Vision IAS Environment Part 3

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Contents Student Notes:

UNIT - 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER - 18 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................... 3
18. Sustainable Development ........................................................................................................ 3
18.1. The concept of Development............................................................................................ 3
18.2. Sustainable Development (SD).......................................................................................... 3
18.3. History of Sustainable Development................................................................................. 4
18.3.1. UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) .................................... 5
18.3.2. World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 .................................................... 6
18.4. Millennium Development Goals ....................................................................................... 6
18.4.1. Criticisms of MDGs ..................................................................................................... 6
18.4.2. UN Conference on Sustainable Development: Rio+20, 2012 ..................................... 8
18.5. The Sustainable Development Goals ................................................................................ 8
18.5.1. Differences between MDGs and SDGs ....................................................................... 9
18.6. India and SDGs ................................................................................................................ 10
18.6.1 Strategy and Initiatives taken .................................................................................... 10
18.6.2. Challenges ................................................................................................................ 11
18.7. Way Forward ................................................................................................................... 12
18.8. UPSC Previous Year Questions ........................................................................................ 14
18.9. Vision IAS Previous Year Questions ................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER - 19 - SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE ............................................................................... 18
19. Sustainable Agriculture .......................................................................................................... 18
19.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 18
19.2. Agricultural Emissions in India ........................................................................................ 19
19.3. Sustainable Production Practices .................................................................................... 19
19.3.1. Plant Production Practices ....................................................................................... 19
19.3.2. Animal Production Practices .................................................................................... 20
19.4. Sustainable Agricultural Practices ................................................................................... 20
19.4.1. Mulching .................................................................................................................. 20
19.4.2. Zero Tillage ............................................................................................................... 21
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19.4.3. Agro-Ecology ............................................................................................................ 22

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19.4.4. Organic Farming ....................................................................................................... 23

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19.4.5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) ....................................................................... 25

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19.4.6. Intensive Agricultural Practices ................................................................................ 25

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19.4.7. Permaculture ........................................................................................................... 26

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19.4.8. Vertical Farming Systems ......................................................................................... 27

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19.4.9. Hydroponics ............................................................................................................. 28

19.4.10. Aquaponics ............................................................................................................ 29
19.4.11. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ....................................................................... 30
19.5. Government Initiatives ................................................................................................... 32
19.5.1. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture ........................................................... 32
19.5.2. Climate Smart Agriculture ........................................................................................ 33
19.5.3. Soil Health Card Scheme .......................................................................................... 34
19.5.4. Other Miscellaneous Steps ...................................................................................... 35
19.6. Way Forward ................................................................................................................... 35
19.8. Vision IAS Previous Year Test Series Questions ............................................................... 38
CHAPTER - 20 - ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT ................................................................ 42
20. Environment Impact Assessment........................................................................................... 42
20.1. Evolution of EIA ............................................................................................................... 42
20.2. History of EIA in India...................................................................................................... 43
20.3. EIA Process ...................................................................................................................... 43
DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

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20.4. EIA Notification, 2006 ..................................................................................................... 45 Student Notes:

20.5. Issues with the Indian System ......................................................................................... 45
20.6. Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 47
20.7. Draft EIA Notification, 2020 ............................................................................................ 49
20.9. Vision IAS Previous Year Questions ................................................................................. 50
CHAPTER - 21 - ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ................................................................................... 55
21. Environmental Ethics ............................................................................................................. 55
21.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 55
21.2. Need for Environmental Ethics ....................................................................................... 55
21.3. Environmental Ethics and Its Principles .......................................................................... 55
21.4. Types of Environmental Ethics ........................................................................................ 56
21.4.1. Social Ecology ........................................................................................................... 56
21.4.2. Deep Ecology............................................................................................................ 57
21.4.3. Eco-feminism............................................................................................................ 58
21.5. The Future of Environmental Ethics ................................................................................ 59
APPENDIX I - CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA .......................................................... 62
1. Birds ......................................................................................................................................... 62
2. Mammals ................................................................................................................................. 64
3. Reptiles and Amphibians ......................................................................................................... 65
4. Fish ........................................................................................................................................... 66
APPENDIX II - BIOSPHERE RESERVES ............................................................................................ 67
APPENDIX III - IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS .............................................................................. 75

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Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS.

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Student Notes:
UNIT - 5
CHAPTER - 18 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
18. Sustainable Development
18.1. The concept of Development
• Development is defined as ‘an evolutionary process in which the human capacity increases
in terms of initiating new structures, coping with problems, adapting to continuous change,
and striving purposefully and creatively to attain new goals.
• It is a multi-dimensional process that involves major changes in social structures, attitudes,
and institutions, as well as economic growth, reduction of inequality, and eradication of
absolute poverty. Several theories have been put forward to explain the concept of
development.
o Modernisation Theory: The Modernization Theory of development distinguishes
between two main categories of society in the world, namely the traditional and modern
societies. The theory argues that the traditional societies are entangled by norms, beliefs
and values, which are hampering their development. Therefore, in order to progress, the
traditional societies must emulate the culture of modern societies, which is characterised
by accumulation of capital and industrialization which are compatible with development.
o World Systems Theory: The World Systems Theory posits that international trade
specialization and transfer of resources from the periphery (less developed countries) to
the core (developed countries) stifle development in the periphery by making them rely
on core countries. The World Systems Theory perceives the world economy as an
international hierarchy of unequal relations and that the unequal relations in the
exchange between the Third World and First World countries is the source of First World
surplus.
o Globalisation Theory: Globalization Theory originates from the global mechanisms of
deeper integration of economic transactions among the countries . However, apart from
the economic ties, other key elements for development interpretation as far as
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globalisation is concerned are the cultural links among nations, In this cultural
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orientation, one of the cardinal factors is the increasing flexibility of technology to

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connect people around the world. Therefore, open and easy communication among
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nations has created grounds for cultural homogenisation, thereby creating a single global
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society.
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18.2. Sustainable Development (SD)

• SD is a core concept within global
development policy and agenda. It
provides a mechanism through which
society can interact with the environment
while not risking damaging the resource
for the future.
• Thus, it is a development paradigm as well
as concept that calls for improving living
standards without jeopardising the earth’s
ecosystems or causing environmental
challenges such as deforestation and water
and air pollution that can result in
problems such as climate change and
extinction of species.

Student Notes:
18.3. History of Sustainable Development

• As far back as 1789, Malthus
Limits to Growth Theory
postulated that human population
The Limits to Growth (LTG) is a 1972 report on the
tended to grow in a geometric exponential economic and population growth with a
progression, while subsistence could finite supply of resources, commissioned by the Club
grow in only an arithmetic of Rome.
progression, and for that matter, The research team came to the following
population growth was likely to conclusions:
outstrip the capacity of the natural • Given business as usual, i.e., no changes to
resources to support the needs of the historical growth trends, the limits to growth on
increasing population. Therefore, if earth would become evident by 2072, leading to
"sudden and uncontrollable decline in both
measures were not taken to check the
population and industrial capacity". This
rapid population growth rate,
includes the following:
exhaustion or depletion of natural o Global Industrial output per capita reaches
resources would occur, resulting in a peak around 2008, followed by a rapid
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• With time, global concerns heightened o Global Food per capita reaches a peak
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about the non-renewability of some around 2020, followed by a rapid decline

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natural resources which threaten o Global Services per capita reaches a peak
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around 2020, followed by a rapid decline

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production and long-term economic

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growth resulting from environmental o Global population reaches a peak in 2030,

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followed by a rapid decline

degradation and pollution.
• Growth trends existing in 1972 could be altered
• The concept of sustainable so that sustainable ecological and economic
development received its first major stability could be achieved.
international recognition in 1972 at the
UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. Although the term was not
referred to explicitly, the international community agreed to the notion—now fundamental
to sustainable development—that both development and the environment hitherto
addressed as separate issues, could be managed in a mutually beneficial way.
• The World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Gro Harlem
Brundtland of Norway, renewed the call for SD, culminating in the development of the
Brundtland Report entitled “Our Common Future” in 1987.
o The report defined SD as development that meets the needs of current generation
without compromising the ability of future generation to meets their own needs.
o Central to the Brundtland Commission Report were two key issues:
ü The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor (to which
overriding priority should be given); and

ü The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation Student Notes:
on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
18.3.1. UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
• United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also called Earth
Summit, 1992, conference was held at
UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to reconcile
• It is responsible for monitoring implementation
worldwide economic development with of UNCED decisions.
protection of the environment. • It was established by the UN General Assembly in
• By means of treaties and other December 1992.
documents signed at the conference, • At its eleventh session in 2003, the Commission
most of the world’s nations nominally decided on a multi-year work programme
committed themselves to the pursuit of consisting of review and policy years.
economic development in ways that • At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
would protect the Earth’s environment Development (Rio+20), Member States agreed to
and nonrenewable resources. establish a high level political forum that will
subsequently replace the Commission on
• The Earth Summit resulted in the
Sustainable Development
following documents:
o Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
o Agenda 21
o Forest Principles
(i) Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
• The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, often shortened to Rio Declaration,
consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development.
Referring to the "integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, "our home", the Rio
Declaration proclaims 27 principles.
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(ii) Agenda 21 Student Notes:

• It outlines actions that governments, international organisations, industries and the
community can take to achieve sustainability.
• It is divided into four sections:
o Social and Economic dimensions: include combating poverty, changing consumption
patterns, population and demographic dynamics, promoting health, promoting
sustainable settlement patterns, integrating environment and development into decision
making.
o Conservation and Management of Resources for development: includes atmospheric
protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of
biological diversity (biodiversity), and control of pollution.
o Strengthening the Role of Major Groups: includes the roles of children, youth, women,
NGOs’, local authorities, business and workers.
o Means of Implementation: includes science, technology transfer, education,
international institutions and mechanisms and financial mechanisms.
(iii) Forest Principles
• The Forest Principles (also Rio Forest Principles, formally the Non-Legally Binding
Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management,
Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests) is a 1992 document
produced at the Earth Summit.
• It makes several recommendations for conservation and sustainable development forestry.
• The Montréal Process, also known as the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the
Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests, was started in
1994 as a result of the Forest Principles.
18.3.2. World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg for a 10-year
assessment of the Rio outcomes (Rio +10).
The Summit gives a political statement in the form of a "Johannesburg Declaration", to be agreed
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by world leaders, reaffirming their commitment to work towards sustainable development.

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18.4. Millennium Development Goals

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• At the Millennium Summit in

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September 2000 the largest gathering of

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world leaders in history adopted the UN

Millennium Declaration, committing
their nations to a new global
partnership to reduce extreme poverty
and setting out a series of time-bound
and quantified targets, with a deadline
of 2015, that have become known as
the Millennium Development Goals.
18.4.1. Criticisms of MDGs
• Top-down and straight jacket
approach: They are charged with
neglecting issues in developed
countries, not considering the real
needs in recipient countries, particularly
those of marginalised populations. One

of the causes of this is, its utilisation of a donor- driven design failed to tackle the root causes Student Notes:
of poverty and underdevelopment.
• There were no goals or commitments for developed countries and no compulsion for
members to follow the MDGs. Also there was no indication of what happens if goals are
unmet at the end of the target period.
• Incomplete agenda: The MDGs have also been criticised for the dimensions they have
omitted. Critics argue, for example, that the goals do not place enough emphasis on
sustainable development, and leave out crucial issues such as ‘peace, security and
disarmament’ as well as 'Human rights, democracy and good governance'. Moreover, they
cover only some
dimensions of
multidimensional poverty.
• Improper target setting:
Some goals at the global
level were unrealistic right
from the start (e.g. MDG 2,
which demands total
enrolment in primary
education worldwide),
while others demonstrate
low ambitions, at least at
the global level (e.g.
MDG1, which asks for
halving the share of people
that suffer from income
poverty and which
according to the World
Bank has already been
achieved). Some MDGs
cannot even be measured
– either because no
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• Non-uniform achievement
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of targets: There are huge

disparities across and
within countries. Sub-
Saharan Africa is the
epicentre of crisis and a widespread shortfall for most of the MDGs. Asia is the region with
the fastest progress, but even there hundreds of millions of people remain in extreme
poverty. Within countries, poverty is greatest for rural areas, though urban poverty is also
extensive, growing, and underreported by traditional indicators.
• Focus on output rather than outcome: Some MDGs measure outputs or inputs rather than
outcomes or impacts of development. MDG2, for example measures only the intake of
education, regardless of its quality or relevance for economic, social and political life.
• MDGs neglect distributive issues: For instance, when a particular country lowers its child
mortality rate, then MDG 4 does not capture whether this is due to improvements in the
health of the most disadvantaged or others that are better off in terms of child survival. For
policy makers it may be cheaper and hence more attractive to invest in the health of the
latter rather than those at the bottom of the pyramid.

18.4.2. UN Conference on Sustainable Development: Rio+20, 2012 Student Notes:

• Rio+20 resulted in a focused political outcome document which contains clear and practical
measures for implementing sustainable development.
• Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs), which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals and converge with
the post 2015 development agenda.
• The Conference also adopted ground-breaking guidelines on green economy policies.
Governments also decided to establish an intergovernmental process under the General
Assembly to prepare options on a strategy for sustainable development financing.
• Governments also agreed to strengthen the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
on several fronts. They also agreed to establish a high-level political forum for sustainable
development.
• Governments also adopted the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable
consumption and production patterns to designate a Member State body to take any
necessary steps to fully operationalize the framework.
• The Conference also took forward-looking decisions on a number of thematic areas, including
energy, food security, oceans, cities, and decided to convene a Third International Conference
on Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) in 2014.
• Themes of the Conference: The Conference focused on two themes: (a) a green economy in
the context of sustainable development poverty eradication; and (b) the institutional
framework for sustainable development.
• Seven priority areas: The preparations for Rio+20 highlighted seven areas which needed
priority attention; these included decent jobs, energy, sustainable cities, food security and
sustainable agriculture, water, oceans and disaster readiness.
In the Rio+20 outcome document, member States agreed that sustainable development goals
(SDGs) must:
• Be based on Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.
• Fully respect all the Rio Principles.
• Be consistent with international law.
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• Build upon commitments already made.

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• Contribute to the full implementation of the outcomes of all major summits in the economic,
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social and environmental fields.

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• Focus on priority areas for the achievement of sustainable development, being guided by the
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outcome document.
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• Address and incorporate in a balanced way all three dimensions of sustainable development
and their inter-linkages.
• Be coherent with and integrated into the United Nations development agenda beyond 2015.
• Not divert focus or effort from the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.
• Include active involvement of all relevant stakeholders, as appropriate, in the process.
18.5. The Sustainable Development Goals

• As part of this new development roadmap, the UN approved the 2030 Agenda (SDGs), which
are a call to action to protect the planet, end poverty and guarantee the well-being of people.
The 17 SDGs primarily seek to achieve the following summarised objectives.
o Eradicate poverty and hunger, guaranteeing a healthy life
o Universalize access to basic services such as water, sanitation and sustainable energy
o Support the generation of development opportunities through inclusive education and
decent work
o Foster innovation and resilient infrastructure, creating communities and cities able to
produce and consume sustainably.

o Reduce inequality in the world, especially that concerning gender Student Notes:
o Care for the environmental integrity through combatting climate change and protecting
the oceans and land ecosystems
o Promote collaboration between different social agents to create an environment of
peace and ensure responsible consumption and production
• The SDGs are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all
people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.
• Adopted by 193 countries, the SDGs came into effect in January 2016, and aim to foster
economic growth, ensure social inclusion and protect the environment.
• They encourage a spirit of partnership among governments, private sector, research,
academia and civil society organisations (CSOs)—with support of the UN. This partnership is
meant to ensure that the right choices are made now to improve life, in a sustainable way,
for future generations.
• Agenda 2030 has five overarching themes, known as the five Ps: people, planet, prosperity,
peace and partnerships, which span across the 17 SDGs.
• They are intended to tackle the root causes of poverty, covering areas such as hunger, health,
education, gender equality, water and sanitation etc.
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It can be argued from the SDGs that, sustainable development aims at achieving social
progress, environmental equilibrium and economic growth.
18.5.1. Differences between MDGs and SDGs
• SDGs benefit from the valuable lessons learned from MDGs. These also carry forward the
unfinished agenda of MDGs for continuity and sustain the momentum generated while
addressing the additional challenges of inclusiveness, equity, and urbanization and further
strengthening global partnership by including CSOs and private sector. They reflect continuity
and consolidation of MDGs while making these more sustainable by strengthening
environmental goals.
• There are seven major differences in MDGs and SDGs;
SDGs MDGs
SDGs have evolved after a long and extensive MDGs were drawn up by a group of
consultative process including 70 Open Working experts in the ‘basement of UN
Groups, Civil Society Organizations, thematic headquarters’
consultations, etc.

SDGs include 17 goals with 169 targets. MDGs were focused with only 8 goals, 21 Student Notes:
targets and 63 indicators
All countries, developed or developing, are Focus on developing countries with
expected to work towards achieving SDGs funding came from rich countries
The pillars of human development, human rights These were not even mentioned in the
and equity are deeply rooted in SDGs and several MDGs
targets seven explicitly refer to people with
disabilities, six to people in vulnerable situations,
and two to non-discrimination.
SDGs have one comprehensive goal emphasizing MDGs had 3 direct health goals, 4 targets
well-being and healthy living including Non and 15 indicators with emphasis on child,
communicable diseases. maternal mortality and communicable
diseases.
For the SDGs, the baseline is from 2015 estimates. MDGs had a time span of 25 years though
It may be revised as more recent data becomes adopted in 2002 baseline data for the year
available. 1990 was used and some of the baselines
were revised subsequently which shifted
‘the goal post’.
The CSOs can play an important role to hold MDGs had no concrete role for the Civil
governments accountable at the local level. Society Organizations (CSOs).
Means of Implementation (MoI) governmentally MoI, monitoring and follow up not defined
negotiated, global architecture and monitoring in advance.
system being shaped.
18.6. India and SDGs

18.6.1 Strategy and Initiatives taken
• Localization of SDGs is at the
Role of NITI Aayog
core of India’s SDG • NITI Aayog has been entrusted with the role to co-ordinate
implementation and ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
monitoring strategy. In the Development’ (called as SDGs).
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federal governance • The task at hand for NITI Aayog is not merely to periodically
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structure, the States play a collect data on SDGs but to act proactively fructify the goals
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pivotal role in designing, and targets not only quantitatively but also maintaining high
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executing, and monitoring standards of quality.

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development policies and • It works closely with these States, enabling them in
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States and UTs are the key in forging partnerships for building institutions, capacity,
knowledge and convergence.
drivers of the SDGs, while
• SDG India Index: NITI Aayog undertook extensive exercise
NITI Aayog and the central of measuring India and its States’ progress towards the
ministries collaborate with SDGs for 2030, culminating in the development of the first
them in this endeavor. It is SDG India Index - Baseline Report 2018.
of paramount importance
that the wide range of initiatives to implement and localize the SDGs being taken by the State
governments and UTs, finds a mention here:
o Awareness development on SDGs: It is critical to generate awareness of all stakeholders
to facilitate participatory and inclusive implementation of SDGs. The States have devised
their own strategies for sensitizing elected representatives and officials at the
state/district/local levels, as well as CSOs and communities.
o Preparing Vision Documents and action plans to guide their efforts on the SDGs: It
charted out interlinkages across sectors as well as various departments and developed a
context and purpose for synergy. So far, 23 states have prepared their Vision documents
that are based on the SDGs.

o Aligning local development plans with SDGs: Local governments – both rural and urban Student Notes:
– are best placed to ‘put people first’ and ensure ‘no one is left behind’. In India, 29
functions related to socio-economic development are devolved to local governments.
Consequently, many of the 17 SDGs are directly related to activities carried out by local
governments. Several initiatives have been and are being taken to cast local development
plans in the SDG framework.
o Identifying the State-specific indicators for monitoring of the SDGs: A substantial
amount of data is needed to be produced and analysed on the SDGs, posing a significant
challenge for the government statistical systems. While data-driven decision making has
become the norm, decisions are often taken based on scanty data due to unavailability
data as well as lack of a comprehensive indicator framework. Development of State-
specific and District-specific indicators based on the NIF bridges this gap substantially.
However, more work is required to collect data that is disaggregated and is available at a
higher frequency.
o ‘Leave No One Behind’: All States have made this principle the leading actionable and
monitorable parameter in programme implementation. A number of States and UTs have
taken initiatives to conduct vulnerability mapping and reinforce people’s participation in
various development programmes to make them truly inclusive. Special initiatives have
been taken to address the needs of the vulnerable population groups such as women,
persons with disabilities, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, etc. Like at the national
level, social insurance and entitlement-based programmes have been multiplied in States
and UTs, targeting the vulnerable social groups.
o Preparing capacity building resources and tools: Development of capacity building aids
and learning materials have been prioritized by various State governments. Different
forms of resources have been used such as – comics for children, written IEC materials
on SDGs, manuals, training modules, e-learning modules, information booklets and
tools/toolkits, targeting different audience.
o Aligning the State budgets with the SDGs: Budgets provide a concrete measure of real
commitment to the goals, while information on actual spending shows whether
governments have followed through on the planned budget expenditure. Aligning
budgets with SDGs facilitates identification of resource gaps and preparation of
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improve resource efficiency.

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o Building partnerships: States are increasingly building partnerships with various

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stakeholders, such as multi-lateral organisations, academia, civil society organisations,

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and private sector to achieve the whole gamut of development targets.

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• NITI Aayog and the UN in India joined hands to prepare a compendium of early lessons in
localization of SDGs in collaboration with States and UTs. Special attention is being given to
the adoption, implementation, monitoring and financing of SDGs in States which have been
historically backward in development. There is consensus on all levels that unless these
States make significant progress, India will find it challenging to achieve its SDG targets on
time.
18.6.2. Challenges
The four major challenges that need to be addressed for achieving the SDGs are as follows:
• Challenges in financing SDGs:
o With the emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic, SDG financing gap has widened by an
estimated $400 billion in developing countries, adding to the pre-COVID shortfall of $2-
2.5 trillion per annum. The financing gap for SDGs in India has widened further and
development progress made under millennial development goals also are on verge of
reversal.

o Heightened geopolitical tensions About SDG Financing Student Notes:

around trade and technology, • Addis Ababa Action Agenda 2015, provides a
growing external debt, unmet global framework for financing sustainable
expectations of public private development that aligns all financing flows and
collaboration and lack of business policies with economic, social and
models supporting SDGs are some environmental priorities.
key issues facing the financing of • India occupies a key role in determining the
SDGs. success of the SDGs globally and it needs $2.64
trillion investment to meet SDGs.
• Maintaining peace is essential for
• India needs to increase its SDG spending by an
development. A threat to international additional 6.2% of its GDP until 2030.
peace and stability by nonstate actors is SDG financing Initiatives:
emerging as a major factor for both • SDG Financing Lab is an OECD-led initiative
developed and developing countries. The that strives to inform decision-makers and
recent crisis in Syria has forced 12 million policy leaders on how to ensure the resources
people to leave their homes and made needed to achieve the 2030 Agenda.
them refuges. • SDG Fund is an international multi-donor and
• Measuring progress: A number of multi-agency development mechanism
targets in the SDGs are not quantified. created in 2014 by the United Nations to
support sustainable development activities.
The indicators for measuring progress
have not yet been identified. Even if they limit to two indicators per target there will be 338
indicators to monitor and report. “Having 169 targets is like having no targets at all.”
Measurability will depend on the availability of data and capacity to measure them.
• Accountability: There was a lack of accountability for inputs into MDGs at all levels. This
challenge needs to be addressed in SDGs.
The lack of priority in funds allocation within country budget has also been a problem during
MDGs. Similar lack of accountability exists at ministry, state, and local administration level. If we
take SDGs seriously the accountability needs to be strengthened at all levels.
18.7. Way Forward
• By the force of intent and strategic versatility, the SDGs are expected to bring about a
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Beyond the comfort zone of a ‘business-asusual’ approach, new strategies, institutional

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mechanisms and partnerships are necessary to yield the desired results. The SDG India Index
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so that the yearly progress of the States/ UTs can be closely monitored and gaps can be
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addressed, the natural aspiration being to graduate towards a more dynamic monitoring and
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evaluation framework.
• As India prepares to present its second Voluntary National Review during the United Nations’
High Level Political Forum in July 2020, a conscious effort has been made to move from a
“whole-of-government” approach to a “ whole-of-society” approach, with extensive
engagement with not only Central ministries, State/ UT governments, local governments, but
also civil society organisations, think tanks, UN agencies, and the private sector on a gamut
of cross-connected issues pertaining to the Agenda 2030.
• A comprehensive capacity building programme for the States, U.Ts, local governments is
being designed in partnership with the UN system. The training modules will extensively
cover developing SDG monitoring framework, identifying and designing indicators,
localisation, and dashboards.
• NITI Aayog has initiated collaboration with IMF on estimating the financial cost of achieving
key SDGs. As the next step of the collaboration, SDG financing exercise with select States is
planned.
• Special attention is being given to the adoption, implementation, monitoring and financing
of SDGs in States which have been historically backward in development. There is consensus

on all levels that unless these States make significant progress, India will find it challenging Student Notes:
to achieve its SDG targets on time. NITI Aayog has started working closely with these States,
enabling them in establishing SDG monitoring systems and supporting them in forging
partnerships for building institutions, capacity, knowledge and convergence.
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Green Economy
A green economy is defined as low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive.
In a green economy, growth in employment and income are driven by public and private investment
into such economic activities, infrastructure and assets that allow reduced carbon emissions and
pollution, enhanced energy and resource efficiency, and prevention of the loss of biodiversity and
ecosystem services.
The notion of green economy does not replace sustainable development, but creates a new focus on
the economy, investment, capital and infrastructure, employment and skills and positive social and
environmental outcomes across Asia and the Pacific.
The three main areas for the current work on Green Economy are:
• Advocacy of macro-economic approach to sustainable economic growth through regional, sub-
regional and national fora
• Demonstration of Green Economy approaches with a central focus on access to green finance,
technology and investments
• Support to countries in terms of development and mainstreaming of macro-economic policies to
support the transition to a Green Economy

Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) Student Notes:

• It was launched in 2013 as a response to the call at Rio+20 to support those countries wishing to
embark on greener and more inclusive growth trajectories.
• PAGE seeks to put sustainability at the heart of economic policies and practices to advance the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and supports nations and regions in reframing
economic policies and practices around sustainability to foster economic growth, create income
and jobs, reduce poverty and inequality, and strengthen the ecological foundations of their
economies.
• PAGE brings together five UN agencies – UN Environment, International Labour Organization, UN
Development Programme, UN Industrial Development Organization, and UN Institute for Training
and Research – whose mandates, expertises and networks combined can offer integrated and
holistic support to countries on inclusive green economy, ensuring coherence and avoiding
duplication.
• PAGE represents a mechanism to coordinate UN action on green economy and to assist countries
in achieving and monitoring the emerging Sustainable Development Goals, especially SDG 8:
"Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment
and decent work for all.”
The role of Green Economy, Sustainable Consumption and Production and Resource Efficiency for
Sustainable Development
Sustainable Consumption
and Production aims to
improve production
processes and
consumption practices to
reduce resource
consumption, waste
generation and emissions
across the full life cycle of
processes and products –
while Resource Efficiency
refers to the ways in which
resources are used to deliver value to society and aims to reduce the amount of resources needed,
and emissions and waste generated, per unit of product or service. The Green Economy provides a
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employment and skills.

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18.8. UPSC Previous Year Questions

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1. Examine the effect of economic development on environmental degradation in India. (2004)

2. How has the Indian State tackled the trade-off between environment and development ?
(2005)
3. Explain the concepts “Environmental Sustainability” and “Sustainable Development of
People”? (2012)
4. What are the economic significances of discovery of oil in Arctic Sea and its possible
environmental consequences? (2015)
5. “Policy contradictions among various competing sectors and stakeholders have resulted in
inadequate ‘protection and prevention of degradation’ to environment.” Comment with
relevant illustrations. (2018)
6. Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment.
Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development
of a region. (2019)

Prelims Student Notes:

1. What is Rio+20 Conference, often mentioned in the news? (2015)
(a) It is the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World Trade Organization
(c) It is a Conference of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
(d) It is a Conference of the Member Countries of the Convention on Biological Diversity
Answer: (a)
2. With reference to ‘Agenda 21’, sometimes seen in the news, consider the following
statements: (2016)
1. It is a global action plan for sustainable development.
2. It originated in the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg
in 2002.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: (a)
3. The Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE), a UN mechanism to assist

countries transition towards greener and more inclusive economies, emerged at: (2018)
(a) The Earth Summit on Sustainable Development 2002, Johannesburg
(b) The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development 2012, Rio de Janeiro
(c) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2015, Paris
(d) The World Sustainable Development Summit 2016, New Delhi
Answer: (b)
18.9. Vision IAS Previous Year Questions
1. Describe the ongoing efforts for protection of environment and biodiversity in the light
of the views of Gandhiji on sustainable development.
Answer:
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• With a current economy that is resilient and an ecology that is fragile, India is
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genuinely looking for ways to achieve sustainable development as it was defined at

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the Stockholm Summit — development that is economically sound, socially relevant

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• India's interest in leading the global agenda on environment in general and

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biodiversity (the variety of life on earth that ranges from all the plants, animals,
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microbes and other living systems) in particular is globally recognised.

• India hosted one of the largest environment/biodiversity events in the history of
humankind: the 11th Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD-COP 11) in October 2012.
• With almost near-global membership, the Convention on Biological Diversity is hailed
as the most progressive multilateral environmental agreement that offers a unique
opportunity to operationalise the principles of sustainable development.
• Gandhiji’s vision was so forward-looking and inclusive that almost all of what we
intend to define and re-define, and at the same time struggle to realise, was noted,
analysed, linked and suggested by this great human being decades before
• Gandhiji's famous quote, “the earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs,
but not every man's greed,” is such a perfect summation of the principles of ethics
and justice, as elaborated under justice in exchange, distributive justice, corrective
justice and retributive justice.

• Distinguishing between the needs and wants of human society, the Gandhian vision Student Notes:
and philosophy are finding new breath in today's discourses related to reducing
consumerism, respect for nature and ensuring equitable development.
• Sanitation, maternal health, primary education, gender balance, reduction of hunger,
and ensuring partnerships for development formed the basis for Gandhi's life and
practice long before the Millennium Development Goals were designed.
• His antyodaya approach is something that will remain the basis for sustainable
development not just in 2012 but many decades and centuries to come.
• India is one of the first countries to enact a national legislation that considers these
principles through the Biological Diversity Act of 2002.
• The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 that deals with decentralised governance and
management of biological resources, attempts to work at the level of the panchayat
to make rural livelihoods secure, suggests balancing of conservation with sustainable
use, applies the principles of ethics and equity, and promotes the economics of
permanence through varied partnerships.
• Constitutional provisions for Sustainable Development in DPSP and in our
Fundamental Duties
• initiative taken by Govt for sustainable development like Environment Protect Act,
1986, Tiger Conservation Programme, Giving people more say in the development
projects etc.
2. Climate change threatens sustainable development, impairs socio-economic

development and reinforces cycles of poverty across the globe. In this context, discuss
the utility of climate risk insurance as an instrument within a comprehensive climate
risk management system.
Approach:
• In the first part of the question, link the climate change effects to sustainable
development, socio economic development and poverty.
• In the second part, with the help of proviso of climate risk insurance, show how the
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scheme can foster sustainable development, socio economic development and

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alleviate poverty.
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Answer:
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Climate change refers to the change in climate pattern from mid-20th century onwards
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owing to increasing level of carbon dioxide. It has been adversely affecting sustainable
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development, socio-economic development and well-being of people due to reasons

such as:
• Impact on cropping patterns and yield by changes in temperature, precipitation &
glacial run off etc. affect people at lower strata through increasing stress on water
resources.
• Rise in sea level leading to existential threat to millions living on small islands.
• Loss of biodiversity disturbs natural habitats, food chain etc.
• Increase in communicable diseases, new infections, water borne diseases.
The absence of economic safety nets which could cushion the adverse impact of these
climate-related disasters remains a serious concern because the risks often fall more
heavily on those least able to reduce or recover from them. Any comprehensive climate
risk management system include prevention, risk reduction, risk retention and risk
transfer such as insurance schemes. The climate risk insurance has the following utilities:

• Risk assessment: Insurance acts as a catalyst for risk assessment. It can facilitate Student Notes:
regional and international data analysis such as establishing data standards, methods
and data repositories.
• Protecting the vulnerable: Insurance provides timely finance, which improves
financial liquidity shortly after a disaster, reduces distress sale of assets and enable
rapid recovery. It prevents people from slipping into poverty. It has the potential to
protect approximately 400 million most vulnerable people against climate risk.
• Lessen financial repercussions of volatility: by creating a space of certainty within
which investments, planning and development activities can be undertaken. This can
help to unlock opportunities and may help increase savings, increase investments in
higher-return activities and improve credit worthiness helping people or small
enterprises in escaping poverty.
• Increase climate resilience: People are enabled to better absorb shocks. It will help
generate sustainable solutions to fight against climate change since it strives for the
climate induced disaster prevention and spreads the climate risk across time.
• Spurs transformation: Insurance reshapes the way risks are managed and driving
more structured decision-making. Risk awareness also encourages risk-reducing
behaviour, fosters a culture of risk management and increases the demand for
insurance coverage
• Reduces disparity: It will help in reducing socio-economic disparity as it will dampen
the disparity at different levels as it protects at individual, community, country,
regional (international) and global level.
Thus, climate risk insurance is a key financial instrument to address residual risk but it is
only one step in a systematic process. Effective risk management includes improving the
understanding of disaster risks, reduce and transfer risk, respond to events and disasters
as well as continually improve disaster preparedness.

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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 19 - SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
19. Sustainable Agriculture
19.1. Introduction
• The term "sustainable agriculture" is defined as an integrated system of plant and animal
production practices having a site-specific
application that will, over the long term:
o Satisfy human food and fiber needs
o Enhance environmental quality and the natural
resource
o Make the most efficient use of non-renewable
resources and on-farm resources and integrate,
where appropriate, natural biological cycles and
controls
o Sustain the economic viability of farm
operations
o Enhance the quality of life for farmers and
society as a whole.
• There are several key principles
associated with sustainability in
agriculture:
o The incorporation of biological
and ecological processes such as
nutrient cycling, soil
regeneration, and nitrogen
fixation into agricultural and food
production practices.
o Using decreased amounts of
non-renewable and
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harmful ones.
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o Using the expertise of farmers to

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as well as to promote the self-

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reliance and self-sufficiency of

farmers.
o Solving agricultural and natural
resource problems through the
cooperation and collaboration
of people with different skills.
The problems tackled include
pest management and irrigation.
• It “considers long-term as well as
short-term economics because
sustainability is readily defined as
forever, that is, agricultural
environments that are designed to promote endless regeneration”. It balances the need for
resource conservation with the needs of farmers pursuing their livelihood. It is considered to
be reconciliation ecology, accommodating biodiversity within human landscapes.

19.2. Agricultural Emissions in India Student Notes:
Contribution: Sources:
• In India, agriculture and livestock • Enteric fermentation: Microbes in the digestive tract,
accounts for 18% of gross national or rumen, decompose and ferment food, producing
GHG emissions, the third-highest methane as a by-product.
sector after energy and industry. Most • Rice cultivation: GHG emissions from rice cultivation
of this takes place from states like consist of methane gas from the anaerobic
Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, West decomposition of organic matter in paddy fields due
Bengal etc. to standing water in the rice fields.
• Manure management: GHG emissions from manure
Impact: management consist of methane and nitrous oxide
gases from aerobic and anaerobic manure
• Pollution: decomposition processes.
o Short-lived climate pollutants • Synthetic fertilisers: GHG emissions from synthetic
(SLCPs) such as black carbon fertilisers such as urea consist of nitrous oxide gas
materials and particulate matter from synthetic nitrogen additions to managed soils
PM10 and PM2.5 are generated due to volatilisation.
due to burning of stubbles. • Crop residues: GHG emissions from crop residues
o Fertilisers rich in nitrogen can consist of nitrous oxide gas deriving from the
pollute water and threaten decomposition of nitrogen in crop residues and
aquatic ecosystems. burning of crop residues.
• Greenhouse gases: Use of excess • Energy use: Irrigation uses highly inefficient water
nitrogenous fertilizers, paddy pumps and accounts for around 70% of the energy
cultivation and enteric fermentation consumption of agriculture causing emissions of
components which causes global carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide gases
warming. associated with fuel burning and the generation of
electricity used in agriculture.
19.3. Sustainable Production Practices

Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. Specific strategies must take
into account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the
individual grower's goals.
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19.3.1. Plant Production Practices

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Despite the site-specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general
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principles can be applied to help growers select appropriate management practices:

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• Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the
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farm.
• Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the biological
and economic stability of the farm:
o Diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient. While
monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management, the
loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and/or seriously disrupt
the stability of a community dependent on that crop.
o Properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For example, in
annual cropping systems, crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds, pathogens and
insect pests.
o Also, cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystem by holding soil and
nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with mowed or standing dead mulches, and
by increasing the water infiltration rate and soil water holding capacity.
o Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the same
farming operation.
• Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality through methods like:

o Using cover crops, compost and/or manures Student Notes:

o Reducing tillage
o Avoiding traffic on wet soils
o Maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches
• Conditions in most California soils (warm, irrigated, and tilled) do not favor the buildup of
organic matter. Regular additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can increase soil
aggregate stability, soil tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life.
• Efficient and humane use of inputs
o Many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in sustainable
agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and
on-farm inputs. Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts
of a particular strategy.
o Converting to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. Frequently,
it substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs,
especially chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities.
The goal is to develop efficient, biological systems which do not need high levels of
material inputs.
• Consideration of farmer’s goals and lifestyle choices:
o Management decisions should reflect not only environmental and broad social
considerations, but also individual goals and lifestyle choices. For example, adoption of
some technologies or practices that promise profitability may also require such intensive
management that one's lifestyle actually deteriorates. Management decisions that
promote sustainability, nourish the environment, the community and the individual.
19.3.2. Animal Production Practices
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19.4. Sustainable Agricultural Practices

19.4.1. Mulching
• Mulch is simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil. Mulches can
either be organic -- such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and similar materials -- or

inorganic -- such as stones, brick chips, and plastic. Both organic and inorganic mulches have Student Notes:
numerous benefits. Mulching enriches and protects soil, helping provide a better growing
environment.
• Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As these mulches slowly decompose,
they provide organic matter which helps keep the soil loose. This improves root growth,
increases the infiltration of water, and also improves the water-holding capacity of the soil.
Organic matter is a source of plant nutrients and provides an ideal environment for
earthworms and other beneficial soil organisms.
• While inorganic mulches have their place in certain landscapes, they lack the soil improving
properties of organic mulches. Inorganic mulches, because of their permanence, may be
difficult to remove if you decide to change your garden plans at a later date. Therefore, this
tip sheet is limited to the use of organic mulches.
• Mulching Materials: Materials used as mulches vary and depend on a number of factors.
Use takes into consideration availability, cost, appearance, the effect it has on the soil—
including chemical reactions and pH,
durability, combustibility, rate of Significance of Mulching
• Protects the soil from erosion
decomposition, how clean it is—some can
• Reduces compaction from the impact of
contain weed seeds or plant pathogens. A heavy rains
variety of materials are used as mulch: • Conserves moisture, reducing the need
o Organic residues: grass clippings, for frequent waterings
leaves, hay, straw, kitchen scraps • Maintains a more even soil temperature
comfrey, shredded bark, whole bark • Prevents weed growth
nuggets, sawdust, shells, woodchips,
shredded newspaper, cardboard, wool, animal manure, etc. Many of these materials
also act as a direct composting system, such as the mulched clippings of a mulching lawn
mower, or other organics applied as sheet composting.
o Compost: fully composted materials are used to avoid possible phytotoxicity problems.
Materials that are free of seeds are ideally used, to prevent weeds being introduced by
the mulch.
o Old carpet (synthetic or natural): makes a free, readily available mulch.
o Rubber mulch: made from recycled tire rubber.
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o Plastic mulch: crops grow through slits or holes in thin plastic sheeting. This method is
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o Rock and gravel can also be used as a mulch. In cooler climates the heat retained by
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rocks may extend the growing season.

19.4.2. Zero Tillage
• Tillage is an agriculture land preparation through mechanical agitation which includes
digging, stirring and overturning. Zero tillage is the process where the crop seed will be sown
through drillers without prior land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop
stubbles are present. Zero tillage not only reduce the cost of cultivation it also reduces the
soil erosion, crop duration and irrigation requirement and weed effect which is better than
tillage. Zero Tillage (ZT) also called No Tillage or Nil Tillage.
• The advantages of Zero tillage include:
o Reduction in the crop duration and thereby early cropping can be obtained to get higher
yields.
o Reduction in the cost of inputs for land preparation and therefore a saving of around
80%.
o Residual moisture can be effectively utilized and number of irrigations can be reduced.
o Dry matter and organic matter get added to the soil.

o Environmentally safe - Greenhouse effect will get reduced due to carbon sequestration. Student Notes:
o No tillage reduces the compaction of the soil and reduces the water loss by runoff and
prevent soil erosion.
o As the soil is intact and no disturbance is done, No Till lands have more useful flora and
fauna
• The natural resources are precious and therefore demand an effective and sustainable use.
Zero tillage is a potential technology in this scenario. Although the drawback of use of non-
selective herbicide is more, it still causes less effect than the conventional method of farming.
In zero tillage, more returns can be achieved and timely crop can be grown with higher yields.
Zero Tillage in India
l No Till approach started from 1960s by farmers in India. The zero-tillage system is being followed
in the Indo-Gangetic plains where rice-wheat cropping is present. Wheat will be planted after rice
harvest without any operation.
l The green revolution paved the way for the rice-wheat production system in the north-western
parts of India. But in due course of time, the yields of rice and wheat become stagnant due to
inappropriate soil and water management system and late planting of wheat, as in the hot season
rice is being grown and in the winter wheat follows the rice.
l In 1990’s the zero tillage came to mitigate the problem, by planting the wheat by drilling without
any land preparation and tillage.
l The success of zero tillage depends on the machinery to drill seed in the uncultivated land. In late
1980’s, CIMMYT introduced a prototype for drilling the seed. In India, the first localized seed drill
was manufactured by GB Pant University with a motor to reduce the cost and make it available and
affordable.
19.4.3. Agro-Ecology
• Agroecology is an integrated approach that simultaneously applies ecological and social
concepts and principles to the design and management of food and agricultural systems. It
seeks to optimize the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment
while taking into consideration the
social aspects that need to be 10 Elements of Agroecology
addressed for a sustainable and fair l Diversity; synergies; efficiency; resilience;
food system. recycling; co-creation and sharing of knowledge
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• The major agroecological principles
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agroecological systems, foundational practices

include:
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o Recycling: Preferentially use local l Human and social values; culture and food
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traditions (context features)

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far as possible resource cycles of l Responsible governance; circular and solidarity

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nutrients and biomass. economy (enabling environment)

o Input reduction: Reduce or The 10 Elements of Agroecology are interlinked and
eliminate dependency on interdependent.
purchased inputs.Soil heath.
Secure and enhance soil health and functioning for improved plant growth, particularly
by managing organic matter and by enhancing soil biological activity.
o Animal health: Ensure animal health and welfare.
o Biodiversity: Maintain and enhance diversity of species, functional diversity and genetic
resources and maintain biodiversity in the agroecosystem over time and space at field,
farm and landscape scales.
o Synergy: Enhance positive ecological interaction, integration, and complementarity
amongst the elements of agroecosystems (plants, animals, trees, soil, water).
o Economic diversification: Diversify on-farm incomes by ensuring small-scale farmers
have greater financial independence and value addition opportunities while enabling
them to respond to demand from consumers.
o Co-creation of knowledge: Enhance co-creation and horizontal sharing of knowledge

including local and scientific innovation, especially through farmer-to-farmer exchange. Student Notes:
o Social values and diets: Build food systems based on the culture, identity, tradition, social
and gender equity of local communities that provide healthy, diversified, seasonally and
culturally appropriate diets.
o Fairness: Support dignified and robust livelihoods for all actors engaged in food systems,
especially small-scale food producers, based on fair trade, fair employment and fair
treatment of intellectual property rights.
o Connectivity: Ensure proximity and confidence between producers and consumers
through promotion of fair and short distribution networks and by re-embedding food
systems into local economies.
o Land and natural resource governance: Recognize and support the needs and interests
of family farmers, smallholders and peasant food producers as sustainable managers and
guardians of natural and genetic resources.
o Participation: Encourage social
organization and greater
participation in decision-
making by food producers and
consumers to support
decentralized governance and
local adaptive management of
agricultural and food systems.
19.4.4. Organic Farming
• FSSAI has issued regulation on
organic farming in India. The
regulations include:
o Definition
ü Organic Agriculture: A
system of farm design and
management to create an
eco-system of agriculture
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production without the

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use of synthetic external

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synthetic hormones or
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genetically modified organisms.

ü Organic Farm Produce: the
produce obtained from organic
agriculture.
ü Organic Food Means: Food
products that have been produced
in accordance with specified
standards for organic production.
o Mandatory labeling of Organic food
which should convey full and accurate
information on the organic status of
the product. There will be penalties on
non-compliance of regulation.
o Approval authority: Organic food
products should carry a certification
mark or a quality assurance mark given
by

ü National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) Student Notes:

ü Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS-India)
ü Voluntary logo from the FSSAI that marked its produce as ‘organic.
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19.4.5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) Student Notes:

• It is a natural farming technique in which farming is done without use of chemicals and
without using any credits or spending any money on purchased inputs.
• ZBNF reduces the cost of production down to zero due to utilisation of all the natural
resources available in and around the crops. Farmers use earthworms, cow dung, urine,
plants, human excreta and other biological fertilizers for crop protection.
• It has been developed by Subhash Palekar.
• Government of Andhra Pradesh is implementing Zero-Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

Programme.
19.4.6. Intensive Agricultural Practices
• Intensive farming practices which are thought to be sustainable have been developed to slow
the deterioration of agricultural land and even regenerate soil health and ecosystem services.
These developments may fall in the category of organic farming, or the integration of organic
and conventional agriculture.
• Pasture cropping involves planting grain crops directly into grassland without first applying
herbicides. The perennial grasses form a living mulch understory to the grain crop,
eliminating the need to plant cover crops after harvest. The pasture is intensively grazed both
before and after grain production. This intensive system yields equivalent farmer profits
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• Biointensive agriculture focuses on maximizing efficiency such as per unit area, energy input
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• Agroforestry combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to create more

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integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.

• Intercropping can increase yields or reduce inputs and thus represents (potentially
sustainable) agricultural intensification. However, while total yield per acre is often increased,
yields of any single crop often diminish. There are also challenges to farmers relying on
farming equipment optimized for monoculture, often resulting in increased labor inputs.
• Vertical farming is intensive crop production on a large scale in urban centers, in multi-story,
artificially-lit structures, for the production of low-calorie foods like herbs, microgreens, and
lettuce.
• An integrated farming system is a progressive, sustainable agriculture system such as zero
waste agriculture or integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, which involves the interactions of
multiple species. Elements of this integration can include:
o Intentionally introducing flowering plants into agricultural ecosystems to increase pollen-
and nectar-resources required by natural enemies of insect pests.
o Using crop rotation and cover crops to suppress nematodes in potatoes.
o Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from
one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another.

• Holistic management was originally developed for reversing desertification. Holistic planned Student Notes:
grazing is similar to rotational grazing but accentuates the four principles of the water cycle,
the mineral cycles (including the carbon cycle), energy flow and ecology.
System of Rice Intensification
l The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a farming methodology aimed at increasing the yield of
rice produced in farming. It is a low-water, labor-intensive method that uses younger seedlings
singly spaced and typically hand weeded with special tools. It was developed in 1983 by the French
Jesuit Father Henri de Laulanié in Madagascar.
l SRI concepts and practices have continued to evolve as they are being adapted to rain-fed
(unirrigated) environments and with transplanting being sometimes replaced by direct-seeding.
The central principles of SRI are:
o Rice field soils should be kept moist rather than continuously saturated, minimizing anaerobic
conditions, as this improves root growth and supports the growth and diversity of aerobic soil
organisms.
o Rice plants should be planted singly and widely spaced to permit root and canopy growth to
keep all leaves photosynthetically active.
o Rice seedlings should be transplanted when young, less than 15 days old with just two leaves,
quickly, shallowly, and carefully, to avoid trauma to roots and minimize transplant shock.
l The Kadiramangalam System of Rice Intensification: Developed and practiced in the village by Mr
S. Gopal of the Cauvery Delta zone of Tamil Nadu State. This system has been developed using SRI
ideas and practices, such that it is suited to local conditions in the Cauvery Delta region.
o Concern of farmers in SRI method of planting : Very young seedlings (when planted as in SRI)
will be desiccated by the intense sun and continuous wind.
o A potential solution to their problem : Transplanting very young seedlings in clumps of five
for their first two weeks out of the nursery gives them some protection against sun and wind.
Re-transplanting them singly after two weeks means that they are then stronger and able to
grow vigorously with no mortality.
o Drawback in the method: Additional labour requirement for the second transplanting.
However, farmers feel that the increased yield will cover the additional labor cost.
o Outcome : The yield obtained in this system was on an average 7.5 t/ha.
Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative
l The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) is an innovative set of agronomic practices that involves
using less seeds, raising seeds in a nursery, and following new planting methods, with wider seed
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spacing, and better water and nutrient management to increase the cane yields significantly.
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l SSI methods can increase sugarcane yields by at least 20% with 30% less water and a 25% reduction
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in chemical inputs. The SSI method of sugarcane cultivation was evolved from the principles of
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‘More with Less’ followed in SRI (System of Rice Intensification) and introduced in India by the
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WWF-ICRISAT collaborative project in 2009.

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Benefits of SSI to farmers

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o Less seed: Saving in seed material

o Healthy seedling of 25-35 days old from nursery
o Wide spacing: Go for inter cropping
o Water saving: Easy for drip, low cost
o Less cost for transplantation
o Adapting to new varieties
o Intercrop provides an additional income
l Benefits of SSI to millers
o Increase recovery
o Improves the raw material supply
o Improves the profitability.
o Increases the efficiency of mills- more systematic supply during the season.
19.4.7. Permaculture
• Permaculture is an innovative framework for creating sustainable ways of living. It is a
practical method of developing ecologically harmonious, efficient and productive systems
that can be used by anyone, anywhere.

• It is the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which Student Notes:
have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.
• It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people — providing their food, energy,
shelter, and other material and non-material needs in a sustainable way. The term was coined
by Bill Mollison in 1978
• Significance of Permaculture
o Environment friendly: It discourages uses of chemical and pesticide and promotes the
uses of eco-friendly means to maintain soil health and increase productivity.
o Decrease Global warming: Increasing area under permaculture from current 108 million
acres to 1 billion acres by 2050 could result in a total reduction of 23.2 gigatons of CO2,
from both sequestration and reduced emissions.
o Promotion of Traditional practice: It incorporates traditional farming practices with
modern technological and scientific knowledge to create efficient systems. It can also
reduce the dependency of farmers on multi-national companies for genetically modified
seeds.
o Improve income: Instead of monoculture, permaculture uses polyculture where a
diverse range of vegetation and animals are utilised to support each other to create a
selfsustaining system.
• Permaculture tackles how to grow food, build houses and create communities, and minimise
environmental impact at the same time. Its principles are being constantly developed and
refined by people throughout the world in very different climates and cultural circumstances.
19.4.8. Vertical Farming Systems
• Vertical farming is cultivating and producing crops/ plants in vertically stacked layers and
vertically inclined surfaces. The entire world is on the verge of population explosion and there
is a gravest challenge of feeding the population. The population explosion has led to the
decreased per capita land.
• In 1915, Gilbert Ellis Bailey coined the term “vertical farming” and wrote a book titled
“Vertical Farming”. In the early 1930s, William Frederick Gerick pioneered hydroponics at the
University of California at Berkley.
• Advantages of vertical farming
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o The first and the major advantage of vertical farming is producing extremely high yields
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per available land or area.

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o Producing the food throughout the year without the risk of vagaries of nature of nature
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like floods, heavy rains, uneven rains, hail and snowfall, drought, dry spells, extreme high
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temperatures, cold waves, epidemics of pest and diseases, etc.

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o It reduces the cost over transporting loads of food grains from rural area to urban areas
and reduce the spoilage occurring therein. Fossil fuel consumption in transporting the
farm produce to cities from village places is also reduced to a greater extent. Vertical
farming uses 70 to 95 % less water compared to traditional farming
o 90%less or no soil is needed in vertical farming and thereby no pest and disease
infestations.
o Pesticide free or organic food is produced as there is no use of pesticides.
o Due to reduced food supply chain, consumers get the fresh produce with all its original
nutrient qualities.
o High productivity per unit area i.e. almost 80% more harvest per unit of area in vertical
farming.
o It will lead to greening of the urban areas and help to reduce the rising temperatures and
mainly the air pollution in cities.
• Disadvantages of vertical farming
o Initial high cost for establishing the vertical farming system is the major problem. It will
include the cost erecting the structures along with its automation like Computerized and

monitoring systems, remote control systems and software's, automated racking and Student Notes:
stacking systems, programmable LED lighting systems, climate control system, etc.
o High energy cost as growing plant is entirely with artificial lights.
o The excess nutrients used in vertical farming may interfere and contaminate the main
urban water system if not taken care of.
o LED lighting systems emit heat though small amount will create problem of maintaining
the temperatures especially in summer months and may overload the air conditioning
systems which will again incur high energy cost.
o Lot of garbage, plant residues, etc. will be generated around the buildings with vertical
farming which needs to be dispose off properly.
o Skilled workforce will be unavailable initially and will need to be trained
Systems of Vertical farming
1. Hydroponics:
l It is a method of growing food in water using mineral nutrient solutions without soil. The basic
advantages of this method is that it reduces soil-related cultivation problems like soil borne insects,
pest and diseases.
2. Aeroponics
l In aeroponics, there is no growing medium and hence, no containers for growing crops. In
aeroponics, mist or nutrient solutions are used instead of water. As the plants are tied to a support
and roots are sprayed with nutrient solution, it requires very less space, very less water and no soil.
3. Aquaponics
l It is a bio-system that integrates recirculated aquaculture (fish farming) with hydroponic vegetable,
flower, and herb production to create symbiotic relationships between the plants and the fish.
l It achieves this symbiosis through using the nutrient-rich waste from fish tanks to “fertigate”
hydroponic production beds. In turn, the hydroponic beds also function as bio-filters that remove
gases, acids, and chemicals, such as ammonia, nitrates, and phosphates, from the water.
l Simultaneously, the gravel beds provide habitats for nitrifying bacteria, which augment the
nutrient cycling and filter water. Consequently, the freshly cleansed water can be recirculated into
the fish tanks.
• Vertical farming is definitely a solution to critical problems in Indian farming likelack of supply
or oversupply of farm produce, overuse of pesticides, overuse of fertilizers, deteriorating soils
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• But there are challenges like acceptance of vertical farming by Indian farming community.
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Indian farmers are facing various problems like lack of electricity supply throughout the day,
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assurance of minimum support prices, no control over market glut, water scarcity, etc. The
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initial huge cost of infrastructure for a large-scale farm is a major hurdle for implementing
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vertical farming in India. Vertical farming in India has to face other challenges like public
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awareness, inclusiveness of farming community, technical know-how, cost incurred in

managing and mainlining the vertical farm systems, and also its economic viability.
19.4.9. Hydroponics
• Hydroponics is the cultivation of plants without using soil. Hydroponic flowers, herbs, and
vegetables are planted in inert growing media and supplied with nutrient-rich solutions,
oxygen, and water. This system fosters rapid growth, stronger yields, and superior quality.
When a plant is grown in soil, its roots are perpetually searching for the necessary nutrition
to support the plant. If a plant’s root system is exposed directly to water and nutrition, the
plant does not have to exert any energy in sustaining itself. The energy the roots would have
expended acquiring food and water can be redirected into the plant’s maturation. As a result,
leaf growth flourishes as does the blooming of fruits and flowers.
• Functioning of a Hydroponic System:
o Hydroponic systems work by allowing minute control over environmental conditions like
temperature and pH balance and maximized exposure to nutrients and water.
Hydroponics operates under a very simple principle: provide plants exactly what they

need when they need it. Hydroponics administer nutrient solutions tailored to the needs Student Notes:
of the particular plant being grown. They allow you to control exactly how much light the
plants receive and for how long. pH levels can be monitored and adjusted. In a highly
customized and controlled environment, plant growth accelerates.
o By controlling the environment of the plant, many risk factors are reduced. Plants grown
in gardens and fields are introduced to a host of variables that negatively impact their
health and growth. Fungus in the soil can spread diseases to plants. Wildlife like rabbits
can plunder ripening vegetables from your garden. Pests like locusts can descend on
crops and obliterate them in an afternoon. Hydroponic systems end the unpredictability
of growing plants outdoors and in the earth. Without the mechanical resistance of the
soil, seedlings can mature much faster. By eliminating pesticides, hydroponics produce
much healthier and high-quality fruits and vegetables. Without obstacles, plants are free
to grow vigorously and rapidly.
19.4.10. Aquaponics
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• Benefits associated with Aquaponics

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o Aquaponics relies on the recycling of nutrient-rich water continuously. In aquaponics,

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o Aquaponics uses 1/10th of the water of soil-based gardening and even less water than
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hydroponics or recirculating aquaculture.

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o No harmful petrochemicals, pesticides or herbicides can be used. It’s a natural

ecosystem.
o Aquaponic systems can be put anywhere, use them outside, in a greenhouse, in your
basement, or in your living room. By using grow-lighting, and space can become a
productive garden.
o Instead of using dirt or toxic chemical solutions to grow plants, aquaponics uses highly
nutritious fish effluent that contains all the required nutrients for optimum plant growth.
Instead of discharging water, aquaponics uses the plants, naturally occurring bacteria,
and the media in which they grow in to clean and purify the water, after which it is
returned to the fish tank. This water can be reused indefinitely and will only need to be
topped-off when it is lost through transpiration from the plants and evaporation.

19.4.11. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Student Notes:

• IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy Components of IPM
that focuses on long-term prevention l Pest identification.
of pests or their damage through a l Monitoring and assessing pest numbers and
combination of techniques such as damage.
biological control, habitat l Preventing pest problems.
manipulation, modification of cultural l Using a combination of biological, cultural,
practices, and use of resistant physical/mechanical and chemical management
varieties. Pesticides are used only after tools.
l After action is taken, assessing the effect of pest
monitoring indicates they are needed
management.
according to established guidelines,
and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism. Pest control
materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health,
beneficial and non-target organisms, and the environment.
• The most effective, long-term way to manage pests is by using a combination of methods
that work better together than separately. Approaches for managing pests are often grouped
in the following categories.
o Biological control: Biological control is the use of natural enemies—predators, parasites,
pathogens, and competitors—to control pests and their damage. Invertebrates, plant
pathogens, nematodes, weeds, and vertebrates have many natural enemies.
o Cultural controls: Cultural controls are practices that reduce pest establishment,
reproduction, dispersal, and survival. For example, changing irrigation practices can
reduce pest problems, since too much water can increase root disease and weeds.
o Mechanical and physical controls: Mechanical and physical controls kill a pest directly,
block pests out, or make the environment unsuitable for it. Traps for rodents are
examples of mechanical control. Physical controls include mulches for weed
management, steam sterilization of the soil for disease management, or barriers such as
screens to keep birds or insects out.
o Chemical control: Chemical control is the use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are used
only when needed and in combination with other approaches for more effective, long-
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term control. Pesticides are selected and applied in a way that minimizes their possible
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harm to people, non-target organisms, and the environment.

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Miscellaneous Practices
Over decades of science and practice, several key sustainable farming practices have emerged—for
example:
• Rotating crops and embracing diversity: Planting a variety of crops can have many benefits,
including healthier soil and improved pest control. Crop diversity practices include inter cropping
(growing a mix of crops in the same area) and complex multi-year crop rotations.
• Planting cover crops: Cover crops, like clover or hairy vetch, are planted during off-season times
when soils might otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by preventing
erosion, replenishing soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need for herbicides.
• Integrating livestock and crops: Industrial agriculture tends to keep plant and animal production
separate, with animals living far from the areas where their feed is produced, and crops growing far
away from abundant manure fertilizers. A growing body of evidence shows that a smart integration
of crop and animal production can be a recipe for more efficient, profitable farms.

• Managing whole systems and landscapes: Sustainable farms treat uncultivated or less intensively Student Notes:
cultivated areas, such as riparian buffers or prairie strips, as integral to the farm—valued for their
role in controlling erosion, reducing nutrient runoff, and supporting pollinators and other
biodiversity.
19.5. Government Initiatives

19.5.1. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) aims at making agriculture more
productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient by promoting location specific
integrated /composite farming systems; soil and moisture conservation measures;
comprehensive soil health management; eﬃcient water management practices and
mainstreaming rainfed technologies.
• NMSA will have following objectives:
o To make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient by
promoting location specific Integrated/Composite Farming Systems;
o To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil and moisture conservation
measures;
o To adopt comprehensive soil health management practices based on soil fertility maps,
soil test based application of macro & micro nutrients, judicious use of fertilizers etc.;
o To optimize utilization of water resources through efficient water management to expand
coverage for achieving ‘more crop per drop’;
o To develop capacity of farmers & stakeholders, in conjunction with other ongoing
Missions e.g. National Mission on Agriculture Extension & Technology, National Food
Security Mission, National Initiative for Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) etc., in the
domain of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures;
o To pilot models in select blocks for improving productivity of rainfed farming by
mainstreaming rainfed technologies refined through NICRA and by leveraging resources
from other schemes/Missions like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Integrated Watershed Management Programme
(IWMP), RKVY etc.; and
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o To establish an effective inter and intra Departmental/Ministerial co-ordination for

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accomplishing key deliverables of National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture under the
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aegis of NAPCC.
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Mission Interventions
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l Rainfed Area Development (RAD): RAD will adopt an area based approach for development and
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conservation of natural resources along with farming systems. This component has been
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formulated in a ‘watershed plus framework’, i.e., to explore potential utilization of natural

resources base/assets available/created through watershed development and soil conservation
activities/interventions under MGNREGS, NWDPRA, RVP&FPR, RKVY, IWMP etc.
l On Farm Water Management (OFWM): OFWM will focus primarily on enhancing water use
efficiency by promoting efficient on-farm water management technologies and equipment. This
will not only focus on application efficiency but, in conjunction with RAD component, also will
emphasize on effective harvesting & management of rainwater.
l Soil Health Management (SHM): SHM will aim at promoting location as well as crop specific
sustainable soil health management including residue management, organic farming practices by
way of creating and linking soil fertility maps with macro-micro nutrient management, appropriate
land use based on land capability, judicious application of fertilizers and minimizing the soil
erosion/degradation.
l Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN): CCSAMMN will provide creation and bidirectional (land/farmers to
research/scientific establishments and vice versa) dissemination of climate change related
information and knowledge by way of piloting climate change adaptation/mitigation
research/model projects in the domain of climate smart sustainable management practices and
integrated farming system suitable to local agro-climatic conditions.

• To achieve the objectives the programme will have the following strategy; Student Notes:
o Promoting integrated farming system covering crops, livestock & fishery, plantation and
pasture based composite farming for enhancing livelihood opportunities, ensuring food
security and minimizing risks from crop failure through supplementary/ residual
production systems;
o Popularizing resource conservation technologies (both on-farm and off-farm) and
introducing practices that will support mitigation efforts in times of extreme climatic
events or disasters like prolonged dry spells, floods etc.
o Promoting effective management of available water resources and enhancing water use
efficiency through application of technologies coupled with demand and supply side
management solutions;
o Encouraging improved agronomic practices for higher farm productivity, improved soil
treatment, increased water holding capacity, judicious use of chemicals/ energy and
enhanced soil carbon storage;
o Creating database on soil resources through land use survey, soil profile study and soil
analysis on GIS platform to facilitate adoption of location and soilspecific crop
management practices & optimize fertilizer use;
o Promoting location and crop specific integrated nutrient management practices for
improving soil health, enhancing crop productivity and maintaining quality of land and
water resources;
o Involving knowledge institutions and professionals in developing climate change
adaptation and mitigation strategies for specific agro climatic situations and promoting
them through appropriate farming systems.
19.5.2. Climate Smart Agriculture
• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), defines CSA as “agriculture
that sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes
GHGs (mitigation) where possible, and enhances achievement of national food security and
development goals”.
• The three pillars of CSA are:
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Producitvity Adaptation Mitigation

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•CSA aims to increase •CSA aims to reduce the •CSA helps to reduce and/or
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agricultural productivity and exposure of farmers to remove greenhouse gas

•incomes from crops, livestock •short-term risks and •(GHG) emissions by avoiding
and fish, food and nutritional strengthening their resilience deforestation from agriculture
•security through sustainable by building •managing soils and trees in
intensification. •their capacity to adapt and ways that maximizes their
prosper in the face of shocks potential
and •to acts as carbon sinks and
•longer-term stresses absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere
• The features of Climate smart agriculture include:

o CSA maintains ecosystems services: Ecosystems provide farmers with essential services,
including clean air, water, food and materials. It adopts a landscape approach that builds
upon the principles of sustainable agriculture but goes beyond the narrow sectoral
approaches that result in uncoordinated and competing land uses, to integrated planning
and management
o CSA has multiple entry points at different levels: it goes beyond single technologies at

the farm level and includes the integration of multiple interventions at the food system, Student Notes:
landscape, value chain or policy level.
o CSA is context specific: It consider how different elements interact at the landscape level,
within or among ecosystems and as a part of different institutional arrangements and
political realities.
o CSA engages women and marginalised groups: It involve all local, regional and national
stakeholders in decision-making to identify the most appropriate interventions and form
the partnerships and alliances needed to enable sustainable development.
National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)
l It’s a network project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched in 2011.
Objectives
l To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture covering crops, livestock and fisheries to climatic
variability and climate change through development and application of improved production and
risk management technologies.
l To demonstrate site specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for adapting to current climate
risks.
l To enhance the capacity building of scientists and other stakeholders in climate resilient
agricultural research and its application.
l The project consists of four components viz. Strategic Research, Technology Demonstration,
Capacity Building and Sponsored/ Competitive Grants.
Green Ag Project
l The government has launched a Global Environment Facility (GEF) assisted project namely, “Green
– Ag: Transforming Indian Agriculture for global environment benefits and the conservation of
critical biodiversity and forest landscapes” in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) in high-conservation-value landscapes of five States.
l It aims to bring at least 104,070 ha of farms under sustainable land and water management and
ensure 49 million carbon dioxides equivalent sequestered or reduced through sustainable land use
and agricultural practices.
l The regions where the project will be implemented are :
o Madhya Pradesh : Chambal Landscape,
o Mizoram: Dampa Landscape,
o Odisha: Similipal Landscape,
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o Rajasthan: Desert National Park Landscape and

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o Uttarakhand: Corbett-Rajaji Landscape.

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The project seeks to mainstream biodiversity, climate change and sustainable land management
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objectives and practices into Indian agriculture.
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l The overall objective of the project is to catalyze transformative change of India’s agricultural sector
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to support achievement of national and global environmental benefits and conservation of critical
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biodiversity and forest landscapes.

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l The project will support harmonization between India's agricultural and environmental sector
priorities and investments so that the achievement of national and global environmental benefits
can be fully realized without compromising India's ability to strengthen rural livelihoods and meet
its food and nutrition security.

Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture

• It is an inclusive, voluntary and action-oriented multi-stakeholder platform on Climate-Smart
Agriculture (CSA).
• It was launched on 23 September 2014 at the UN Climate Summit.
19.5.3. Soil Health Card Scheme

• A Soil Health Card is used to assess the current status of soil health and, when used over
time, to determine changes in soil health that are affected by land management. A Soil
Health Card displays soil health indicators and associated descriptive terms. The indicators
are typically based on farmers' practical experience and knowledge of local natural
resources. The card lists soil health indicators that can be assessed without the aid of
technical or laboratory equipment.

• It is a printed report that a farmer will be handed over for each of his holdings. It will contain Student Notes:
the status of his soil with respect to 12 parameters, namely N,P,K (Macro-nutrients); S
(Secondary- nutrient); Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Bo (Micro - nutrients); and pH, EC, OC (Physical
parameters). Based on this, the SHC will also indicate fertilizer recommendations and soil
amendment required for the farm.
• Benefits of the Soil Health Card Scheme
o It monitors the soil of the farmers well and will give them a formatted report. So, they
can decide well which crops they should cultivate and which ones they should skip.
o The authorities monitor the soil on a regular basis. One in every 3 years, they provide a
report to farmers. So, farmers need not worry if the nature of the soil changes due to
certain factors. Also, they will always have updated data about their soil.
o The work of the government does not stop at listing down measures required to improve
the quality of the soil. In fact, they also employ experts to help farmers in carrying out
the corrective measures.
o Farmers get a proper soil health record, thanks to the Soil Health Card Scheme. Also,
they can study the soil management practices. Accordingly, they can plan the future of
their crops and land.
o Generally, in government schemes, the person carrying out the study for a particular
farmer gets changed. But in the Soil Health Card Scheme, the government is paying
attention that the same person carries out soil analysis for a farmer. This further
enhances the effectiveness of the scheme.
o The soil card will give the farmers a proper idea of which nutrients their soil is lacking.
And hence, which crops they should invest in. they will also tell which fertilizers they
need. So, ultimately, the crop yield will see a rise.
o The main aim behind the scheme was to find out the type of particular soil. And then
provide ways in which we can improve it. Even if a soil has some limitations, we can do
something to get the most out of it. And that is what the government is trying to do with
the help of this scheme.
19.5.4. Other Miscellaneous Steps
• Mandatory neem coating of urea since 2015 to reduce nitrous oxide emissions.
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• Creating sustainable and climate-resilient agricultural systems is part of India’s plan to meet
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pledge to the UNFCCC to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by up to 35% by 2030,
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compared to 2005 levels.

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• India has installed 200,000 solar water pumps and another 2.5 million are planned to reduce
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19.6. Way Forward

• The challenges outlined above give rise to five key principles for guiding the strategic
development of new approaches and the transition to sustainability:

• In order to cope with the rapid pace of change and increased uncertainty, sustainability must Student Notes:
be seen as a process, rather than a singularly defined end point to be achieved. This, in turn,
requires the development of technical, policy, governance and financing frameworks that
support agricultural producers and resource managers engaged in a dynamic process of
innovation. In particular:
o Policies and institutions are needed that provide incentives for the adoption of
sustainable practices, to impose regulations and costs for actions that deplete or degrade
natural resources, and to facilitate access to the knowledge and resources required;
o Sustainable agricultural practices must make full use of technology, research and
development, though with much greater integration of local knowledge than in the past.
This will require new and more robust partnerships between technical and investment
oriented organizations;
o Evidence-based planning and management of the agricultural sectors requires suitable
statistics, geospatial information and maps, qualitative information and knowledge.
Analysis should focus on both production systems and the underlying natural and socio-
economic resources;
The challenges relating to stocks and utilization rates of natural resources often transcend
national boundaries. International governance mechanisms and processes must support
sustainable growth (and the equitable sharing of benefits) in all agriculture sectors, protecting
natural resources and discouraging collateral damage.

Mains
1. Sikkim is the first ‘Organic State’ in India. What are the ecological and economical benefits of
Organic State? (2018)
Prelims
1. Consider the following statements : (2017)
The nation-wide ‘Soil Health Card Scheme’ aims at
1. expanding the cultivable area under irrigation.
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2. enabling the banks to assess the quantum of loans to be granted to farmers on the
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basis of soil quality.

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3. checking the overuse of fertilizers in farmlands.

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Which of the above statements is/are correct?

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(a) 1 and 2 only

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(b) 3 only
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(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3
Solution: B
2. Which of the following practices can help in water conservation in agriculture? (2017)
1. Reduced or zero tillage of the land
2. Applying gypsum before irrigating the field
3. Allowing crop residue to remain in the field
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Solution: C

3. With reference to the ‘Global Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture (GACSA)’, which of Student Notes:
the following statements is/are correct? (2018)
1. GACSA is an outcome of the Climate Summit held in Paris in 2015.
2. Membership of GACSA does not create any binding obligations.
3. India was instrumental in the creation of GACSA.
Select the correct answer using the code given
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Solution: B
4. With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of “Conservation

Agriculture” assumes significance. Which of the following fall under the Conservation
Agriculture? (2018)
1. Avoiding the monoculture practices
2. Adopting minimum tillage
3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops
4. Using crop residues to cover soil surface
5. Adopting spatial and temporal crop sequencing/crop rotations
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4
(b) 2, 3, 4 and 5
(c) 2, 4 and 5
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 5
Solution: c
5. With reference to organic farming in India, consider the following statements: (2018)
1. The National Programme for Organic Production’ (NPOP) is operated under the
guidelines and directions of the Union Ministry of Rural Development.
2. The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority’
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3. Sikkim has become India’s first fully organic State.

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Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

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(d) 1, 2 and 3
Solution: B
6. What is/are the advantage/advantages of zero tillage in agriculture? (2020)

1. Sowing of what is possible without burning the residue of the previous crop.
2. Without the need for nursery of rice saplings, direct planting of paddy seeds in the
wet soil is possible.
3. Carbon sequestration in the soil is possible.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Solution: D

7. In the context of India, which of the following is/are considered to be practice(s) of eco- Student Notes:
friendly agriculture? (2020)
1. Crop diversification
2. Legume intensification
3. Tensiometer use
4. Vertical farming
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Solution: D
19.8. Vision IAS Previous Year Test Series Questions
1. Livestock farming not only contributes to climate change but is also affected by it.
Elaborate the statement and discuss some measures that can be taken to make
livestock farming more sustainable as well as resilient.
Approach:
• Briefly comment on the role of livestock in the Indian economy.
• Write the impacts of livestock farming on climate change and vice-versa.
• Suggest measures to make livestock farming sustainable and resilient.
Answer:
Livestock farming is the rearing of animals such as cattle, chicken, goats, horses etc. for
food and for other human uses and contributes significantly to agricultural gross
production value.
Livestock farming and climate change
As per the FAO, Livestock supply chain contributes approximately 14.5% of human-
induced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The major emissions include Methane, which
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is mainly produced by enteric fermentation in animals as well as Nitrous oxide, arising

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from manure storage and the use of organic/inorganic fertilizers. Moreover, significant
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emissions also emanate from resultant land use change during feed production and
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processing, manufacturing and use of fertilizers and pesticides etc.

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On the other hand, livestock farming is also affected due to climate change in several
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ways:
• Heat stress leads to reduced milk and meat production, impairment of embryo
development and increase in embryonic mortality in cattle.
• Affects species composition, which is an important determinant of livestock
productivity.
• Increase in variety of health risks due to wetter and warmer climate.
• For maintaining their body temperature, animals generally initiate compensatory
and adaptive mechanisms, thus possibly impacting their productive potential.
• Irregular water availability may impact forage productivity and quality.

Student Notes:
Measures to make livestock farming sustainable and resilient

• Undertake well planned breeding programmes and conservation of animal genetic
diversity to improve adaption of livestock to changing environments, resistance to
stress or shocks.
• Adjusting grazing pressure by balancing spatial and temporal presence of livestock,
fertilization and nutrient management, introduction of species such as legumes etc.
• Better integrating livestock into the circular bio-economy by recycling and
recovering nutrients and energy from animal waste.
• Increasing productivity and resilience of existing livestock by improving feed quality
and establishing adequate veterinary infrastructure for reducing the incidence and
impact of diseases, parasites and insect burdens.
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Strengthening the knowledge and evidence base through scientific assessment of

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the impact of climate change on the livestock sector and developing a nationwide
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guideline framework for livestock management.

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These along with other measures such as training farmers in scientific rearing practices,
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use of weather information and weather-index based insurance to improve resilience etc.
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can help improve long-term sustainability and resilience of livestock farming to climate
change.
2. A growing livestock sector augurs well for the low income households to augment their
income and escape poverty. Discuss. Further, suggest some strategies for ensuring
sustainable livestock sector growth in India.
Approach:
• Introduce by highlighting the present status of livestock sector in India.
• Discuss in brief how a growing livestock sector can help to increase income of low
income households and alleviate poverty.
• Enumerate some of the strategies for ensuring sustainable livestock sector growth in
India.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.

Answer: Student Notes:

Livestock plays an important role in the Indian economy. About 20.5 million people
depend upon livestock for their livelihood. Livestock sector contributes around 4.11%
Gross domestic product (GDP) and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP. In fact, livestock is
the fastest growing sector. Its contribution to the total output of the agriculture sector
increased from 15 per cent in 1981-82 to 26 per cent in 2010-11. About 73 percent of
the total household in the rural area own some form of livestock of which around three
quarters are small and marginal farmers.
The growing livestock sector can augment the income of the low income households and
alleviate poverty in following ways:
• Additional source of income: Farmers and landless labourers can earn extra income
from animal husbandry. In the arid and semi-arid regions, livestock sector is the main
source of family income. These animals serves as moving banks and assets, which
provide economic security to the owners.
• Employment: It provides employment even during lean agricultural season to those
who are dependent upon agriculture for their livelihoods.
• Nutritional security: The livestock not only contributes towards improving
nutritional security and also reduces rural poverty by preventing additional
expenditure for food by households.
• Equitable distribution: The rural poor have limited opportunities in crop production.
In comparison, livestock wealth is more equitably distributed, and the expanding
demand for animal food products generates significant opportunities for the poor to
escape poverty through diversifying and intensifying livestock production.
• Social security: The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status
in the society, which also acts as a guard against getting driven into poverty.
• Resilience to climate change: As livestock is less prone to global warming and climate
change, it can be considered more reliable than rain-fed agriculture. Livestock
production and marketing can help stabilize the food supplies and provide individuals
and communities with a buffer against economic shocks and natural disasters.
Further, the returns of livestock sector are quick. Losses, if any, are recovered soon and
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even the low income households can also afford it. However, its potential has not yet
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been fully realized. India’s livestock productivity is 20-60 per cent lower than the global
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average because of number of constraints like lack of access to modern livestock services,
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poor marketing support, lack of credit support, etc. Following steps can be taken for
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ensuring sustainable livestock sector growth in India:

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• Overcoming feed and fodder scarcity and improvements in delivery of animal health
and breeding services.
• Technology will be a key driver of growth and concerted efforts will be needed to
generate and disseminate yield-enhancing and yield-saving technologies.
• Public spending needs to be increased to re-energize the livestock sector.
• Strengthening linkages between production and markets through institutions such
as cooperatives, producers’ associations and contract farming.
• Institutional support in terms of credit and insurance is meager and needs to be
strengthened.
• Government needs to take efforts to promote the sector by measures like
establishing the Indian Council of Veterinary and Animal Science Education and
Research, Schemes like Operation Flood, Kamdhenu scheme, etc.
• Further, the governments and industry should prepare producers for a quality-driven
competition in the domestic as well as global market.
The extent to which growth in livestock production can be accelerated would depend on
how technology, institutions and policies address constraints facing the livestock sector.

3. Agroforestry is seen as a solution to meet the challenges of food, nutrition, energy, Student Notes:
employment and environment security. Elucidate.
Approach:
• Provide brief introduction about agroforestry.
• Discuss its potential to provide food, nutrition, energy, employment and
environment security.
Answer:
Agroforestry is the way of farming practices which integrates tree and shrubs growing
with crop production and animal farming system. This is obtained either by planting trees
on agricultural land or by cropping (for example after thinning) on forested land. The
government has envisaged this programme in 1973 on the backdrop of realization that
forests are under pressure because of growing population resulting in degraded land
use.
The practice of agroforestry involves sustainable use of land resources and has following
advantages:
• Income: Agroforestry can increase farm profitability by increasing the net output
from combined tree, crop and livestock;
• Wind Breaks: The crops and livestock are protected from the damaging effects of
wind making them more productive
• Diversification: The new products add to the financial diversity and flexibility of the
farming enterprise.
• Forest area: It increases forest area thus restores ecological balance and provides
environment security.
• Rural needs: It enables people to meet basic needs of rural people by providing food,
fodder, fiber, fuel and green manure. Thus providing nutrition, energy and food to
associated people.
• Conservation: Agroforestry helps to conserve and protect natural resources by, for
example, mitigating non-point source pollution, controlling soil erosion, and creating
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wildlife habitat.
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• Soil quality: It ensures sustainable use of land, thus enriching soil fertility. It also
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provides protection against soil erosion.

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• Employment: It helps in generation of employment by providing employment

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especially in lean season thus overall enhancing economic prospect of people.

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• Pollution control: It also controls pollution it helps in afforestation which increases

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overall pollutant absorbing capacity of the environment.

In the emerging challenges of climate change and shrinking land holdings, the
agroforestry offers huge potential of income to rural economy. To make it prevalent, the
farmers need to be provided with expert guidance and proper inputs such as seeds and
technologies.

Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 20 - ENVIRONMENT IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
20. Environment Impact Assessment
• Environment Impact Assessment or EIA can be defined as the study to predict the effect of a
proposed activity/project on the environment. A decision making tool, EIA compares various
alternatives for a project and seeks to identify the one which represents the best combination
of economic and environmental costs and benefits.
• EIA systematically examines both beneficial and adverse consequences of the project and
ensures that these effects are taken into account during project design.
• It helps to
o identify possible environmental effects of the proposed project,
o proposes measures to mitigate adverse effects and
o predicts whether there will be significant adverse environmental effects, even after the
mitigation is implemented.
• By considering the environmental effects of the project and their mitigation early in the
project planning cycle, environmental assessment has many benefits, such as protection of
environment, optimum utilisation of resources and saving of time and cost of the project.
• Properly conducted EIA also lessens conflicts by promoting community participation,
informing decision makers, and helping lay the base for environmentally sound projects.
• Benefits of integrating EIA have been observed in all stages of a project, from exploration and
planning, through construction, operations, decommissioning, and beyond site closure.
20.1. Evolution of EIA

Development of EIA
Pre-1970s • Project review based on the technical/engineering and economic analysis.
• Limited consideration given to environmental consequences.
Early/Mid- • EIA introduced by NEPA in 1970 in US.
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1970s • Basic principle: Guidelines, procedures including public participation requirement

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instituted.
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• Major public inquires help shape the process's development.

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Late 1970s • Use of EA by developing countries (Brazil, Philippines, China, Indonesia)

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and Early • Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA), risk analysis included in EA processes.
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• Greater emphasis on ecological modelling, prediction and evaluation methods.

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1980s
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• Provision for public involvement.

• Coordination of EA with land use planning processes.
Mid 1980s to • Increasing efforts to address cumulative effects.
end of • World Bank and other leading international aid agencies establish EA
decade requirements.
• Spread of EIA process in Asia.
1990s • Increased use of GIS and other information technologies. Sustainability principal
and global issues receive increased attention.
• India also adopted the EIA formally.
• Formulation of EA legislation by many developing countries.
• Rapid growth in EA training.
Definition of SEA: Policy tool to assess the environmental consequences of development policies, plans
and programmes.
Definition of risk assessment: An instrument for estimating the probability of harm occurring from the
presence of dangerous conditions or materials at a project site. Risk represents the likelihood and
significance of a potential hazard being realized.

20.2. History of EIA in India Student Notes:
• The Indian experience with Environmental Impact Assessment began over 20 years back. It
started in 1976-77 when the Planning Commission asked the Department of Science and
Technology to examine the river-valley projects from an environmental angle. This was
subsequently extended to cover those projects, which required the approval of the Public
Investment Board.
• Till 1994, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative
decision and lacked legislative support.
• On 27 January 1994, the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF), Government of
India, under the Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, promulgated an EIA notification
making Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for expansion or modernisation of any
activity or for setting up new projects listed in Schedule 1 of the notification. Since then there
have been 12 amendments made in the EIA notification of 1994.
20.3. EIA Process

• The stages of an EIA process will depend upon the requirements of the country or donor.
However, most EIA processes have a common structure and the application of the main
stages is a basic standard of good
practice.
• Various steps of the EIA process
are presented in brief below:
o Project Proposal:
ü Any proponent embarking
on any major
development project shall
notify IAA (Impact
Assessment Agency) in
writing by the submission
of a project proposal. The
project proposal shall
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include all relevant

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information available
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including a land-use map

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in order to move to the

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next stage which is

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screening. The submission

of a project proposal signifies the commencement of the EIA process.
o Screening:
ü Screening helps to clear those types of projects, which from past experience are not
likely to cause significant environmental problems. The activity may take one of the
following several forms:
a. Measurements using simple criteria such as size or location.
b. Comparing the proposal with list of projects rarely needing an EIA (e.g. schools)
or definitely needing one (e.g. coal mines).
c. Estimating general impacts (e.g. increased in infrastructure needed) and
comparing these impacts against set thresholds.
d. Doing complex analyses, but using readily available data.
o Preliminary Assessment:
ü If screening does not clear a project, the developer may be required to undertake a
preliminary Assessment. This involves sufficient research, review of available data
and expert advice in order to identify the key impacts of the project on the local
environment, predict the extent of the impacts and briefly evaluate their

importance to decision makers. Student Notes:

ü The preliminary assessment can be used to assist early project planning (for
instance, to narrow the discussion of possible sites) and it can serve as an early
warning to the serious environmental problems that the project may cause. It is in
the developer’s interest to do a preliminary assessment since, in practice, this step
can clear projects of the need for a full EIA.
o Scoping:
ü Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA. It has to be done by
the consultant in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if need be,
from Impact Assessment Agency. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has
published guidelines for different sectors, which outlines the significant issues to be
addressed in the EIA studies.
ü Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on the basis of magnitude, prevalence,
frequency and duration and non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or
recreational value), significance is commonly determined through the socio-
economic criteria.
ü After the areas, where the project could have significant impact, are identified, the
baseline status of these should be monitored and then the likely changes in these
on account of the construction and operation of the proposed project should be
predicted.
o Impact Prediction and Assessment of Alternatives
ü Impact prediction is a way of mapping the environmental consequences of the
significant aspects of the project and its alternatives. For every project, possible
alternatives should be identified and environmental attributes compared.
ü Alternatives should cover both project location and process technologies.
Alternatives should then be ranked for selection of the best environmental optimum
economic benefits to the community at large.
ü Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn up for the
selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements. The EMP is a
crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and therefore details of
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monitoring should be included in the EMP.

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o EIA Report
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ü An EIA report should provide clear information to the decision-maker on the

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different environmental scenarios without the project, with the project and with
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project alternatives. The proponent prepares detailed Project report and provides
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information in logical and transparent manner. The IAA examines if procedures have
been followed as per MoEF notifications.
o Public Hearing
ü After the completion of EIA report the law requires that the public must be informed
and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA report. The
State Pollution Control Boards will conduct the public hearing before the proposals
are sent to MOEF for obtaining environmental clearance.
ü Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is entitled to have access to
the Executive Summary of the EIA. The affected persons may include: (a) Bonafide
local residents; (b) Local associations; (c) Environmental groups: active in the area;
(d) Any other person located at the project site/sites of displacement. They are to
be given an opportunity to make oral/written suggestions to the State Pollution
Control Board as per Schedule IV.
o Decision-Making
ü Decision-making process involve consultation between the project proponent
(assisted by a consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an
expert group if necessary). The decision on environmental clearance is arrived at

through a number of steps including evaluation of EIA and EMP. Student Notes:
o Monitoring the Clearance Conditions
ü Monitoring has to be done during both construction and operation phases of a
project. It is done not just to ensure that the commitments made are complied with
but also to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports are correct or
not.
ü Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels, corrective action should be taken.
Monitoring also enables the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions
and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan
(EMP).
ü The Project Proponent, IAA and Pollution Control Boards should monitor the
implementation of conditions. The proponent is required to file once in six months
a report demonstrating the compliance to IAA.
ü Above figure shows a general flow diagram of the EIA process, how EIA fits with
parallel technical and economic studies and the role of public participation. In some
cases, the process may be rapid and some steps in the EIA procedure may be
omitted, for example small-scale irrigation schemes.
20.4. EIA Notification, 2006
• Objectives: The objectives of EIA Notification, 2006 inter alia include:
o to formulate a transparent, decentralized and efficient regulatory mechanism to
integrate environmental concerns into developmental process with a view to facilitating
sustainable development.
o to ensure incorporation of necessary environmental safeguards at planning stage in the
project cycle, so as to ensure minimal impact on different components of environment.
o to ensure involvement of stakeholders in public consultation process through public
hearing and to ascertain the views of the public on the proposed project or activity.
• Salient Features: The salient features of EIA Notification, 2006 inter alia include:
o The EIA Notification, 2006 has categorized the projects into two categories namely;
Category ‘A’ and Category ‘B’ based on their impact potential.
o Category ‘A’ projects will be appraised at the Central level while Category ‘B’ project at
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the State level.

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o State level Environment Impact Assessment Authorities and Committees (SEIAAs and
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SEACs) have been constituted for the purpose of appraisal of Category ‘B’ projects.
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o The stage of scoping for prescribing terms of reference by the Regulatory Agency for the
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EIA studies has been incorporated in accordance with the International practice. It is
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expected to improve the quality of EIA thereby improving the quality of decision making
and minimizing the delays.
o The public consultation process has been made more structured. It has two components
i.e. comments through correspondence and by public hearing at site. Provision to
videograph the proceedings of the public hearing has been made.
o NOCs ( No-Objection Certificates) from other regulatory agencies such as SPCB etc. are
not a pre-requisite for considering application for environmental clearance.
20.5. Issues with the Indian System
• Screening
o Even though some of the industrial set ups do not require EIA as per the statutory norms,
they might involve certain technological processes which could be harmful to the
environment, as a result of which such enlisted industries could have potential impacts
on the environment and on public health.
o Exempting industries from the EIA requirements based on the investment value of
specific projects is not acceptable. There are no specific studies conducted till now which

demonstrate that environmental impacts are always inconsequential for projects under Student Notes:
a given value. It is a well established fact that the small scale industries are contributing
more pollution with respect to the major industry
• Formation of EIA Team
o It is being found that the team formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the expertise
in various fields such as Anthropologists and Social Scientists (to study the social impact
of the project) or even wild life experts.
• Scoping
o There is a lack of exhaustive ecological and socio-economic indicators for impact
assessment.
o Public comments are not taken into account at the early stage, which often leads to
conflict at the later stage of project clearance.
• Base Line Data Collection
o There is always a lack of reliable data sources.
o The secondary data is also not reliable.
o The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous knowledge of local people.
o The credibility of the primary data collected by the data collectors is doubtful.
• Impact Prediction and Assessment of Alternatives
o The detail method used for the prediction and evaluation of the project is not mentioned
in the report. Limited explanations are given both to quantitative estimation of
magnitude of impact and to the assumptions and judgments used in the evaluation of
impacts.
o The limited coverage of scoping is confined mainly to direct impacts.
o Details regarding the effectiveness and implementation of mitigation measures are often
not provided.
o Often, and more so for strategic industries such as nuclear energy projected, the EMP s
are kept confidential for political and administrative reasons
o Emergency preparedness plans are not discussed in sufficient details and the information
not disseminated to the communities.
• EIA Report
o The reports are generally incomplete and provided with false data. EIA reports ignore
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several aspects while carrying out assessments and significant information is found to
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omitted. Many EIA report are based on single season data and are not adequate to
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determine whether environmental clearance should be granted. All this makes the entire
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exercise contrary to its very intent.

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o The EIA is actually funded by an agency or individual whose primary interest is to procure
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clearance for the project proposed. There is little chance that the final assessment
presented is unbiased, even if the consultant may provide an unbiased assessment that
is critical of the proposed project. Some times it is found that a consultancy which is
working in the project area has no specialization in the concerned subject.
o The EIA document in itself is so bulky and technical, which makes it very difficult to
decipher so as to aid in the decision making process. There are so many cases of
fraudulent EIA studies where erroneous data has been used, same facts used for two
totally different places etc. This is due to the lack of a centralized baseline data bank,
where such data can be crosschecked.
o There is no accreditation of EIA consultants, therefore any such consultant with a track
record of fraudulent cases cannot be held liable for discrepancies. It is hard to imagine
any consultant after being paid lakh of rupees, preparing a report for the project
proponents, indicating that the project is not viable. In nearly every case, the consultants
try to interpret and tailor the information looking for ways and means to provide their
clients with a report that gives them their moneys worth.

• Public Hearing Process Student Notes:

o A number of projects with significant environmental and social impacts have been
excluded from the mandatory public hearing process. There are also concerns on how
much value is given to opinions expressed during the public hearing.
o Most projects are located in the resource rich tribal and rural areas. Due to the inherent
social conditions in such areas, such as lack of literacy and the simple nature of Tribals,
people are easily convinced and lured by the prospect of money and jobs. The local
environmental and social groups face a uphill task educating the people about the true
nature and impacts of the project and getting them to forcefully raise objections and
issues of concern.
o Similarly the affected peoples are informed just few days before the stipulated date of
public hearing. In many cases it is found out that the owners of the project employs
antisocial peoples to suppress the voices of people during the public hearing. The SPCB
which are responsible for conducting the public hearings are not equipped in terms of
manpower or infrastructure.
o In many cases minutes of public hearing or recommendations of the public hearing
panels do not reflect the actual proceedings and objections raised. Further the
recommendations of the public hearing panel are only advisory and it is not mandatory
for the impact assessment agency to even consider these while granting environmental
clearance to projects.
• Capacity Building
o There is an urgent need to build capacities of government agencies, communities, NGOs
and the judiciary with regard to the implementation of the existing EIA notification. Even
in the instances where the provisions allow for peoples participation or monitoring, the
lack of information and capacity are great hindrances in implementation.
o For instances, the public hearing panel often has no clue on the scope of their role in
environmental clearance process. Judiciary, which is involved in the redressal, is
comprised of judges who may not be clued into the environmental issues and their
interface with laws. No matter how good the provisions of the law are, their
implementation hinges on the capacities of official who are meant to do it.
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20.6. Recommendations
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• Independent EIA Authority:

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o Civil society groups have suggested the need for an independent Environmental Impact
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Assessment authority headed by a judicial officer and comprising of representatives from

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communities, peoples group, scientists, sociologists and environmentalists. Such body

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would be independent of the ministry of environment and forests. The decision of this
authority would be binding on the MOEF.
• Sector wide EIA s needed:
o There is a need to conduct policy-level and sector-wide EIAs in the form of strategic
impact assessments ( for various sectors including mining , power and so on). This is
critical to judge the impacts of macro- economic, developmental and other policies,
schemes and programmes.
• Conduct options Assessment:
o EIA s should follow only after an options assessment and a least cost plan for a project is
done by the state or central government.
• Creation of an information desk:
o An information dissemination desk may be assigned within the MOEF which anyone can
write to regarding the status of clearance of projects. This desk should be mandated to
respond within a maximum of ten days by post/ courier and a maximum of two days by
email, to the contact information that has been furnished by the person seeking the
information.

o Since all meetings and discussion are documented as electronic data, the officers should Student Notes:
furnish this information regarding the status of clearance, with a record of the discussions
in the Expert committee on the projects.
• Environmental Risk Assessment:
o New approaches such as Environmental Risk Assessment which enable more flexible and
dynamic assessments of direct and indirect impacts must be explored.
o As part of this process, recognized Safety and Environmental Auditors must compulsorily
meet local populations and submit a detailed report of potential risks due to the project.
• Quality of EIA Reports:
o The checklist needs to include impacts on agricultural biodiversity, biodiversity related
traditional knowledge and live hoods .Further, cumulative impacts of projects that are
technically linked or located in the same ecological region, and impacts of the eventual
closure of the project or components of the project should also be incorporated in to the
checklist.
o Finally the list should contain details on a full exploration of alternatives , especially
decentralized alternatives, to mega projects .the checklist also needs to cover various
kinds of impacts resulting from a particular activity.
• Public Hearings:
o The public hearing should be held for all projects which are likely to have environmental
and social impacts. This should be strictly implemented. The scope of the public hearings
needs to be widened to at least those projects which require forest clearance under the
forest conservation act,1980.
• Composition of Expert Committees:
o The present executive committees should be replaced by experts people from various
stakeholder groups , who are reputed in environmental and other relevant fields.
o The process of selection of those committees should be open and transparent , the
minutes of the committee meetings , decisions and advice by these committee should
be open to public.
• Capacity Building:
o NGO s, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use
the EIA notification towards better decision making on projects that can impact their
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local environments and live hoods.

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o Capacities can be built to proactively and effectively use the notification rather than
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respond in a manner that is seen as negative or unproductive.

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• Monitoring, Compliance and Institutional Arrangements:

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o The EIA notification needs to build within it an automatic withdrawal of clearance if the
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conditions of clearance are being violated, and introduce more stringent punishment for
noncompliance.
o At present the EIA notification limits itself to the stage when environmental clearance is
granted. The MOEF should set up more regional offices, each with smaller areas of
jurisdiction, to effectively monitor the compliance of clearance conditions.
o It would be useful to have advisory Expert committees at the MOEF regional offices,
comprising of ecologists, sociologists, local community members, government officials
and representative of local institutions to help with the clearance of projects at the
regional levels and monitoring of compliance of conditions.
o A robust monitoring mechanism should be established by the state department where
the central projects involving forest clearance is given out. Such a monitoring body should
be given powers to address compliance of both sets of clearance conditions together and
to take punitive action against the project proponent in case of non compliance of any of
the conditions.
o Local communities should be brought in to the formal monitoring and reporting process
of the compliance of conditions presently done by the regional offices of the MOEF. This

would help the regional office as well since the geographical areas and number of project Student Notes:
that comes under each office is vast which affects the efficiency and regularity of the
monitoring process.
20.7. Draft EIA Notification, 2020

• To address unprecedented situation arising from global outbreak of Novel Corona Virus
(COVID-19), and to ramp up availability or production of various drugs, Ministry of
Environment,Forest and Climate Change has made an amendment to EIA Notification 2006.
All projects or activities in respect of bulk drugs and intermediates, manufactured for
addressing various ailments, have been re-categorized from the existing Category ‘A’ to ‘B2’
category.
• Projects falling under Category B2 are exempted from requirement of collection of Base line
data, EIA Studies and public consultation. The re-categorization of such proposals has been
done to facilitate decentralization of appraisal to State Level so as to fast track the process.
This step of the Govt is with a view to help in increasing the availability of the important
medicines/ drugs in the country within short span of time. This amendment is applicable to
all proposals received up to 30th September 2020. The states have also been issued
advisories to expeditiously process such proposals.
• Further, to ensure expeditious disposal of the proposals within given time-line, Ministry has
also advised states to use information technology e.g. video conference, considering the fact
that in view of the prevailing situation on ground, appraisal of proposals may not be possible
through physical meetings.
Issues involved
• Public Consultation: It proposes to reduce the period of public consultation hearings to a
maximum of 40 days, and reduces from 30 to 20 days the time provided for the public to
submit their responses during a public hearing for any application seeking environmental
clearance. This can particularly pose a problem to those affected people who are forest
dwellers or otherwise do not have access to information and technology and those that are
not aware of the process itself.
• Wide discretionary powers to government: It also allows the central government to declare
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some areas as “economically sensitive areas” without a public hearing or environmental

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clearance, and several “red” and “orange”-classified toxic industries could now operate as
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close as 0-5 km from a Protected Area. The government also gets to decide on the “strategic”
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tag for any projects for which no information on such projects shall be placed in the public
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domain. This opens a window for summary clearance for any project deemed strategic
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without having to explain why.

• Provisions for post-facto project clearance: Projects that have commenced operations – by
way of construction, installation, excavation, production, etc – without obtaining necessary
clearances can be legalised after payment of a penalty. Post facto clearance is the violation
of the fundamental principles of environmental jurisprudence and is contrary to both the
precautionary principle as well as the need for sustainable development.
• Exemptions: The new draft exempts a long list of projects from public consultation and prior
clearance. For example, linear projects such as roads and pipelines in border areas will not
require any public hearing. All inland waterways projects and expansion/widening of national
highways including roads that cut through forests and dredging of major rivers, will be
exempt from prior clearance.
• Baseline data: The latest draft EIA notification does away with the need to carry out studies
covering all seasons in a year. This will lead to less reliable data and projections for pollutants
and will mask the full environmental impact of a project.
• Private consultation: The notification allows project proponents to engage private
consultants for preparing the EIA reports propelling a situation where expertise and

technicalities would be adopted to obscure the process and make it difficult to understand – Student Notes:
something that should have been open and comprehensible to the communities for the
process to be remotely transparent.
Various provisions of Draft EIA aimed at facilitating the government’s doctrine of “ease of doing
business”. Though the Environmental regulation must balance damage to the environment with
sustainable development and possible benefits. Government must incorporate the concerns of
all stakeholder before finalising the regulation.
1. Environmental Impact Assessment studies are increasingly undertaken before a project is
cleared by the Government. Discuss the environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants
located at coal pitheads. (2014)
2. "In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for development."
Discuss (2017)
20.9. Vision IAS Previous Year Questions

1. Comment on the state of EIA (Environment Impact Assessment) reports in India. What
in your opinion can be done to improve the EIA reporting.
Answer:
• EIA – What is it?
• Lacunae in EIA- Eg EIA done by third party which is paid by the interested party.
• Some recent cases
• Measure to improve
2. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring

optimal use of natural resources for sustainable development. Elaborate.
Approach:
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• Briefly define EIA

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• Provide details of each stage of EIA and how it is related to natural resource uses and
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sustainable development
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• Conclude suitably.
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Answer:
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An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible potential

impacts (beneficial and adverse) that a proposed project may have on the environment.
The complete exercise also involves the solutions to the adverse impacts which ensure
that natural resources are used judiciously in a sustainable manner and therefore,
promotes sustainable development.
While all industrial projects may have some environmental impacts, all of them may not
be significant enough to warrant elaborate assessment procedures. An initial evaluation
decides need of such exercise. Projects which alter the landscape, modify forests and
stream patterns, manufacturing of environmentally hazardous products, located in
ecologically sensitive areas, have high potential of polluting air, soil or water etc. are
covered under EIA.
EIA study involves inventorisation of the natural resources available, current
environmental setting, impact of projects on natural resources etc. ‘Hot Spots’ are
identified that require immediate remedial action to overcome air, water or land
pollution.

During the process, negative impacts on environment are studied extensively. Parts of Student Notes:
project which are causing such negative impacts are either replaced with alternative
technologies or compensated in some form. For instance, if there is a need to cut down
forest, it is possible to plant saplings, though in more quantity, at some other location.
However, if such compensatory mechanism is not always available, project has to be shut
down.
Governments across the world are putting extra effort to design norms to protect natural
resources. Ecological sensitive zones (ESZ) or no-go areas are few policy steps that
prohibit construction or mining activities in such zones. These policies act as input in EIA
studies.
Methods such as Product environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) is used for identifying
and measuring the impact of projects on the environment. Such methods are very helpful
in ensuring sustainability of project as well as environment.
In conclusion, sustainable development can be attained only by managing our natural
resources in a rightful manner where future generations are not devoid of their natural
rights. EIA is a potential tool to preserve natural resources in the industrialized and
urbanized world as it minimizes the adverse impact on ecology.
3. What are the various statutory procedures of conducting Environmental Impact

Assessments? How do these procedures ensure public participation in development
process?
Approach:
• Explain the term Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) briefly.
• Then mention the statutory procedures of conducting EIA.
• The answer below also uses a flow chat to bring about more clarity.
• Finally, mention how public participation becomes an imperative in the development
process.
Answer:
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EIA is an a priori exercise of forecasting environmental impacts arising out of

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developmental projects. EIA assists planners and the government in decision-making

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process by identifying the key impacts and formulating mitigation measures. The results
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of EIAs are presented in reports known as Environmental Impact Statements (EIS).

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Statutory Procedures:
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Firstly, Screening is done to see if a project requires EIA Clearance as per statutory
notifications. This is done on the basis of Scale of investment, Type of investment and
Location of investment. After this EIA starts with following steps:
1. Impact Identification or Scoping: It involves discussion between EIA experts, agency
involved in developmental project and experts of design, construction and operation
of project. A final Term of Reference is prepared comparing probable impacts and
the available baseline data. It brings out the impacts, which deserve further study.
2. Impact Measurement: Impact of project and its alternatives are measured with
respect to air, noise, water and land quality, biological changes like deforestation,
habitat shrinking, impact on breeding and nesting grounds and socio economic
impacts like impact on demographic changes, impact on health, economic status etc.
using several mathematical models.
3. Impact Interpretation and Evaluation: Relative importance of all the impacts are
studied and compared to consider only those, which have large impact; thus ensuring
sound judgment by decision makers.

4. Identification of monitoring requirements and mitigation measures: Monitoring is Student Notes:

done to ensure that legal standards for pollutants are not exceeded. And also, since
monitoring provides early warning system of environmental damage so that
preventing action can be taken in time. When harmful impacts are identified, the
mechanisms to mitigate them are also investigated.
5. Communication of Impact information: All the interpreted data is presented in a
form that non-experts can understand and after discussion and approval of local
public, the developmental project gets MoEF nod.
PROCESS OF EIA:
Public Participation in Developmental Process:

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The purpose of EIA is not be just to assess impacts and complete an environmental
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impact statement (EIS). Rather it is to improve the quality of decisions.

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• Through informing the public, the project proponent can make environmentally
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sensitive decision by being aware of a project's potential adverse impacts on the

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environment.
• Through their participation, the project proponent is able to take advantage of the
information that citizens contribute towards values, impacts, innovative solutions
and alternatives.
• Alienated citizens tend to delay the implementation of the project though time
consuming legal action if they feel that their rights are curbed through project
implementation. For example, Silent Valley, Tehri Dam, Dahanu.
• Therefore, the project proponent needs to consider not only the risks of including
versus avoiding citizen input, but also the potential benefits of establishing a long
term co-operative relationship with citizens.
But in India, the public is involved at the hearing stage. Here it is merely a formality as by
this time the project proponent has more or less decided to go ahead with the project.
The objective of public involvement at this stage may be just to defend a decision that
has already been made. So, more effective public participation is need of the hour as
currently, it is limited to the public hearing stage, legal action to halt the project or to
force the inclusion of mitigation measures.

4. Despite wide use and acceptance, Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) has certain Student Notes:
shortcomings as a tool for minimising environmental effects of development proposals.
Discuss. How is Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA) an improvement over EIA?
Approach:
• Briefly explain how EIA has wide use and acceptance to minimize environmental
damage, both before and after the execution of a project. There is no need to go into
the details of the steps involved in EIA.
• Then explain the shortcomings of EIA when it comes to reducing the actual
environmental impact of a project. You can give examples of projects that were in
consonance with EIA but ultimately failed to regulate the environmental damage.
• The second part of the question should compare SEA with EIA and conclude suitably.
Answer:
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely
environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-
related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design,
find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, and shape projects to suit the local
environment.
However, EIA has often fallen short of meeting these aims.
• It takes place relatively late at the downstream end of the decision making process,
after major alternatives and directions have been chosen. Rarely have projects been
denied environmental clearance.
• NGOs and communities continue to struggle with fraudulent EIA reports. There is a
lack of experts with proper knowledge of EIA processes. Public participation is
missing entirely or it is done towards the end of the decision-making process.
Uttarakhand dams which were built after positive EIA reports are examples of projects
that have been questioned. Also, CAG reports have pointed at the blatant violation of
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compulsory afforestation laws by industries that acquire forest land.

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Some of these shortcomings can be easily overcome by shifting from EIA to Strategic
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Environment Assessment (SEA).

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Environment impact assessment Strategic environment assessment

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• Takes place at end of decision-making • Takes place at earlier stages of decision making
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cycle cycle
• Identifies specific impacts on the • Also identifies environmental implications, issues
environment of sustainable development
• Considers limited number of feasible • Considers broad range of potential alternatives
alternatives • Early warning of cumulative effects
• Limited review of cumulative effects • Emphasis on meeting environmental objectives,
• Emphasis on mitigating and maintaining natural systems
minimizing impacts • Broad perspective, lower level of detail to
• Narrow perspective, high level of provide a vision and overall framework
detail • Multi-stage process, overlapping components,
• Well-defined process, clear beginning policy level is continuing, iterative
and end • Focuses on sustainability agenda, gets at sources
• Focuses on standard agenda, treats of environmental deterioration
symptoms of environmental
deterioration
Therefore SEA covers a wider range of activities or a wider area and often over a longer
time span than the environmental impact assessment of projects.

• SEA is being proactive and ‘sustainability driven’, whilst EIA is largely reactive. Student Notes:
• SEA might be applied to an entire sector (such as a national policy on energy for
example) or to a geographical area (for example, in the context of a regional
development scheme).
• SEA does not replace or reduce the need for project-level EIA, but it can help to
streamline and focus the incorporation of environmental concerns (including
biodiversity) into the decision-making process.
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Student Notes:
CHAPTER - 21 - ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
21. Environmental Ethics
21.1. Introduction
Environmental ethics is a branch of ethics that studies the relation of human beings and the
environment and how ethics play a role in this. Environmental ethics believe that humans are a
part of society as well as other living creatures, which includes plants and animals. These items
are a very important part of the world and are considered to be a functional part of human life.
Therefore, it is essential that every human being respects and honors this and use morals and
ethics when dealing with these creatures.
Environmental ethics therefore, is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship
of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human
contents.
21.2. Need for Environmental Ethics
• The acts of humans lead to environmental pollution. The stronger demand for resources is
also a factor that contributes to the problem as we all need food and shelter. When these
things are so desired, the natural balance of the environment is disturbed. Engineering
developments are resulting in resource depletion and environmental destruction.
• There are several environmental issues that have created havoc on our environment and
human life. If ignored today, these ill effects are sure to curb human existence in the near
future.
• Various environmental issues have taken a toll on our environment and we’ve already started
seeing some disastrous effects in the form of the effect of health on humans, rise in sea level,
depletion of non-renewable resources, melting of glaciers, extinction of species, and many
more.
• Given the rapid pace of environmental decay and the need for inter-generational equity,
environmental ethics has to form the central part of our governance structures.
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21.3. Environmental Ethics and Its Principles

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Suppose putting out natural fires, culling feral animals or destroying some individual members of
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overpopulated indigenous species is necessary for the protection of the integrity of a certain
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ecosystem. Will these actions be morally permissible or even required? Is it morally acceptable
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for farmers in non-industrial countries to practise slash and burn techniques to clear areas for
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agriculture? Consider a mining company which has performed open pit mining in some previously
unspoiled area. Does the company have a moral obligation to restore the landform and surface
ecology? And what is the value of a humanly restored environment compared with the originally
natural environment? It is often said to be morally wrong for human beings to pollute and destroy
parts of the natural environment and to consume a huge proportion of the planet’s natural
resources. If that is wrong, is it simply because a sustainable environment is essential to (present
and future) human well-being? Or is such behaviour also wrong because the natural environment
and/or its various contents have certain values in their own right so that these values ought to
be respected and protected in any case?
These are among the questions investigated by environmental ethics. Some of them are specific
questions faced by individuals in particular circumstances, while others are more global questions
faced by groups and communities. Yet others are more abstract questions concerning the value
and moral standing of the natural environment and its non-human components.
There are several approaches or principles to determine how we are to value our environment.
It is such a huge field, and it is so vast that it is difficult for one principle to cover all the ground.

Many theories have emerged over the years, and each one has stressed on various principles of Student Notes:
environmental ethics. The list below states all the principles that have been predominantly found
in those theories.
• Anthropocentrism: It suggests that human beings are the most important beings. All other
living beings are but accessories that would assist in their survival. Now, there are two further
divisions of anthropocentrism. They are weak anthropocentrism and strong
anthropocentrism.
• Non-Anthropocentrism: As opposed to anthropocentrism, non-anthropocentrism, this
principle gives value to every object, every animal in nature. It is a principle that believes in
everything that sustains itself in nature.
• Psychocentrism: Psychocentrism is the principle that believes that human beings hold more
value in the environment since their mental capacities are better developed and far more
complex than any other element in the environment.
• Biocentrism: It is a term that holds not only an ecological but also a political value. It is a
philosophy that imparts importance to all living beings. In terms of environmental ethics,
biocentrism is the principle that ensures the proper balance of ecology on the planet.
• Holism: The term holism had been coined by Jan Smuts in his book called Holism and
Evolution (1926). Holism considers environment systems as a whole rather than being
individual parts of something. It considers these environment systems to be valuable.
• Resourcism: The principle of resourcism says that nature is considered to be valuable only
because it has resources to provide with. Thus, nature ought to be exploited.
• Speciesism: The principle of speciesism justifies the superiority of the human race. Thus, it
also justifies the exploitation and maltreatment of animals by humankind.
• Moral Considerability: This, too, is an important principle of environmental ethics. Intrinsic
value is added to every being, which makes us consider being moral. Moral considerability
towards a being means that we agree that all our interactions whatsoever with the being is
bound by moral laws.
• Instrumental Value: The instrumental value is the value imparted to a being as long as it can
serve us with resources.
• Intrinsic Value: Intrinsic value is the value attached to a being just for itself and not only for
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• Aesthetic Value: Aesthetic value is imparted to a being by virtue of its looks or its beauty.
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• Animal Liberation or Animal Rights: As is evident from its name, animal liberation or rights
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try to secure animal life and ensure their welfare by enforcing certain laws.
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• Animal Welfare: It ensures that the animals are treated well and humanely.
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21.4. Types of Environmental Ethics

21.4.1. Social Ecology
• Social ecology studies relationships between people and their environment, often the
interdependence of people, collectives and institutions.
• The concept has been employed to study a diverse array of social problems and policies
within the behavioural and social sciences.
• Social ecology has been criticized for its extrapolation from the natural world to human
society.
• Ecologists argue that the interdependence and lack of hierarchy within nature provides a
grounding for non-hierarchical human societies. However, it is one thing to say how nature
is, but quite another to say how society ought to be. Even if we accept that there are no
natural hierarchies within nature (which for many is dubious), there are plenty of other
aspects of it that most of us would not want to foster in our human society.

Core Principles of Social Ecology Student Notes:

• Multidimensional structure of human environments—physical & social, natural & built features;
objective-material as well as perceived-symbolic (or semiotic); virtual & place-based features.
• Cross-disciplinary, multi-level, contextual analyses of people-environment relationships spanning
proximal and distal scales (from narrow to broad spatial, sociocultural, and temporal scope).
• Systems principles, especially feedback loops, interdependence of system elements, anticipating
unintended side effects of public policies and environmental interventions.
• Translation of theory and research findings into community interventions and public policies.
• Privileging and combining both academic and non-academic perspectives, including scientists and
academicians, lay citizens and community stakeholder groups, business leaders and other
professional groups, and government decision makers.
• Transdisciplinary values and orientation, synthesizing concepts and methods from different fields
that pertain to particular research topics.
21.4.2. Deep Ecology

• Deep ecology is based in the belief that humans must radically change their relationship to
nature from one that values nature solely for its usefulness to human beings to one that
recognizes that nature has an inherent value.
• Sometimes called an “ecosophy”, deep ecology offers a definition of the self that differs from
traditional notions and is a social movement that sometimes has religious and mystical
undertones.
• They contend that the mainstream ecological movement is concerned with various
environmental issues (such as pollution, overpopulation, and conservation) only to the extent
that those issues have a negative effect on an area’s ecology and disrupt human interests.
They argue that anthropocentrism, a worldview that contains an instrumentalist view of
nature and a view of humanity as the conqueror of nature, has led to environmental
degradation throughout the world, and thus it should be replaced with ecocentric (ecology-
centred) or biocentric (life-centred) worldviews, where the biosphere becomes the main
focus of concern.
• Critics of deep ecology argue that it is just too vague to address real environmental concerns.
In its refusal to reject so many worldviews and philosophical perspectives, many have claimed
that it is difficult to uncover just what deep ecology advocates. For example, on the one hand,
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it offers us eight principles that deep ecologists should accept, and on the other it claims that
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deep ecology is not about drawing up codes of conduct, but adopting a global comprehensive
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attitude.
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Principles of Deep Ecology

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• The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth have value in themselves
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(synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent worth). These values are independent of the usefulness of the
non-human world for human purposes.
• Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values
in themselves.
• Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.
• The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantially smaller population.
The flourishing of non-human life requires a smaller human population.
• Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly
worsening.
• Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic, technological and
ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.
• The ideological change will be mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of
inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a
profound awareness of the difference between bigness and greatness.
• Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to try to
implement the necessary changes.

21.4.3. Eco-feminism Student Notes:

• Oppression, hierarchy, and spiritual relationships with nature have been central concerns of
ecofeminism.
• Ecofeminists assert that there is a connection between the destruction of nature by humans
and the oppression of women by men that arises from political theories and social practices
in which both women and nature are treated as objects to be owned or controlled.
• Ecofeminists aim to establish a central role for women in the pursuit of an environmentally
sound and socially just society.
• They have been divided, however, over how to conceive of the relationship between nature
and women, which they hold is more intimate and more “spiritual” than the relationship
between nature and men.
• Whereas cultural ecofeminists argue that the relationship is inherent in women’s
reproductive and nurturing roles, social ecofeminists, while acknowledging the relationship’s
immediacy, claim that it arises from social and cultural hierarchies that confine women
primarily to the private sphere.
• Eco-feminism demonstrates an adherence to the strict dichotomy, among others, between
men and women. Some eco-feminist critiques note that the dichotomy between women and
men and nature and culture creates a dualism that is too stringent and focused on the
differences of women and men. In this sense, eco-feminism too strongly correlates the social
status of women with the social status of nature, rather than the non-essentialist view that
women along with nature both have masculine and feminine qualities, and that just like
feminine qualities have often been seen as less worthy, nature is also seen as having lesser
value than culture.
Concepts of Eco-feminism
• Modern Science and Eco-feminism: They view the dominant stream of modern science not as
objective science but as a projection of Western men's values. The privilege of determining what is
considered scientific knowledge and its usage has been controlled by men, and for the most part
of history restricted to men. A common claim within ecofeminist literature is that patriarchal
structures justify their dominance through binary opposition, these include but are not limited to:
heaven/earth, mind/body, male/female, human/animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature and
white/non-white.
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• Vegetarian Eco-feminism: The application of ecofeminism to animal rights has established

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vegetarian ecofeminism, which asserts that omitting the oppression of animals from feminist and
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ecofeminist analyses is inconsistent with the activist and philosophical foundations of both
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feminism (as a "movement to end all forms of oppression") and ecofeminism. It puts into practice
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"the personal is political," as many ecofeminists believe that "meat-eating is a form of patriarchal
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domination that suggests a link between male violence and a meat-based diet.
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• Materialist Eco-feminism: A materialist view connects institutions such as labor, power, and
property as the source of domination over women and nature. There are connections made
between these subjects because of the values of production and reproduction. This dimension of
ecofeminism may also be referred to as "social feminism," "socialist ecofeminism," or "Marxist
ecofeminism”.
• Spiritual/ Cultural Eco-feminism: It is also called an earth based spirituality which recognizes that
the Earth is alive, and that we are an interconnected community. Spiritual ecofeminism is not linked
to one specific religion, but is centered around values of caring, compassion, and non-violence.
Declaration of Ethical Principles in relation to Climate Change

The Member States of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, meeting in
Paris at the thirty-ninth session of the General Conference, from 30 October to 14 November 2017,
taking into account the work carried out by the World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge
and Technology (COMEST) on environmental ethics in general and the ethical issues associated with
climate change in particular,
• Noting with great concern that there is an urgent imperative to mitigate the causes of climate
change, and to adapt to its consequences,

• Noting with concern that climate change exacerbates other threats to social and natural systems, Student Notes:
which place additional burdens on the poor and vulnerable,
• Also recognizing that climate change is a common concern for all humankind, and convinced that
the global and local challenges of climate change cannot be met without the participation of all
people at all levels of society including States, international organizations, sub-national entities,
local authorities, indigenous peoples, local communities, the private sector, civil society
organizations, and individuals,
• Reiterating that significant contributions should be pursued by all to limit climate change and its
effects reflecting equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and
respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances, with developed countries
continuing to take the lead, and developing countries continuing to enhance their mitigation
efforts; recalling the commitment from the Paris Agreement that "developed country Parties shall
provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties with respect to both mitigation and
adaptation in continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention" and "other Parties
are encouraged to provide or continue to provide such support voluntarily",
• Recognizing the need for a transition as quickly as possible to sustainable lifestyles and sustainable
economic development,
• Convinced of the need to respond urgently to climate change with effective and comprehensive
policies which respect and promote human rights and are informed by ethical principles,
• Emphasizing the importance of including a gender perspective within climate change policies, and
• Recognizing the different needs and access to resources of men and women, as well as the needs
of the most vulnerable that include but are not limited to displaced persons and migrants,
indigenous peoples, local communities, persons with disabilities, the elderly, youth, and children,
as well as gender equality and empowerment of women,
• Also recognizing that meaningful participation of all stakeholders, including the most vulnerable, is
essential to effective decision-making to address climate change and its adverse effects,
• Also emphasizing the fundamental importance of science, technological innovation, relevant
knowledge, and education for sustainable development for responding to the challenge of climate
change, including appropriate local, traditional and indigenous knowledge,
• Further recognizing that not only climate change itself, but also the responses to it, may have
important and variable ethical implications at different scales of place and time.
21.5. The Future of Environmental Ethics

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First of all, environmental ethics needs to be and will be informed by changes in the political
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efforts to ameliorate environmental problems.

• Businesses should take the lead in tackling these problems. Indeed, it may even be in the
interests of big business to be active in this way, given the power of consumers. It is quite
possible then, that we will see business ethics address many of the same issues that
environmental ethics has been tackling. However, the effects of environmental ethics will not
be limited to influencing and informing business ethics alone, but will undoubtedly feed into
and merge with more mainstream ethical thinking.
• Finally, environmental ethics will of course be informed by our scientific understanding of the
environment. Whether it be changes in our understanding of how ecosystems work, or
changes in the evidence concerning the environmental crisis, it is clear that such change will
inform and influence those thinkers writing on our environmental obligations.
After all, the environment is not something one can remove oneself from. In light of this, once it
is recognized that we have environmental obligations, all areas of ethics are affected, including
just war theory, domestic distributive justice, global distributive justice, human rights theory and
many others. Take global distributive justice as an example: if one considers how climate change
will affect people throughout the world so differently – affecting individuals’ homes, sanitation,

resistance from disease, ability to earn a living and so on – it is clear that consideration of the Student Notes:
environment is essential to such questions of justice.
Gandhi on Environmentalism
• The ecological scope of non-violence is unlimited. Gandhi's faith in non-violence and vegetarianism
made him a votary of conservation of all diversity including all forms of life, societies, cultures,
religions, and traditions. Arne Naess, the pioneer of deep ecology argued that ecological
preservation is non violent in nature. Naess introduced and Thomas Weber systematized the
relation between non-violence, self-realization and mutual dependence of all living beings in the
following points.
o Self-realization presupposes a search for truth.
o All living beings are one.
o Himsa (violence) against oneself makes self-realization impossible.
o Himsa against a living being is himsa against oneself.
o Himsa against a living being makes complete self-realization impossible.
• Naess used these principles to evolve a broader philosophy of environmentalism i.e, deep ecology.
He believed that Gandhi's Utopia is one of the few that shows ecological balance. As Gandhi
envisaged, non-violence has the power to solve all our problems, including ecological crisis.
• Many thinkers considered the Indian Environmental Movements like Chipko movement, Narmada
Bachao Andolan (NBA) etc. as the living example of Gandhian Environmentalism and they consider
Gandhi as a "man with deep ecological view of life, a view much too deep even for deep ecology."
The key agenda of the Chipko movement was that carrying forward the "vision of Gandhi's
mobilization for a new society, where neither man nor nature is exploited and destroyed, which
was the civilizational response to a threat to human survival." All these together made Gandhi an
exponent of Indian environmentalism.
• The economic ideas of Gandhi differed from conventional economics and bore close resemblances
with ecological economics. The term sustainable development was not much discussed at Gandhi's
time, but his ideal vision of the world known as Sarvodaya safeguard the rights of future
generations, through the welfare of all.
• Environmental movements in India used Satyagraha as the moral equivalent of war. Forest
Satyagraha was first used effectively in Chipko movement to protest against deforestation.
Gandhian techniques like padayatras were conducted to save nature. Conflict resolution techniques
based on non-violence and self sacrifice were used by environmental activists like Chandi Prasad
Bhatt, Baba Amte, Sunderlal Bahuguna, Medha Patker and others.
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Buddha on Environmentalism
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• People were not concerned with global environmental change at the time of the Buddha so he did
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not give teachings specifically on this subject. He did recognise that local communities could be
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affected by the behaviour of his followers and so, for example, he set rules that monks and nuns
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drink. Similarly, he also ruled that monks and nuns should not disrupt the established habitat of
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any other creature, nor kill other living creatures, for example when building new quarters.
• Some forms of Chinese and Japanese Buddhists teach the idea of the inter-relatedness of
everything. This means that humans depend on nature and nature depends on humans. Harming
one part of this whole is the same as harming all of it. Therefore, if people learn to live simply and
in harmony with the world, the whole of the environment will benefit.
• The Buddhist declaration at Assisi stresses the need for all people to have respect for wildlife and
for the environment. The main threat to the world so far has been that human beings have been
indifferent to the effects of their actions on other creatures. Most Buddhists believe that it is only
when this indifference ends, and we become mindful and compassionate, that the world will return
to peace, harmony and balance. This will then allow people to live positive lives and break free from
the negative effects of craving.
• Buddhist principals treat the mind and body, the self and environment, as inseparable.
Environmental destruction is therefore an outer manifestation of an inner affliction. If our thoughts
are polluted, then our actions will be polluted too, and so will their consequences.
Jainism and Environmentalism
• The common concerns between Jainism and environmentalism constituted in a mutual sensitivity
towards living beings, a recognition of the interconnectedness (Jain’s parasparopagraho jīvānām)
of life forms and a programme to augment awareness to respect and protect living systems.

• Jain Agams depict nature in a very unique way as it says that five main elements of nature; Prithvi Student Notes:
(land, soil, stones, etc), Jal (Water resources including cloud), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Air) and Aakash
(Sky) are living creatures and must be treated as living beings. These five types of elements go on
to form five classes of beings (as shown alongside) such as vegetation, trees and plants, fungi and
animals. This unique concept of Jainism restricts its followers to harm any creature and eventually
leads to limited consumption as well as help in protecting environment.
• Jain scriptures motivate people for minimal consumption. They emphasize on Tyaga (Sacrifice). Jain
Sharavaka / Shravikas (Laymen and women) are preached to minimize their Bhoga (Consumables).
The seventh vow for Jain households is Bhogopbhog Pariman Vrata (Vow). This vow restricts them
from unlimited consuming of natural resources. Moreover, this vow is a Shiksha Vrata (Educational
vow). It preaches its observers to learn and educate themselves towards limiting their
consumables.
• One of the ways Jain monks or the followers of Jainism, observe non violence is by restraining
themselves from eating the roots like potato, radish, carrots, ginger etc, especially during the 4
months of rainy season. The reason behind this is they think that during harvest of these
vegetables, earth is dug out and the soil organisms are killed more during rainy season. Jains called
this period as “Chaumasu” or “Chaturmas”.
Hinduism and Environment
• Hinduism offers a perspective on environmental conservation where there is no separation
between the Creator and the created — there is no essential separation between the species homo
sapiens and the other species of animals, for example, and indeed between humanity and all of the
world around us.
• Hindu scripture, when viewed through an ecological lens, provides a strong foundation for action.
• The cornerstone of this foundation is the teaching that all is Divine and everything is sacred. There
are three main ecological concepts that support this:
o Vasudeva Sarvam – The Divine is present in all beings.
o Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam – Everything is part of one interconnected global family, both
spiritually and practically.
o Sarva Bhuta Hita – Promoting the welfare of all beings is the highest dharma.
• From the broadest perspective, a Hindu way of approaching ecological challenges is similar to
applying the precautionary principle.

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APPENDIX I - CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
SPECIES OF INDIA
1. Birds
Jerdon’s Courser The Jerdon’s Courser is a nocturnal bird.
The species was considered to be extinct until it was rediscovered
in 1986 and the area of rediscovery was subsequently declared as
the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh.
Habitat: Undisturbed scrub jungle with open areas.
Distribution: Found only in the northern part of Andhra Pradesh
(earlier also in Maharastra).
Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pastures,
growing of dryland crops, plantations of exotic trees, quarrying and
the construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal. Illegal trapping of birds
is also a threat.
Forest Owlet Habitat: Dry decidous forest.

Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in north-west Maharashtra
and north-central Maharashtra.
Threats: Logging operations, burning and cutting of trees damage
roosting and nesting trees of the Forest Owlet.
White-Bellied Heron Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes.
Distribution: found in five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal
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Pradesh, one or two sites in Bhutan, and a few in Myanmar.

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Threats: Loss and degradation of lowland forest and wetlands

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Vultures Out of nine species of vultures, population of three species (White-

backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Slender-billed Vulture Gyps
tenuirostris and Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus) have declined by
99%.
Vultures keep the environment clean, by scavenging on animal
carcasses.
Habitat: Forests, habitation, villages etc.
Distribution: Across India.
Threats: A major threat to vultures is the use of the painkiller
diclofenac for veterinary purposes. On consumption of carcasses,
diclofenac gets into the system of vultures which they are unable
to metabolize. Accumulation of diclofenac results in gout-like
symptoms such as neck-drooping ultimately leading to death

Student Notes:
Bengal Florican Bengal Florican is a rare bustard species that is very well known for
its mating dance.
Habitat: Grasslands sometimes interspersed with scrublands.
Distribution: Native to only 3 countries in the world - Cambodia,
India and Nepal. In India, it occurs in 3 States namely Uttar Pradesh,
Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
Threats: Ongoing conversion of the bird’s grassland habitat for
various purposes including agriculture is mainly responsible for its
population decline.
Himalayan Quail Habitat: They are known to inhabit long grass and scrubs on steep
hillsides, particularly south facing slopes between the altitudes of
1,650 and 2,400 metres.
Distribution: The Himalayan quail is native to India, found only in
the mountains of Uttarakhand in north-west Himalayas.
Pink Headed Duck Habitat: Lowlands, ponds, swamps and marshes with dense
vegetation.
Distribution: Eastern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Sociable Lapwing This medium-sized lapwing has longish black legs and a short black
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bill. The head has a striking pattern, with a black crown and
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eyestripe, the latter being bordered above and below with white.
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Habitat: This species breeds on open grassland

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Distribution: in Russia and Kazakhstan. These birds migrate South

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Baer’s Pochard Habitat: This species inhabits water bodies with rich aquatic
vegetation. They occur in freshwater bodies, rivers, freshwater
lakes, reservoirs and coastal habitats surrounded by thick
vegetation.
Distribution: Baer's pochard species breed in Russia and north-
eastern China. They move southwards for wintering in eastern and
southern mainland China, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Japan,
Vietnam.
Threats: Habitat degradation, hunting and drying up of breeding
grounds

Student Notes:
Spoon-billed Sandpiper Habitat: During the breeding season Spoon-billed Sandpipers live in
coastal tundra. During migration and winter Spoon-billed
Sandpipers occupy coastal marine sites, especially mudflats on the
outer reaches of tidal estuaries.
Distribution: It breeds in the Chukotsky Peninsula, and in the
southern and northern regions of the Kamchatka Peninsula—and
mainly winters in Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand. It has also
been recorded from India, Vietnam, southern China, Singapore, and
the Philippines.
Siberian Crane Habitat: Shallow wetlands in Tundra and plains

Distribution: They occur in three groups: the eastern group, which
migrates from eastern Siberia to China, the central group, which
migrates from western Siberia to India, and the western group,
which migrate from western Russia to Iran.
Keoladeo (Ghana) National Park (KNP) was the last consistently
confirmed wintering area for the species in India.
2. Mammals
Pygmy Hog The Pygmy hog is the world’s smallest wild pig, with adults
weighing only 8 kg. This species constructs a nest throughout the
year. In 1996, a captive-breeding programme of the species was
initiated in Assam, and some hogs have been reintroduced in
Sonai Rupai area also in 2009.
Habitat: Relatively undisturbed tall ‘terai’ grasslands. It is one of
the most useful indicators of management status of grassland
habitats. The grasslands where the pygmy hog resides are crucial
for the survival of other endangered species such as Indian
rhinoceros, swamp deer , wild buffalo, hispid hare ), Bengal
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florican and swamp francolin.

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Distribution: Formerly, the species was more widely distributed

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along the southern Himalayan foothills but now is restricted to

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only a single remnant population in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and

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its buffer reserves.

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Threats: The main threats are loss and degradation of grasslands,

dry-season burning, livestock grazing and afforestation of
grasslands. Hunting is also a threat to the remnant populations.
Namdapha Flying Squirrel This is an arboreal species that is likely most active at dusk. The
Namdapha Flying Squirrel is only known with certainty from a
single individual collected in Namdapha National Park, the largest
protected area in the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, at
altitudes of between 100 and 350 meters above sea level.

Student Notes:
Malabar Civet This small, dog like carnivore has been pushed to the brink of
extinction by hunting and habitat loss.
Once widespread in the Western Ghats, the Malabar civet was
declared possibly extinct in 1978. Although it was rediscovered
nine years later, it has never been photographed and there has
been no published proof of its continued survival for over a
decade. If the species survives at all, it is likely to be as a series of
isolated relic populations, largely confined to thickets in cashew
nut plantations.
Other endangered mammals: Andaman White-toothed Shrew, Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew,
Nicobar White-tailed Shrew, Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat.
3. Reptiles and Amphibians

Gharial The Gharial is the most uniquely evolved crocodilian in the
world, a specialized river-dwelling fisheater.
Habitat: Clean rivers with sand banks.
Distribution: Only viable population in the National Chambal
Sanctuary, spread across three States of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Madhya Pradesh in India. Small non-breeding populations
exist in Son, Gandak, Hoogly and Ghagra rivers. Now extinct in
Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
Threats: The combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial
embankments, change in river course, pollution, sand-mining,
riparian agriculture and ingress of domestic and feral livestock
caused irreversible loss of riverine habitat and consequently of
the gharial.
Leatherback Turtles Leatherback turtles are the largest of living sea turtles weighing
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as much as 900 kg. Adult leatherback turtles are excellent

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swimmers – they swim on an average of 45-65 km a day, travel

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upto 15,000 km per year and can dive as deep as 1200 m. Jelly fish
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coincide with abundance of jellyfish, making them important top-

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predators in marine environments.

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Habitat: Tropical and subtropical oceans

Distribution: Found in tropical and temperate waters of the
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
Threats: High sea fishing operations, harvesting of eggs,
destruction of nests by wild species and domesticated species
such as cats, dogs and pigs. Artificial lighting disorients hatchlings
and adult and causes them to migrate inland rather than back to
the sea. Threats to habitat include construction, mining and
plantation of exotics.

Student Notes:
Four-toed river terrapin Four-toed river terrapin or River terrapin is a critically endangered
turtle. The omnivorous diet of the river terrapin and other
terrapin species, makes them an essential part of the effi cient
clean-up systems of aquatic habitats.
Habitat: Freshwater rivers and lakes.
Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia
Threats: Use of flesh for medicinal purposes, demand for eggs,
which are considered a delicacy
Red-Crowned Roofed turtle The red-crowned roofed turtle or Bengal roof turtle is a species of
freshwater turtle endemic to South Asia.
Distribution: Historically, this turtle was found in central Nepal,
northeastern India, Bangladesh and probably Burma.
Threats: harvested for meat and shells, drowned in fishing nets,
water pollution, hydro-electric schemes and habitat loss.
Other Critically Endangered Amphibians:

Frogs: Anamalai Flying Frog, Gundia Indian Frog, Kerala Indian Frog , Charles Darwin’s Frog,
Kottigehar Bubble-nest Frog , Amboli Bush Frog, Chalazodes Bubble-Nest Frog, Small Bush Frog,
Green-eyed Bush Frog, Griet Bush Frog, Kaikatt’s Bush Frog, Mark’s Bush Frog, Munnar Bush Frog,
Large Ponmudi Bush Frog, Resplendent Shrub Frog, Sacred Grove Bush frog, Sushil’s Bush Frog and
Shillong Bubble-nest Frog.
Toad: Tiger toad
4. Fish
Largetooth Sawfish Habitat and range: It can tolerate a range of salinities, or salt
levels. Due to this flexibility, they’ve historically been found in
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Threats: Their long rostrums, while an effective tool for

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hunting and defense, also make them vulnerable, as they’re

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easily entangled in fishing gear. Accidentally getting caught in

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fishing nets targeting other fish is one of the biggest threats

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they face today.
Wayanad Masheer The Wayanad Mahseer is an endemic fish that occurs in the
upland streams and rivers of the southern region of the
Western Ghats.
Pondicherry Shark The Pondicherry Shark is a rare shark found on the continental
and insular shelves of the eastern Indian Ocean and the
western Pacific, from India to New Guinea. Little is known
about their particular size or breeding habits.

Student Notes:
APPENDIX II - BIOSPHERE RESERVES
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APPENDIX III - IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS

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Contents Student Notes:

19.4.3. Agro-Ecology ............................................................................................................ 22

19.4.4. Organic Farming ....................................................................................................... 23

19.4.5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) ....................................................................... 25

19.4.6. Intensive Agricultural Practices ................................................................................ 25

19.4.7. Permaculture ........................................................................................................... 26

19.4.8. Vertical Farming Systems ......................................................................................... 27

19.4.9. Hydroponics ............................................................................................................. 28

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

20.4. EIA Notification, 2006 ..................................................................................................... 45 Student Notes:

Copyright © by Vision IAS

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

orientation, one of the cardinal factors is the increasing flexibility of technology to

18.2. Sustainable Development (SD)

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

18.3. History of Sustainable Development

misery for humans. decline

about the non-renewability of some around 2020, followed by a rapid decline

around 2020, followed by a rapid decline

production and long-term economic

growth resulting from environmental o Global population reaches a peak in 2030,

followed by a rapid decline

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

(ii) Agenda 21 Student Notes:

by world leaders, reaffirming their commitment to work towards sustainable development.

18.4. Millennium Development Goals

• At the Millennium Summit in

September 2000 the largest gathering of

world leaders in history adopted the UN

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

indicators or targets were

set, or because for certain

of targets: There are huge

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

18.4.2. UN Conference on Sustainable Development: Rio+20, 2012 Student Notes:

• Build upon commitments already made.

social and environmental fields.

18.5. The Sustainable Development Goals

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

18.6. India and SDGs

executing, and monitoring standards of quality.

interventions. Therefore, establishing SDG monitoring systems and supporting them

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

multipronged strategies to rationalize expenditure prioritisation, augment revenue and

improve resource efficiency.

o Building partnerships: States are increasingly building partnerships with various

stakeholders, such as multi-lateral organisations, academia, civil society organisations,

and private sector to achieve the whole gamut of development targets.

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

o Heightened geopolitical tensions About SDG Financing Student Notes:

transformative impact on the development implementation process as well as the outcomes.

Beyond the comfort zone of a ‘business-asusual’ approach, new strategies, institutional

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

DELHI | JAIPUR | PUNE | HYDERABAD | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI

Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) Student Notes:

macro-economic approach to sustainable economic growth with a central focus on investments,

employment and skills.