned in Table 9. Interharmonics are sinusoidal voltages
and currents having a frequency that are not an integer multiple of the frequency of the
supply voltage. Depending on the source of the interharmonics, they appear as discrete
frequencies or as a wideband spectrum. The main source of interharmonics is static
frequency converters, cycloconverters and arcing devices. Interharmonics may affect
power line carrier signalling, and can induce flicker in display devices such as cathode ray
tubes (Dugan et al.,1996).

Finally, power frequency variations are not mentioned in Table 9. The frequency of the
power system is directly related to the rotational speed of the generators supplying the
network. Frequency variations occur when the dynamic balance between load and
generators change, the size and duration depending on the load characteristics and the
response of the generation control. Large frequency deviations may be caused by faults
on the bulk power transmission system, disconnection of large blocks of load, or a large
source of generation going off-line. On modern interconnected power systems, this kind
of frequency variation is rare, but the phenomenon may occur on isolated systems.

All the different Power Quality terms are now defined and the origin of the different
disturbances is also mentioned. One could also claim that reactive power should be a
Power Quality parameter, but in the literature, it is not defined as an independent Power
Quality parameter, since the voltage is chosen here as the Power Quality parameter. It
may be relevant to take the reactive power into consideration, since the magnitude of the
losses in the network and the sizes of transformers and generators may be increased,
due to the reactive power in the network. The losses in the network result in large voltage
drops, giving rise to poorer Voltage Quality. With the above terms of Power Quality, the
effect of the reactive power must be considered under the term voltage fluctuation, and
the effect of reactive power must then be compensated with regard to this term
(Thomsen, 1999).

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4.2.2 Equipment used to enhance the Power Quality.
In this section, the focus will primarily be on the distribution level (up to 60 kV), where
equipment used to enhance the Power Quality is called Custom Power Systems (CUPS),
as opposed to equipment used on the transmission level, which is called Flexible AC-
systems (FACTS). Anyway for some of the apparatus used on the distribution level,
corresponding apparatus exists on the transmission level, and this relationship is shown
in a later table.

There are many different types of apparatus, which may be used to enhance the Power
Quality, and these may be divided into three groups:

On/off apparatus, switches

Stepwise controllable apparatus

Continuously controllable apparatus

4.2.3 On/off apparatus, switches

On/off apparatus is installed typically at industrial or commercial facilities, with a dual,

medium voltage supply, to switch between service from one source to the other.
Electromechanical switches normally take from 1 to 10 seconds to switch. Such
electromechanical switches are too slow to protect sensitive electronic devices, which are
sensitive to, for instance, voltage sags and swells.

Here solid-state switches based on GTO thyristor technologies are emerging in transfer
switch, fault current limiter, and breaker applications (CIGRE WG14- 31, 1999). At 600V
level and below the Voltage Static Transfer Switch, which uses low voltage power
electronic devices, is being used. The use for mediumvoltage power electronics for
similar applications has evolved in the recent past.

In the case of local generation or in case where a transfer between asynchronous

sources is needed, solid state breakers may be useful. These are able to interrupt current
and they use GTO.s or equivalent. Solid state circuit breakers are often used in
connection fault current limiters to reduce the fault current, and thereby reduce the
voltage sags on the unfaulted system segments.

4.2.4 Stepwise controllable apparatus

Stepwise controllable apparatus may either regulate the voltage by use of an electronic
controlled voltage tap changer, or by the use of stepwise-coupled capacitors as in Static
Var Compensators or in Thyristor Switched Capacitors.

Such apparatus may also be used for compensation of reactive power. In smaller
systems, the electronic switches may be replaced by mechanical switches.

4.2.5 Continuously controllable apparatus

This group of apparatus will normally include a voltage source converter, controlled by
various control strategies. The connection to the network grid is usually done by use of
transformers. New power electronic devices such as Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
(IGBT), Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT), and MOS controlled Thyristors
(MCT) are used in the converters.

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Depending on the topology used for the converters they are split up into two groups:
1) Shunt converters.

2) Series converters.

The shunt converter injects current into the network at its coupling point. This current
injection may then be used to compensate for different disturbances. Typical shunt
connected apparatus may be the following: Static Var Compensator SVC, Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and for harmonic compensation Active
Harmonic Filters (AHF).

The series converter injects a voltage with a certain phase lag or lead to the line between
the supply and load. The resulting power flow in the circuit where the voltage is injected
will be changed, dependent on the resulting voltage and phase-shift across the load. The
most frequently used series apparatus is the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR).

Shunt connected compensators are useful for cancelling out disturbances in the network
current, whereas the series compensators are useful for cancelling out voltage
disturbances at the load side.

The two kinds of apparatus may also be combined. The apparatus is then called a Unified
apparatus, for instance a Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC).

Finally, the active compensator may be combined with passive filter elements. Then the
apparatus is called hybrid apparatus. Some of the compensators also have an energy
storage device connected, to be able to deliver active power, and not only reactive power.
In this way also voltage dips and voltage fluctuations may be compensated. Depending
on the amount of energy stored, different sizes and duration of the dips can be
compensated. On some occasions a shunt apparatus in connection with a series
apparatus can replace the energy storage device.

Tomado de: Conceptual survey of Generators and Power

Electronics for Wind Turbines
L. H. Hansen, L. Helle, F. Blaabjerg, E. Ritchie, S. Munk- Nielsen,
H. Bindner, P. Sørensen and B. Bak-Jensen.

Voltage and Reactive Power Control Basics

Dynamically maintaining constant (or controlled) voltage in a power system is a
fundamental requirement of power quality. Passive (resistive-inductive, resistive-
capacitive) loads and active loads (motors) require both active and reactive power
flows in the power system.

While composite load power dependence on frequency is mild, the reactive load
power dependency on voltage is very important. Typical shapes of composite load
(active and reactive power) dependence on voltage are shown in Figure 6.19.

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As loads ―require‖ reactive power, the power system has to provide for it. In
essence, reactive power may be provided or absorbed by the following:

• Control of excitation voltage of SGs by automatic voltage regulation (AVR)

• Power-electronics-controlled capacitors and inductors by static voltage
controllers (SVCs) placed at various locations in a power system

As voltage control is related to reactive power balance in a power system, to

reduce losses due to increased power-line currents, it is appropriate to ―produce‖
the reactive power as close as possible to the place of its ―utilization.‖
Decentralized voltage (reactive power) control should thus be favored.

As the voltage variation changes, both the active and reactive power that can be
transmitted over a power network vary, and it follows that voltage control
interferes with active power (speed) control. The separate treatment of voltage
and speed control is based on their weak coupling and on necessity.

One way to treat this coupling is to add to the AVR the so-called PSS, with input
that is speed or active power deviation.

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6.7 The Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR) Concept

AVR acts upon the DC voltage Vf that supplies the excitation winding of SGs. The
variation of field current in the SG increases or decreases the emf (no load
voltage); thus, finally, for a given load, the generator voltage is controlled as
required. The excitation system of an SG contains the exciter and the AVR (Figure
6.20).

The exciter is, in fact, the power supply that delivers controlled power to SG
excitation (field) winding.

As such, the exciters may be classified into the following:

• DC exciters
• AC exciters
• Static exciters (power electronics)

The DC and AC exciters contain an electric generator placed on the main (turbine-
generator) shaft and have low power electronics control of their excitation current.
The static exciters take energy from a separate AC source or from a step-down
transformer (Figure 6.20) and convert it into DC-controlled power transmitted to
the field winding of the SG through slip-rings and brushes.

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The AVR collects information on generator current and voltage (Vg, Ig) and on
field current, and, based on the voltage error, controls the Vf (the voltage of the
field winding) through the control voltage Vcon, which acts on the controlled
variable in the exciter.

6.8 Exciters

The DC exciter (Figure 6.21), still in existence for many SGs below 100 MVA per
unit, consists of two DC commutator electric generators: the main exciter (ME)
and the auxiliary exciter (AE). Both are placed on the SG main shaft. The ME
supplies the SG field winding (Vf ), while the AE supplies the ME field winding.

Only the field winding of the auxiliary exciter is supplied with the voltage Vcon
controlled by the AVR. The power electronics source required to supply the AE
field winding is of very low power rating, as the two DC commutator generators
provide a total power amplification ratio around 600/1.

The advantage of a low power electronics external supply required for the scope
is paid for by the following:

• A rather slow time response due to the large field-winding time constants of the
two excitation circuits plus the moderate time constants of the two armature
windings
• Problems with brush wearing in the ME and AE
• Transmission of all excitation power (the peak value may be 4 to 5% of rated SG
power) of the SG has to be through the slip-ring brush mechanism
• Flexibility of the exciter shafts and mechanical couplings adds at least one
additional shaft torsional frequency to the turbine-generator shaft Though still
present in industry, DC exciters were gradually replaced with AC exciters and
static exciters.

6.8.1 AC Exciters

AC exciters basically make use of inside-out synchronous generators with diode

rectifiers on their rotors. As both the AC exciter and the SG use the same shaft,
the full excitation power diode rectifier is connected directly to the field winding of

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SG (Figure 6.22). The stator-based field winding of the AC exciter is controlled
from the AVR.

The static power converter now has a rating about 1/20(30) of the SG excitation
winding power rating, as only one step of power amplification is performed
through the AC exciter.

The AC exciter in Figure 6.22 is characterized by the following:

• Absence of electric brushes in the exciter and in the SG

• Addition of a single machine on the main SG-turbine shaft
• Moderate time response in Vf (SG field-winding voltage), as only one (transient)
time constant (Td0′) delays the response; the static power converter delay is small
in comparison
• Addition of one torsional shaft frequency due to the flexibility of the AC exciter
machine shaft and mechanical coupling
• Small controlled power in the static power converter: (1/20[30] of the field-
winding power rating)

The brushless AC exciter (as in Figure 6.22) is used frequently in industry, even
for new SGs, because it does not need an additional sizable power source to
supply the exciter’s field winding.

6.8.2 Static Exciters

Modern electric power plants are provided with emergency power groups for
auxiliary services that may be used to start the former from blackout. So, an
auxiliary power system is generally available.

This trend gave way to static exciters, mostly in the form of controlled rectifiers
directly supplying the field winding of the SG through slip-rings and brushes
(Figure 6.23a and Figure 6.23b). The excitation transformer is required to adapt

13
the voltage from the auxiliary power source or from the SG terminals (Figure
6.23a).

It is also feasible to supply the controlled rectifier from a combined voltage

transformer (VT) and current transformer (CT) connected in parallel and in series
with the SG stator windings (Figure 6.23b). This solution provides a kind of basic
AC voltage stabilization at the rectifier input terminals. This way, short-circuits or
short voltage sags at SG terminals do not much influence the excitation voltage
ceiling produced by the controlled rectifier.

In order to cope with fast SG excitation current control, the latter has to be forced
by an overvoltage available to be applied to the field winding. The voltage ceiling
ratio (Vfmax/Vfrated) characterizes the exciter.

Power electronics (static) exciters are characterized by fast voltage response, but
still the Td′ time constant of the SG delays the field current response.
Consequently, a high-voltage ceiling is required forall exciters.

To exploit with minimum losses the static exciters, two separate controlled
rectifiers may be used, one for ―steady state‖ and one for field forcing (Figure
6.24). There is a switch that has to be kept open unless the field-forcing (higher
voltage) rectifier has to be put to work. When Vfmax/Vfrated is notably larger than
two, such a solution may be considered.

The development of IGBT pulse-width modulator (PWM) converters up to 3 MVA

per unit (for electric drives) at low voltages (690 VAC, line voltage) provides for
new, efficient, lower-volume static exciters.

The controlled thyristor rectifiers in Figure 6.24 may be replaced by diode rectifiers
plus DC–DC IGBT converters (Figure 6.25).

A few such four-quadrant DC–DC converters may be paralleled to fulfill the power
level required for the excitation of SGs in the hundreds of MVAs per unit. The
transmission of all excitation power through slip-rings and brushes remains a
problem. However, with today’s doubly fed induction generators at 400 MVA/unit,
30 MVA is transmitted to the rotor through slip-rings and brushes.

The solution is, thus, here for the rather lower power ratings of exciters (less than
3 to 4% of SG rating).
The four-quadrant chopper static exciter has the following features:

• It produces fast current response with smaller ripple in the field-winding current
of the SG.
• It can handle positive and negative field currents that may occur during
transients as a result of stator current transients.
• The AC input currents (in front of the diode rectifier) are almost sinusoidal (with
proper filtering), while the power factor is close to unity, irrespective of load (field)
current.
• The current response is even faster than that with controlled rectifiers.
• Active front-end IGBT rectifiers may also be used for static exciters.

14
Exciter’s Modeling

While it is possible to derive complete models for exciters as they are

interconnected electric generators or static power converters for power system
stability studies, simplified models have to be used.

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The IEEE standard 421.5 from 1992 contains ―IEEE Recommended Practice for
Excitation System Models for Power Systems.‖

Basic AVRs

The basic AVR has to provide close-loop control of the SG terminal voltage by
acting upon the exciter input with a voltage, Vcon. It may have 1,2,3 stabilization
loops and additional inputs, besides the reference voltage Vref of SG and its
measured value with load compensation Vc:

The load compensator introduces the compensation of generator voltage variation

due to load and also the delay TT due to the voltage sensor. Other than that, a
major field-winding voltage Vf loop is introduced. The voltage regulator may be of
many types (a lead–lag compensator, for example) with various limiters. Figure
6.34a and Figure 6.34b show the IEEE 1992 AC1A excitation system (with
automatic voltage regulator).
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A few remarks are in order:
• The feedback loop uses Vef′ instead of Vex (exciter’s excitation voltage) or SG
field-winding Vf.
• A windup limited single constant block with gain KA is imposed to limit the output
variable VA.
• VUEL is the underexcitation limiter input.
• VOEL is the overexcitation limiter input.
• (1 + sTC)/(1 + sTB) is the voltage regulator implemented as a simple lead–lag
compensator.
• A non-windup limiter Vr max, Vr min is applied to the exciter excitation supply
voltage.

The IEEE 1992 type ST1A excitation system model is shown in Figure 6.35. It
represents a potential source-controlled rectifier. A transformer takes the power
from the SG terminals and supplies the controlled rectifier. The exciter ceiling
voltage is thus proportional to SG terminal voltage Et. The rectifier and voltage
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regulation is represented by KC (KC = xex in previous structural diagrams). The
field current IF is limited through gain KLR at the current limit ILR. Again, non-
windup and windup limiters are included, along with underexcitation (VUEL) and
overexcitation (VOEL) limiters. The controlled rectifier model is considered only
through the non-windup limiter VRmax, VRmin.

The IEEE 451.2 standard from 1992 contains a myriad of models for existing
excitation systems. More are added in Reference [4].

Summary
• Control of SGs means basically active power (or speed) and reactive power (or
voltage) control.
• Active power (or speed) control of SGs is performed through turbine close-loop
speed governing.
• Reactive power (or voltage) control is done through field-winding voltage (current
If) close-loop control (AVR).
• Though, in principle, weakly coupled, the two controls interact with each other.
The main decoupling means used so far is the so-called power system stabilizer
(PSS). The PSS input is active power (or speed) deviation. Its output enters the
AVR control system with the purpose of increasing the damping torque
component.
• When the SG operates in connection with a power system, two more control
levels are required besides primary control (speed governing and AVR–PSS).
They are automatic generation control (AGC) and economic dispatch with security
assessment generation allocation control.
• AGC refers to frequency-load control and inter-tie control.
•Frequency-load control means to allocate frequency (speed)/power
characteristics for each SG and move them up and down through area control
error (ACE) to determine how much power contribution is asked from each SG
• ACE is formed by frequency error multiplied by a frequency bias factor λR added
to inter-tie power error ΔPtie. ACE is then PI controlled to produce load-frequency

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set points for each SG by allocating pertinent participation factors αi (some of
them may be zero).
• The amount of inter-tie power exchange between different areas of a power
system and the participation factors of all SGs are determined in the control
computer by the economic dispatch with security assessment, based on lowest
operation costs per kilowatt-hour or on other cost functions.
• Primary (speed and voltage) control is the fastest (seconds), while economic
dispatch is the slowest (minutes).
• Active and reactive power flow in a power system may be augmented by flexible
AC transmission systems (FACTS) that make use of power electronics and of
various energy storage elements.
• Primary (speed and voltage) control is slow enough that third- and fourth-order
simplified SG models suffice for its investigation.
• Constant speed (frequency) closed loop is feasible only in isolated SGs.
• SGs operating in a power system have speed-droop controllers to allow for
power sharing between various units.
• Speed droop is typically 4 to 5%.
• Speed governors require at least second-order models, while for hydraulic
turbines, transient speed-droop compensation is required to compensate for the
water starting time effect. Speed governors for hydraulic turbines are the slowest
in response (up to 20 sec and more for settling time), while steam turbines are
faster (especially in fast valving mode), but they show an oscillatory response
(settling time is generally less than 10 sec).
• In an isolated power system with a few SGs, automatic generation control
means, in fact, adding an integrator to the load-frequency set point of the
frequency/power control to keep the frequency constant for that generator.
• AGC in interconnected power systems means introducing the inter-tie power
exchange error ΔPtie with frequency error weighted by the frequency bias factor
to form the area control error (ACE). ACE contains PI filters to produce ΔPref that
provides the set point level of various generators in each area. Consequently, not
only the frequency is controlled but also the inter-tie power exchange, all
according to, say, minimum operation costs with security assessment.
• The time response of SG in speed and power angle for various power
perturbations is qualitatively divided into four stages: rotor swings, frequency
drops, primary control (speed and voltage control), and secondary control (inter-tie
control and economic dispatch). The frequency band of speed-governor control in
power systems is generally less than 2 Hz.
• Spinning reserve is defined as rated power of all SGs in a system minus the
actual power needed in certain conditions.
• If spinning reserve is not large enough, frequency does not recover; it keeps
decreasing. To avoid frequency collapse, load is shedded in designated
substations in one to three stages until frequency recovers. Underfrequency
relays trigger load shedding in substations.
• Active and reactive powers of various loads depend on voltage and frequency to
a larger or smaller degree.
• Equilibrium of frequency (speed) is reached for active power balance between
offer (SG) and demand (loads).
• Similarly, equilibrium in voltage is reached for balance in reactive power between
offer and demand. Again, if not enough reactive power reserve exists, voltage
collapse takes place. To avoid voltage collapse, either important reactive loads

19
are shedded or additional reactive power injection from energy storage elements
(capacitors) is performed.
• The SG contribution to reactive power (voltage) control is paramount.
• Voltage control at SG terminal AVR is done through field-winding (excitation)
voltage Vf, (current If) control. The frequency band of automatic voltage regulators
(AVR) is within 2 to 3 Hz, in general
• The DC excitation power for SGs is provided by exciters.
• Exciters may be of three main types: DC exciters, AC exciters, and static
exciters.
• DC exciters contain two DC commutator generators mounted on the SG shaft:
the auxiliary exciter (AE) and the main exciter (ME). The ME armature supplies
the SG excitation through brushes and slip-rings at a full excitation power rating.
The AE armature excites the ME. The AE excitation is power electronics
controlled at the command (output) of AVR. DC exciters are in existence for SGs
up to 100 MW, despite their slow response — due to large time constants of AE
and ME — and commutator wear — due to the low control power of AE.
• AC exciters contain an inside-out synchronous generator (ME) with output that is
diode-rectified and connected to the SG excitation winding. It is a brushless
system, as the ME DC excitation circuit is placed on the stator and is controlled by
power electronics at the command (output) of AVR. With only one machine on the
SG shaft, the brushless AC exciter is more rugged and almost maintenance free.
The control power is 1/20 (1/30) of the SG excitation power rating, but the control
is faster, as now only one machine (ME) time constant delay exists.
• Static exciters are placed away from the SG and are connected to the excitation
winding of SG through brushes and slip-rings. They are power electronics (static)
AC–DC converters with very fast response. Controlled rectifiers are typical, but
diode rectifiers with capacitor filters and fourquadrant choppers are also feasible.
Static exciters are the way of the future now that slipring– brush energy
transmission at 30 MW was demonstrated in 400 MVA doubly fed induction
generator pump-storage power plants. Also, converters up to this rating are
already feasible
• The basic AVR acts upon the exciter input and may have one to three stabilizing
loops and, eventually, additional inputs. The sensed voltage is corrected by a load
compensator.
• A lead–lag compensator constitutes the typical AVR stabilizing loop.
• Various exciters and AVRs are classified in IEEE standard 512.2 of 1992.
• Alternative AVR stabilizer loops such as PID are also practical.
• All AVR systems are provided with underexcitation (UEL) and overexcitation
(OEL) limiters.
• Exciter dynamics and AVRs may introduce negative damping generator torques.
To counteract such a secondary effect, power system stabilizers (PSSs) were
introduced.
• PSSs have speed deviation or accelerating power deviation as input and act as
an additional input to AVR.
• The basic PSS contains a gain, a washout (high-pass) filter, and a phase
compensator in order to produce torque in phase with speed deviation (positive
damping). The role of the washout filter is to avoid PSS output voltage
modification due to steady-state changes in speed.
• Accelerating-power-integral input PSSs were proven better than speed or
frequency or electric power deviation input PSSs.

20
• Besides independent speed-governing and AVR–PSS control of SGs,
coordinated speed and voltage SG control were introduced through multivariable
optimal control methods.
• Advanced nonlinear digital control methods, such as fuzzy logic, ANN, μ
synthesis, H∞, and sliding-mode, were proposed for integrated SG generator
control.
• Power-electronics-driven active/reactive power flow in power systems may be
defined as FACTS (flexible AC transmission systems). FACTS may make use of
external energy storage elements such as capacitors, resistors, and inductors
(normal or of superconductors material). They also assist in voltage support and
regulation.
• FACTS may enhance the dynamic stability limits of SGs but interfere with their
speed governing and AVR.
• The steam (or gas) turbines have long multimass shafts of finite rigidity. Their
characterization by lumped 4,5 masses is typical.
• Such flexible shaft systems are characterized by torsional natural frequencies
above 6 to 8 Hz, in general, for large turbine generators.
• Series compensation by capacitors to increase the transport capacity of long
power lines leads to the occurrence of offset AC currents at natural frequency fn
solely dependent on the degree of transmission-line reactance compensation by
series capacitors (XC/XL < 0.5).
• It is the difference f0 – fn, the slip (rotor) frequency of rotor currents due to this
phenomenon that may fall over a torsional free frequency to cause
subsynchronous resonance (SSR).
• Subsynchronous resonance may cause shafts to break or, at least, cause their
premature wearing.
• The slip frequency currents of frequency f0 – fn produced by the series
compensation effect, manifest themselves as if the SG were an induction
generator connected at the power grid. As slip is negative (fn < f0), an equivalent
negative resistance is seen by the power grid. This negative resistance may
overcompensate for the transmission line resistance. With negative overall
resistance, the transmission- line reactance plus series compensation capacitor
circuit may ignite dangerous torque pulsations. This phenomenon is called
induction generator self-excitation and has to be avoided. A way to do it is to use
a strong (low resistance) damper cage in SGs.
• Various measures to counteract SSR were proposed. Included among them are
the following: damping circuit in parallel with the series capacitor, thyristor-
controlled shunt reactors or capacitors, selected frequency damping in AVR,
superconducting magnetic energy storage, and protective relays to trip the unit
when SSR is detected through generator speed or by current feedback sensors
oscillations.
• Coordinated digital control of both active and reactive power with various
limiters, by multivariable optimal theory methods with self-learning algorithms,
seems to be the way of the future, and much progress in this direction is expected
in the near future.
• Emerging silicon-carbide power devices [34] may enable revolutionary changes
in high-voltage static power converters for frequency and voltage control in power
systems

21
Tomado de:

22
 PUENTES DE TIRISTORES

Diodo semiconductor

El diodo semiconductor es el dispositivo semiconductor más sencillo y se puede encontrar,

prácticamente en cualquier circuito electrónico.

Los diodos se fabrican en versiones de silicio (la más utilizada) y de germanio.

Símbolo del diodo ( A - ánodo, K - cátodo)

Los diodos constan de dos partes, una llamada N y la otra llamada P, separados por una juntura
llamada barrera o unión. Esta barrera o unión es de 0.3 voltios en el diodo de germanio y de 0.6
voltios aproximadamente en el diodo de silicio.

Principio de operación de un diodo

El semiconductor tipo N tiene electrones libres (exceso de electrones) y el semiconductor tipo P

tiene huecos libres (ausencia o falta de electrones)

Cuando una tensión positiva se aplica al lado P y una negativa al lado N, los electrones en el lado N son
empujados al lado P y los electrones fluyen a través del material P mas allá de los límites del
semiconductor.
De igual manera los huecos en el material P son empujados con una tensión negativa al lado del
material N y los huecos fluyen a través del material N.

En el caso opuesto, cuando una tensión positiva se aplica al lado N y una negativa al lado P, los
electrones en el lado N son empujados al lado N y los huecos del lado P son empujados al lado P. En
este caso los electrones en el semiconductor no se mueven y en consecuencia no hay corriente

El diodo se puede hacer trabajar de 2 maneras diferentes:

Polarización directa

Es cuando la corriente que circula por el diodo sigue la ruta de la flecha (la del diodo),
o sea del ánodo al cátodo. En este caso la corriente atraviesa el diodo con mucha facilidad
comportándose prácticamente como un corto circuito.

Polarización inversa

Es cuando la corriente en el diodo desea circular en sentido opuesto a la flecha (la flecha
del diodo), o se del cátodo al ánodo. En este caso la corriente no atraviesa el diodo, y se comporta
prácticamente como un circuito abierto.

Nota: El funcionamiento antes mencionado se refiere al diodo ideal, ésto quiere decir que el diodo se
toma como un elemento perfecto (como se hace en casi todos los casos), tanto en polarización
directa como en polarización inversa.

Aplicaciones del diodo

23
Los diodos tienen muchas aplicaciones, pero una de la más comunes es el proceso de conversión de
corriente alterna (C.A.) a corriente continua (C.C.). En este caso se utiliza el diodo como rectificador

Rectificador de media onda. Fuente no regulada

Proceso de rectificación

La corriente y voltaje que las compañías distribuyen a nuestras casas, comercios u otros es corriente
alterna. Para que los artefactos electrónicos que allí tenemos puedan funcionar adecuadamente, la
corriente alterna debe de convertirse en corriente continua.

Para realizar esta operación se utilizan diodos semiconductores que conforman circuitos
rectificadores. Inicialmente se reduce el voltaje de la red (110 / 220 voltios AC u otro) a uno más
bajo como 12 o 15 Voltios AC con ayuda de un transformador. A la salida del transformador se pone el
circuito rectificador.

La tensión en el secundario del transformador es alterna, y tendrá un semiciclo positivo y uno

negativo

Polarización del diodo en sentido directo

Durante el semiciclo positivo el diodo queda polarizado en directo, permitiendo el paso de la

corriente a través de él. Ver gráfico.

Si el diodo es considerado como ideal, este se comporta como un cortocircuito, (ver gráfico),
entonces toda la tensión del secundario aparecerá en la resistencia de carga.

Polarización del diodo en sentido inverso

Durante el semiciclo negativo, la corriente entregada por el transformador querrá circular en sentido
opuesto a la flecha del diodo. Si el diodo es considerado ideal entonces este actúa como un circuito
abierto y no habrá flujo de corriente,

La forma de onda de salida de un rectificador de 1/2 onda será como se muestra en la siguiente
figura.

24
25
26
27
28
29
PUENTE RECTIFICADOR TRIFÁSICO CONTROLADO

El puente rectificador trifásico controlado en su funcionamiento clásico opera de la siguiente

manera:
Secuencia de trabajo: T1 y T5; T1 y T6; T2 y T6; T2 y T4; T3 y T4; T3 y T5, cada dispositivo
conduce 1200 y cada 600 ocurre una conmutación. Los números corresponden con los números
que identifican a cada uno de los tiristores (figura 2), a pesar de que se pueden utilizar otros
dispositivos capaces de cumplir con las exigencias técnicas del problema, por ejemplo: IGBT.

30
31
GENERADOR DE PULSOS DE DISPARO

Este módulo es idéntico para los dos canales de regulación automático y

manual. El módulo Generador de Pulsos es una unidad que genera los
pulsos de disparo para un esquema rectificador trifásico controlado, , a partir
de una referencia de ángulo elaborada en el PLC del canal automático, del
PLC del canal manual o del canal de respaldo.

La referencia de ángulo es comparada con las señales de rampa, las cuales

se derivan de la alimentación de entrada de C.A. a través de un
transformador de acoplamiento. La salida de ésta etapa comparadora activa
las unidades de disparo (esquema oscilador) para el encendido de los
tiristores del convertidor de potencia. (Ver figura 2)

El ajuste del punto de disparo o ángulo de conducción relativo a la

alimentación de C.A. a través de la señal de referencia de entrada genera
un incremento o decremento en la conducción de los tiristores y de ahí el
voltaje de C.D. para el campo del alternador.

Un circuito detector de rotación de fases incorrecta bloquea la referencia de

ángulo inhibiendo los pulsos de disparo para los tiristores

32
ESQUEMAS DE PULSOS DE DISPARO.

La señal de referencia de ángulo elaborada por las funciones programadas en el

canal automático y manual es utilizada para activar al módulo disparador
Generador de pulsos el cual tiene como funciones primordiales:

 Elaborar los pulsos de disparo

 Proteger el esquema contra una secuencia incorrecta de fases

El voltaje de sincronización utilizado en este módulo esta aislado y en fase con

respecto a las líneas principales que alimentan el puente rectificador. A partir de
este voltaje de sincronización se generan las rampas correspondientes, (para los
seis canales de disparo) las cuales se comparan con la referencia de ángulo.

En forma análoga los pulsos de disparo generados por el canal manual, son
llevados a cabo en el módulo Generador de pulsos.
33
Dentro del esquema general existe una lógica de selección para el canal
automático o manual y las salidas de disparos provienen de uno u otro canal y
dependiendo de las condiciones operativas del sistema de excitación, alimentan a
los esquemas amplificadores ―BOOSTERS‖ para manejo de los semiconductores
de potencia.

Los módulos Generadores de pulsos no liberan pulsos en forma simultánea solo

serán liberados por el canal seleccionado, no obstante la referencia de ángulo en
ambos está activada simultáneamente.

Para inhibir los pulsos de disparo es necesario ―cortar‖ la alimentación a los

circuitos osciladores. Esta acción es llevada a cabo por la secuencia operativa.

2.3.1. AMPLIFICADOR DE PULSOS (BOOSTER)

Los módulos generadores de pulsos del esquema no tienen potencia suficiente

para activar varios tiristores a la vez (caso de dos o más tiristores en paralelo).

Para que los pulsos tengan suficiente potencia, se utilizan amplificadores o

―BOOSTERS‖. Estos equipos almacenan energía durante los periodos de no
aparición de los pulsos mediante capacitores, los cuales se descargan en los
transformadores de pulsos al momento del disparo.

Dichos amplificadores reciben su alimentación de transformadores específicos

conectados a la salida del transformador de excitación y monitorean su propio
funcionamiento. En lo particular se genera una alarma de perdida de pulsos en
caso de que hubiera desaparecido alguno de los mismos, en cualquiera de los
seis canales que integran el BOOSTER.

34
RÁFAGA DE PULSOS

La ráfaga de pulsos tiene como objeto disparar los tiristores con pulsos de alta
frecuencia capaces de llevar los puentes de rectificación a plena conducción
mientras dure la aplicación de los mismos.

Con la excitación inicial y mediante el potencial tomado del banco de baterías, la

unidad se excita con un voltaje igual al 10% o 20% del voltaje nominal. Con la
excitación correspondiente del transformador de excitación y la plena conducción
de los puentes de rectificación se excita mas la unidad traduciéndose en una
mayor excitación y así sucesivamente hasta lograr el voltaje nominal de la unidad.

Un circuito de retroalimentación permite regular la corriente de campo alrededor

de su valor nominal. La ráfaga de pulsos funciona como regulador de ―todo nada‖
o en modo ―bang-bang‖ mandado a los tiristores a plena conducción dependiendo
de la polaridad del amplificador de corriente.

En esta forma se puede utilizar la ráfaga de pulsos como tercer canal lo que
permite excitar la unidad, sincronizarla y tener en forma similar el funcionamiento
obtenido con el automático o el manual.

Cabe recalcar que la unidad puede ser excitada , con el esquema de control
automático o con el esquema de control manual. En cualquiera de los casos
antes mencionados la ráfaga de pulsos siempre será activada mientras dure la
excitación inicial del sistema.

35
FUENTES DE EXCITACIÓN

36
37
38
 Sistema Autoexcitado Digital Tipo Directo
GENERADOR 3f
Cor riente de Campo

2500KVA,6900V, Interruptor
del Gener ador - al

41 60Hz

Campo Gen
V-
*
Acondicionador

52

Rdesconex.
Sensor de *
V+
Efecto Hall
de Señal
PLC

CAMPO 125V, 52
190A

F1
41 41 41
* * E1 E2
Trafo de Medida
Al PLC
Kx * *

K2 K2 Trafo de Voltaje en terminales y

Potencia Corriente Cruzada
. .
Rarr anque T5 Batería 30K VA,
6900/120V Entrada
Análoga al PLC
Puente
Rectificador Kreg
Totamente
controlado

F2
.
Pulsos de
Disparo
Entrada/Sal D ig.

.
Controlador .
Tar jeta de Pulsos Vcontrol T itl e
Programable
de disparo TMC 2 Voltaje de Campo Sistema Autoexcitado Digital Tipo Directo
-PLC-
. Entrada Análoga S ize Docu ment Nu mber Rev
. A 00
Planta Rio Nima I (Diseño Preliminar)
Date: T hursd ay, March 1 7, 2 005 S hee t 1 of 1.5

Sistema De Excitación Digital Tipo Directo

Corriente de Campo
al PLC
V+ V-

Acondicionador de
GENERADOR 3f
Señal 2500KVA,6900V, Interruptor
41 60Hz
Campo Gen

*
52
Rdesconex.

Sensor de *
Efecto Hall
CAMPO 125V, 52
190A
Servicios auxiliares
de AC, 208V, 3F
41 41 41
1

* * E1 E2
Trafo de Medida
B1 Al PLC
* *
2

Voltaje en terminales y
Corriente Cruzada
. .

Entrada
Trafo de Análoga
Potencia al PLC
30K VA,
208/120V

Puente R ectificador
Totamente Kreg
F1
controlado

.
Pulsos de
Disparo
Entrada/Sal D ig.

Controlador .
Tar jeta de Pulsos Vcontrol T itl e
Programable .
de disparo TMC 2 Sistema de Excitación Digital Tipo Directo
-PLC-
S ize Docu ment Nu mber Rev
.
A Planta Rio Nima I (Diseño Preliminar) 00

Date: T ues day, Ma rc h 29, 200 5 S hee t 1 of 1.5

39
 Corriente de Campo - a
TMC2 V + V-

Medida de Corriente de
Campo
GENERADOR 3f
2500KVA,6900V, Interruptor
Sensor de 41 60Hz

Campo Gen
Efecto H all
52

Rdesconex.
Servicios auxiliares
CAMPO 125V, de AC, 208V, 3F 52
190A

1
41 41 41 B1
* *

2
Puente E1 E2
Trafo de Medida
Rectificador
Totamente * *
controlado
Trafo de
Potencia
30K VA, * *
208/120V
* *

.
F1
Pulsos de
Disparo Medida de Voltaje
en Terminales

UP/DOW N
Tarjeta T itl e
.
Microcontrolada Sistema de Excitación Fuente de Corriente
TMC2 . S ize Docu ment Nu mber Rev
A Planta Rio Nima I (Diseño preliminar) 00
.
Date: T ues day, Ma rc h 29, 200 5 S hee t 1 of 1.5

DESCRIPCION BASICA DE UN AVR

Un SE debe ser capaz de ejecutar las siguientes tareas :

a) Mantener el voltaje terminal de la máquina en el valor definido por el operador,

o debe ser capaz de mantener una determinada relación entre voltaje y carga
reactiva en toda la región de la operación;

b) Mantener el voltaje terminal dentro de los límites aceptables de trabajo, lo

mismo en rechazos de carga plena y otros severos disturbios en el sistema de
potencia (se consideran como una excepción los instantes inmediatamente
posteriores al disturbio, debido a la imposibilidad de obtener una respuesta
instantánea del SE);

c) Ser capaz de propiciar una excitación rápida en la partida del grupo sin
sobrepaso del voltaje terminal;

d) Ser capaz de responder con desempeño adecuado, a los comandos del

operador o sincronizador automático en el momento de la sincronización de la
unidad con el sistema;

40
e) Poseer elevada velocidad de respuesta de manera que sea posible corregir las
variaciones de voltaje impuestas por variación de carga, generación o por cierres
(por llaves) en el sistema;

f) Poder mantener valores de voltaje de campo superiores al valor nominal de la

plena carga, mismo al existir cortocircuito trifásíco en el barraje de alto voltaje de
la unidad;

g) Ser capaz de aplicar tensiones positivas y negativas al campo, en valores

realmente superiores al valor básico de excitación, buscando influenciar el torque
de aceleración de manera que se mantenga la máquina en sincronismo con el
sistema de potencia, inclusive, frente a severos disturbios en el mismo;

h) En el caso de paralelo de unidades en la barra de alta voltaje, el SE debe ser

capaz de compensar parte de la caída de voltaje en la reactancia del
transformador elevador, o deberá ser provisto de una característica adecuada del
voltaje en función de la carga reactiva, a fin de propiciar el paralelo de otros
generadores en la propia barra terminal;

i) Ser capaz de limitar dinámicamente la corriente de excitación, de acuerdo con

la característica de capacidad del propio campo, independientemente de la
eventual necesidad de aumento de excitación que la malla de control del voltaje
terminal imponga;

j) Ser capaz de limitar dinámicamente la operación de la máquina en regiones

próximas al límite de estabilidad, independientemente de la necesidad de
decrecimiento de la excitación que la malla de control del voltaje terminal
imponga;

k) Ser capaz de contribuir de manera efectiva para la amortiguación de

oscilaciones electromecánicas que aparezcan en el sistema de potencia o en la
propia unidad;

1) Ser capaz de limitar dinámicamente la operación de la máquina en

condiciones de sobreflujo, limitando la relación Volts/Hertz;

m) Opcionalmente ser capaz de limitar la corriente de armadura, referente a la

carga reactiva, independientemente de la necesidad de aumento o decrecimiento
de excitación que el control de voltaje imponga;

n) También, corno exigencia opcional, se puede exigir que el SE sea capaz de

mantener el voltaje en la barra de alta voltaje dentro de una faja especificada,
ofreciendo, todavía, una división equitativa de la carga reactiva de las unidades
en paralelo.

41