I.

TYPES OF DAMS, BASIS FOR THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND DAM

SITE INVESTIGATION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Def: A dam is a barrier constructed across a river or a natural stream to create a reservoir for
impounding water (for irrigation, water supply, flood protection), or to facilitate diversion of
water from the river, or to retain debris flowing in the river along with water.

The construction of dams ranks the earliest and most fundamental of civil engineering activities.
All great civilizations have been identified with the construction of storage reservoirs appropriate
to their needs, in the earliest instances to satisfy irrigation demands arising through the
development and expansion of irrigated agriculture.

Examples:

1. Dam built at Sadd-el-kafara(Egypt, around 2600 B.C.) the oldest known dam
 Height 14m
 Construction - Earthfill central core
- Rock shoulders
- Rubble masonry face protection
 Breached - probably due to flood over topping after a relatively short
period of service.
2. Marib embankment dam – (Yemen, completed around 750 B.C.)

 Height- 20m
 Purpose – for Irrigation
Others were also constructed in Middle and Far East countries

Dams are individually unique structures. Irrespective of size and type they demonstrate great
complexity in their load response and in their interactive relationship with site hydrology and
geology. In recognition of this and reflecting the relatively intermediate nature of many major
design inputs dam engineering is not a stylized and formal science. As practiced it is a highly
specialist activity which draws up on many scientific disciplines and balances them with a large
element of engineering judgment; dam engineering is a uniquely challenging field of endeavor.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

1.2.1 Classification based on function (use)

i) Storage Dams
Storage dams are constructed to create a reservoir to store water during the periods when the
flow in the river/stream is in excess of the demand, for utilization later on during the period when
the demand exceeds the flow in the river/stream.

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 ii) Detention Dams
Constructed to temporarily detain all or part of flood water of a river and gradually release the
stored water at controlled rates so that the entire region on the d/s side of the dam may be safe
guarded against the possible damage due to floods. Detention dams are also constructed to trap
sediment. Theses are often called debris dams.

iii) Diversion Dams

These small dams are used to raise the river water level in order to feed an off-taking canal
and/or some other conveyance systems. They are useful as irrigation development works. A
diversion dam is usually called a weir or a barrage.

1.2.2. Classification based on Hydraulic Design

i) Overflow Dams
They are designed to pass the surplus water over their crest. They must be made of materials
which will not be eroded by such discharges.E.g. Concrete, masonry etc…

ii) Non-overflow Dams

They are those which are not designed to be overtopped. This type of design extends the choice
of materials to include earth fill and rock fill dams.
Many times the types are combined together to form a composite structure.

1.2.3 Classification based on material of construction

i) Rigid dam
It is a dam constructed from rigid materials such as masonry, concrete, etc…Examples are
Gravity, arch and buttress dams.

Concrete gravity Dam: Resists the forces exerted up on it by its own weight. Its cross section is
approximately triangular in shape.
Arch Dam: Is a curved concrete dam, convex u/s, which resists the forces exerted up on it by
arch action. It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress dams, greatly reducing the
volume of concrete required.

Buttress dam: It consists of water retaining sloping membrane or deck on the u/s which is
supported by a serious of buttresses or counter forts. The sloping membrane is usually R.C.slab.
In general the structural behavior of buttress dam is similar to that of gravity dam. It may be
considered as a lightened version of gravity dam.

ii) Non Rigid dams

A dam which is constructed from non-rigid materials such as earth, rockfill etc…. are called non-
rigid dams. Earthfill and rockfill dams are non-rigid dams. They are usually called embankment
dams.

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 Earthfill embankments: An embankment may be categorized as Earthfill dam if
compacted soils account for over 50% of the placed volume of material.
 Rockfill embankments: In rockfill embankment the section includes a discrete impervious
element of compacted Earthfill or a slender concrete or bituminous membrane. The
designation ‘rockfill embankment’ is appropriate where over 50% of fill material may be
classified as rockfill, i.e. course grained frictional material.

1.3. FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION OF DAM TYPE

It is rare that for any given site only one type of dam is suitable. It is only in exceptional
circumstances that the experienced designer can say that only one type of dam is suitable or
most economical. Thus, it would be necessary to prepare preliminary designs and estimates
for the several types of dams before one can get the best solution from the point of view of
direct costs and all other factors. Some the physical factors which affect the choice of the
type of dam are discussed below.

1.3.1. TOPOGRAPHY

Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam and the most important factor in this
respect is the shape of the valley.
i. A narrow V-shaped valley with sound rock in abatements has an arch dam as the first
choice. However, for economic arch dam it is preferable to have the top width of the
valley less than about four times its height. It is also suitable for rockfill dam.
ii. A narrow or moderately wide U-shaped valley with sound rock foundation is best
suited for gravity or buttress dam.
iii. Wide valley with foundation of soil material to a considerable depth (deep over
burden) favor Earthfill embankment dam.

1.3.2. GEOLOGY AND FOUNDATION CONDITIONS

The foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. The dam site must be thoroughly
surveyed by geologists, so as to detect the thickness of the foundation strata, presence of
faults, fissured materials, and their permeability, slop and slip etc…
The common types of foundations encountered are:

i. Solid Rock Foundation

Because of high bearing capacity and resistance to erosion and percolation, any type of dam
can be built on such foundations. However, the choice of the type of dam will be governed
by economy of materials or overall cost. The removal of disintegrated rock together with the
sealing of seams and fractures by grouting will frequently be necessary.

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 ii. Gravel Foundations (and course sand)

If well compacted such foundations are suitable for earthfill, rockfill and low concrete
gravity dams (<15m). As these foundations are frequently subject to water percolation at high
rates, special precautions must be taken to provide effective water cut offs or seals.

iii. Silt and Fine Sand Foundations

These foundations suggest the adoption of earth dams or very low gravity dams (up to 8m
high), but they are not suitable for rockfill dams. The main problems are settlement, the
prevention of piping, excessive percolation losses, and protection of the foundation at the d/s
toe from erosion.

iv. Clay Foundations

Clay foundations are can be used to support Earthfill dams after special treatment to
consolidate clay. Since there may be considerable settlement, if the clay is unconsolidated
and the moisture content is, clay foundations ordinarily are not suitable for the construction
of concrete gravity dams, and should not be used for rockfill dams. Tests of the foundation
material in its natural state are usually required to determine the consolidation characteristics
of the material and its ability to support the supper imposed load.

v. Non Uniform Foundations

At certain places, a uniform foundation of the types described above may not be available. In
such a case, a non uniform foundation of rock and soft material may have to be used if the
dam is to be built. Such unsatisfactory conditions have to be dealt with by special designs or
appropriate foundation treatment.

1.3.3. MATERIALS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION

Elimination or reduction of transportation expenses for construction materials, particularly

those which are used in great quantity, will effect a considerable reduction in the total cost
the project. Thus availability of suitable aggregate (i.e. sand and gravel or crushed stone) for
concrete is a factor favorable to the construc5tion of concrete dams. On the other hand, if
suitable soils are available, the choice may be for an earthfill dam.

1.3.4. SPILL WAY SIZE AND LOCATION

The spillway is a vital appurtenance of dam. Frequently its size, type and natural restrictions
in its location will be the controlling factors in the choice of the type of dam. Spillway
requirements are dictated primarily by the runoff and stream flow characteristics,
independent of site conditions or type of dam. The selection of a specific spillway types will
be influenced by the magnitudes of the floods to be bypassed. Thus, it can be seen that, on

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streams with large flood potential, the spillway selection of the type of dam could become a
secondary consideration.

The cost of constructing a large spill way is frequently a considerable portion of the total cost
of the development. In such cases, combining the spillway and dam in to one structure may
be desirable, indicating the adoption of a concrete overflow dam.
In certain instances, where excavated material from separate spillway channel may be
utilized in dam embankment, an earthfill dam may prove to be advantageous. Small spillway
requirements often favor the selection of earthfill or rockfill dams, even in narrow dam sites.

1.3.5 ERATHQUAKE

If the dam lies in area that is subject to earthquake shocks, the design must include provisions
for the added loading and increased stresses. Although by including the provisions for the
added loading due to earthquake in the design of any type of dam may be adopted in these
areas. Earthfill and concrete gravity dams are the best suited types in this respect.

1.4 INVESTIGATION OF DAM SITE

Dam site investigation requires careful planning and a considerable investment of time and
resources. Where possible, in situ and field test techniques should be employed to
supplement laboratory testing progarmmes. Proper interpretation of geological and
geotechnical data demands the closest cooperation between the engineering geologist, the
geotechnical specialist and the dam engineer.

Extensive investigations are conducted to confirm that, the site can be developed on the
desired scale and at acceptable cost. The nature of soil and rock formations present, critical to
foundation integrity must be proved by subsurface exploration. Foundation competence is
determined by stability, load carrying capacity, deformability, and effective impermeability.
All are assed in relation to the type and size of dam proposed.

In the case of a difficult site, the site evaluation programme can be protracted and expensive.
Expenditures may be of the order of 1% up to, exceptionally, 2.5 or 3% of the anticipated
cost of the dam. The scope of individual aspects of an investigation reflects circumstances
unique to the site.

In parallel with these investigations, extensive and detailed surveys are required to establish
the location and extent of potential sources of construction materials in reasonable proximity
to the site.

Overall site viability is additionally subject to economic considerations, notably site

preparation and construction material costs. It may also be influenced by seismicity, access
development cost or other local constraints, including environmental considerations.

Generally site investigation may be broadly classified under three categories, viz

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 i) Reconnaissance
ii) Preliminary investigation
iii) Final investigation

Reconnaissance: Involves visiting all available sites which have a possibility of being
utilized and gathering information which will be useful for planning the detailed surveys and
investigations. The information to be collected may include geological data without any kind
of subsurface exploration, approximate estimate of stream flow data, storage capacity and
head available, etc….

Preliminary Investigation: Sufficiently precise data is collected at several sites selected

during reconnaissance to determine the most economical and suitable site among these.
Preliminary investigation usually requires the following items.

a) Less precise site survey with the resulting topographic site map
b) Some investigation of the overburden
c) Few borings, say from 6 to 50, according to the size of the dam
d) Preliminary geologic investigation and corresponding report
e) Investigations of construction materials, e.g. earth, gravel, concrete aggregate etc…
f) Determination of public utilities such as road, telephone lines etc… that may be
affected by the construction of the dam
g) Hydrologic studies
h) Determination of sediment load of the stream
i) Checking of high water marks for their use in determining spillway capacity
requirements.

Final Investigation: One of the several possible dam sites investigated in preliminary
investigation is elected for final, precise investigation. Final investigation involves the
following items.

a) Sufficiently precise site survey and preparation of topographic maps to serve all
purposes of design and construction of the dam
b) Accomplishment of necessary borings, test pits subsurface explorations, geologic
studies and tests on the materials in foundation and in the proposed borrow lands.
c) Determination of the type of dam to be constructed
d) Planning for the foundation treatment on the basis of subsurface investigation
e) Determination of the extent of land which would be submerged in the reservoir
and the arrangements for rehabilitation of the residents of that area.
f) Obtaining sufficient information for accurate estimate of cost
g) Determination of the final location of the dam, construction equipment, labor and
other staff members, probable source of construction materials and all other
information needed to the construction Engineer.
It may, however, be mentioned that there is no distinct line of demarcation between the
preliminary and the final investigations of dam sites.

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 II GRAVITY DAM

A concrete gravity dam is entirely dependent up on its own weight (mass) for stability. The
gravity profile is essentially triangular to ensure stability and to avoid over-stressing of the
dam or its foundation. A gravity dam is mostly straight in plan and thus known as straight
gravity dam. However, in some cases it may be curved in plan (slightly).

In plan the axis of the dam is defined as the horizontal trace of the u/s edge of the top of the
dam and it is also called the BASE LINE OF THE DAM. In the cross section of dam the
vertical line passing through the u/s edge of the top of the dam is considered as the axis of the
dam.

The length of the dam is the length measured along the axis of the dam at the top of the dam
from one abutment to the other abutment.

The maximum base width of the dam is the horizontal distance the outer points of the heel
and the toe of the cross section of the dam.

The maximum height of the dam or structural height of dam is the vertical distance between
the lowest point in the foundation and the top of the dam.

2.1. FORCES ACTING ON GRAVITY DAM

The first consideration in designing a dam is the determination of the forces acting on the
structure. These forces may be considered as consisting of the following:

I. PRIMARY FORCES: These are of major importance to all dams, irrespective of type.
They are:

1. Water pressure
2. Self weight of dam
3. Uplift(seepage) pressure

II. SECONDARY FORCES (or LOADS): are universally applicable although of lesser
magnitude, or alternatively, are of major importance only to certain types of dams (e.g.
thermal effects with in concrete dams). They include:

1. Sediment (or silt) pressure

2. Wave pressure
3. Ice pressure
4. Wind pressure

III. EXCEPTIONAL FORCES (or LOADS): They have limited general applicability or
have a low probability of occurrence. They are:
1. Earthquake(or seismic) forces

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 Fig 1 Schematic of principal forces on gravity dams

WATER PRESSURE: Water pressure is the major external force acting on gravity dam.
When the u/s face is vertical its intensity is zero at the water surface and equal to H at
the base. The resultant force due to this pressure is

P= and acts at H/3 from the base.

When the u/s face is partly vertical and partly inclined the resultant water force is
resolved in to horizontal component PH, and vertical component PV.

FH
FH’

Fig 2 Water pressure on gravity dam

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SELF WEIGHT OF DAM: The weight per unit length of the dam is given by the
product of the area of cross section of the dam and the unit weight of the construction
material, i.e., concrete or stone masonry, and it acts vertically downwards at the centeroid
of the cross sectional area, Ap, of the dam profile.

Pm = Ap [kN/m]
= Unit weight of concrete, assumed as 23.5 KN/m3

For a gravity dam the weight of the dam is the main stabilizing force, and hence the
construction material should be as heavy as possible. Thus in order to get heavier, the
course aggregate should have greater specific gravity.

UPLIFT (OR SEEPAGE) FORCE: Is the force exerted by the water penetrating
through the pores, cracks and seams with in the body of the dam, at the contact between
the dam and its foundation, and with in the foundation.

It acts vertically upwards at any horizontal section of the dam as well as its foundation
and hence causes a reduction in the effective weight of the portion of the structure lying
above this section.

The computation of uplift pressure involves the consideration of two constituent

elements, viz. (i) the area over which the up lift pressure acts and (ii) the intensity of the
uplift pressure at various points.

The percentage of area on which the uplift pressure acts is defined as the area factor, η.
Several investigations have been made and some of the earlier investigators
recommended, for both concrete and rock, a value of area factor ranging from 1/3 to 2/3,
i.e. only 1/3 to 2/3 of the area may be considered as effective area over which the uplift
pressure acts.
A’h = ηAh ( A’h = effective area)

However, Terzaghi and Leliavsky, have indicated that, for both concrete and rock, the
value of area factor is nearly unity. As such the present practice in dam design is that the
up lift pressure is assumed to act over 100% of the area with in the body of the dam and
its foundation (i.e., η = 1).

Uplift pressure can be reduced by forming drains through the concrete of the dam and by
drilling drainage holes in to the foundation rock. In modern dams internal up lift is
controlled by the provision of vertical relief drains close behind the u/s face. Formed
drains raise the full height of the dam from an inspection gallery located as low as
practicable in relation to the tail water level.

At the line of drains, in the body of the dam as well as the contact plane between the dam,
and its foundation and with in the foundation, uplift pressure is assumed to have an
intensity, Pdu, equal to

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 Fig 3 Internal up lift and assumed pressure envelopes

The uplift pressure at the contact of the dam with the foundation may also be reduced by
constructing a cut off wall or grout curtain close to the u/s face of the dam and extending
it for considerable depth in the foundation. The reduction in the up lift pressure intensity
due to the provision of the cut off wall is expressed in terms of intensity factor. The
intensity factor is the ratio of the actual intensity of uplift pressure developed when cut
off wall is provided to the intensity of up lift pressure, which would be developed with
out cut off wall. The values of intensity factor ( ) given in table 1 may be used with
judgment. However, in designs of dams theses reduction factor are generally disregarded
or are considered to be unity. This is because:

a) It is not possible to determine quantitatively by the effectiveness of the cutoff

wall in the reduction of the uplift pressure (by reducing under flow of water
through foundation).
b) A cutoff wall is considered to be an additional factor of safety.

Table 1 Uplift intensity factor ( ) Ref. Creager, et al

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Height of Dam** Type of rock foundation Grouting and
Drainage
Moderate Horizontally stratified None 1.00
-Do- Fair, Horizontally stratified Yes 0.67
High - Do- -Do- 0.75
Moderate Good, Horizontally stratified -Do- 0.5
High -Do- -Do- 0.67
Moderate Fair, massive None 0.67
-Do- -Do- Yes 0.50
High -Do- -Do- 0.67
Moderate Good, massive None 0.50
-Do- -Do- Yes 0.50*
High -Do- -Do- 0.50

**Moderate represents dams up to about 60m

High represents dams above about 60m
* A minimum limit

SEDIMENT (or SILT) PRESSURE: The gradual accumulation of significant deposits

of fine sediment notably silts, against the face of the dam generates a resultant horizontal
force, Ps. The magnitude of Ps, which is additional to water load P, is a function of the
sediment depth h, the submerged unit weight and the active lateral pressure
coefficient, Ka.

and acts at h/3 from the bottom of deposit. = - where is the sediment

saturated unit wt, and where is the angle of shearing

resistance of the sediment 9 angle of internal friction).

Values of 18-20 Kn/m3 and 30o, Accurate prediction of h is inhibited by major

uncertainties 9 function of sediment concentration, reservoir characteristics, river
hydrograph etc…), but sediment load is seldom critical in design other than for smaller
flood control dams and its introduction is not universal.

WAVE PRESSURE AND HEIGHTS: The upper portions of dams are subject to the
impact of waves. The magnitude of the wave pressure mainly depends on the dimensions
of waves, which in turn depend on the extent, configuration of the water surface, the
velocity of wind and the depth of water in the reservoir. Knowledge of wave height is
important if overtopping wave splash is to be avoided. The most significant dimension of
wave is the height of the wave in terms of which the wave pressure exerted on the dam
can be expressed.

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Wave height may be determined (Moliter) by the following formula:

Where, = Height of the wave from trough to crest, m.

F = the fetch or straight length of water expanse normal the dam axis subject to
wind action, km
V = velocity of wind on the water surface, km/h
The maximum pressure intensity occurs at about 1/8 h w above the still water level and is
approximately:

Pw = 2.4
= 23.544 [kN/m2]

The wave pressure diagram is of a curvilinear form which for present purposes may be
approximately represented by the triangle 1-2-3 in fig 4.

The total pressure Pw per unit length of the dam is given by the area of the triangle 1-2-3
and given by

[KN/m]

Its center of application is above the still water surface at height 3/8 (or 0.375 )

Fig 4 Wave configuration and wave pressure on gravity dam

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ICE PRESSURE: Ice load can be introduced in circumstances where ice sheets form to
appreciable thickness and persist for lengthy periods. In such situations, ice pressure may
generate a considerable horizontal thrust near crest level.

An acceptable initial provision for ice load, Pice, where considered necessary is given by
Pice = 145kN/m2 for ice thickness in excess of 0.6m (USBR, 1976). Where ice thicknesses
are unlikely to exceed 0.4m and/or will be subject to little restraint, as on sloping face ,
ice load may be neglected.(Contraction and expansion due to change in temperature
causes ice pressure).

WIND PRESSURE: Wind pressure is seldom a factor on the design of dams. Such
structures are usually in sheltered locations. Even in exposed locations, the wind has
access to only the d/s face of a loaded dam. The maximum possible pressures are small
when compared to the loads for which the dam is designed, and it acts against the water
load. The superstructure of dams carrying very large sluice gets may need to be
proportioned to resist wind loads of 1 kN/m2 to 1.5 kN/m2.

EARTHQUAKE (or SEISMIC) FORCES: Dynamic loads generated by seismic

disturbances must be considered in the design of concrete dams situated in recognized
seismic ‘high risk’ regions. The possibility of seismic activity should also be considered
for dams located outside those regions, particularly where sited in close proximity to
potentially active geological faults.

Seismicity is accessed through a specialist review of regional and local geology in

conjunction with historical evidence when a risk of seismic activity is confirmed;
estimates of probable maximum intensity provide the bases for selecting seismic design
parameters.

Seismic activity is associated with complex oscillating patterns of accelerations and

ground motions, which generate transient loads due to the inertia of the dam and the
retained body of water. Horizontal and vertical accelerations are not equal, the former
being of greater intensity. For design purposes both should be considered operative in the
sense least favorable to stability of the dam. Horizontal accelerations are therefore
assumed to operate normal to the axis of the dam.

Effect of Horizontal Earthquake Acceleration

Due to the horizontal acceleration imparted to the foundation and dam the following two
forces act on the dam.
i. Inertia force
ii. Hydrodynamic pressure

(i) Inertia force:

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Under reservoir full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will occur when the
ground shock is associated with foundation acceleration operating upstream, i.e. form d/s
to u/s. This will cause the inertia force to act on the dam in the direction from u/s to d/s.
However, for reservoir empty conditions the acceleration in the direction from u/s to d/s
would produce the worst combination. In general, the inertia force is equal to the product
of weight of the dam and seismic coefficient.

[kN/m]
And the inertial force is considered to operate through the centeroid of the dam section.

(ii) Hydrodynamic Pressure (Water Reaction)

Due to horizontal acceleration the foundation and dam are accelerated either towards the
reservoir or away from it depending on the direction of the acceleration being from u/s to
d/s or vice versa. However, this movement of the dam is restricted by the water in the
reservoir owing to its inertia, on account of which there is an instantaneous
hydrodynamic pressure (or suction) exerted on the dam. The direction of hydrodynamic
pressure is opposite to the direction of earthquake acceleration.

For dams with vertical or sloping u/s faces, the hydrodynamic pressure, p e, in kN/m2, at
any elevation y below the water surface is given by the following equation. (Ref Fig 5)

Where = horizontal seismic coefficient =

Where
= unit weight of water, kN/m3
h = Total depth of reservoir at section of dam considered
C = a dimensionless coefficient which depends on the shape of the dam and
depth of reservoir.

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Fig 5 Hydrodynamic pressure and inertia forces

The value of the coefficient C may be obtained for dams with u/s face either vertical or
having constant slope for the entire height by the following expression:

Where Cm = maximum value of C for a given constant slope of the face of the dam
y = depth of horizontal section under consideration below the water surface
in the reservoir, m
Value of Cm may be obtained from a plot of Cm Vs , where is the angle (o) that the
face of the dam makes with the vertical. However, approximate value of Cm may be
calculated from:

For dams with u/s face partly vertical and partly sloping the value of C may be obtained
as follows: (Ref Fig 6).
a) If the height of the vertical portion of the u/s face of the dam is equal to or greater
than half of the total height of the dam, then the entire face is considered as
vertical.
b) If the height of the vertical portion of the u/s face of the dam is less than half of
the total height of the dam, then the slope of the u/s face is considered to be equal
to the slope of the line joining the point of intersection of the u/s face of the dam
and the water surface in the reservoir; and the point of intersection of the u/s face
of the dam and foundation (i.e. the heel of the dam).

Fig 6

The total hydrodynamic force, Pe, above any elevation y distance below the reservoir
surface, and the resulting total overturning moment, Me, above the elevation are given by:

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The corresponding values of Pe and Me for the dam above its base may be obtained by
substituting h for y as

The hydrodynamic pressure acts normal to the face of dam. As such if the u/s face of the
dam is sloping, then it will have horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal
component is given by equation:

The vertical component for part of the dam above a horizontal section x-x at a depth y
below the water surface is given by:

Where Ve = Vertical component of total hydrodynamic pressure for a part of dam up to a

horizontal section being considered at depth y below the water surface;
Pe2 = horizontal component of total hydrodynamic pressure for a part of dam up to a
horizontal section being considered at depth y below the water surface;

Pe1 = horizontal component of total hydrodynamic pressure for a part of the dam at a
horizontal section at which the slope of the face commences;
= Angle between face of dam and vertical

Effect of Vertical Earthquake acceleration

Under reservoir full condition the most adverse seismic loading will occur when the ground
shock is associated with vertical acceleration operating downwards. Foundation acceleration
downwards will effectively reduce the mass, and hence the stability of the structure. The inertia
force is exerted on the dam as well as the water in the reservoir in the direction opposite to that of
acceleration.

If W is the weight per unit length of the dam and is the vertical seismic coefficient then
the inertia force exerted per unit length of the dam is given by:

Thus for an upward acceleration the inertia force P emv would be acting downwards and hence it
would result in an increase in the weight of the dam from W to W (1+ ). On the other hand,
if the acceleration is acting downwards, the inertia force Pemv would be acting upwards
which would result in reduction of the weight of the weight of the dam from W to W (1-
). Similar expressions may be obtained for water in the reservoir.

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It is commonly assumed that = (1.5 – 2.0) for the purpose of analysis.
Representative seismic coefficients, , applied in design are listed in table 2.
Table 2 Seismic acceleration coefficients,
Coefficient Modified General damage
Mercalli Scale Level
0.0 - Nil
0.05 VI Minor
0.10 VII Moderate
0.15 VIII-IX Major
0.20 Great

Note that uplift pressure is normally assumed to be unaltered by seismic shock. This is so
because the duration of the earthquake is too short to permit the building up of pore
pressure in the concrete and rock foundation.

2.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS

A concrete gravity dam should be desired with regard to the most rigorous adverse
groupings or combinations, which include transitory loads of remote probability, and
therefore have a negligible livelihood of occurrence in service, are not considered a valid
basis for design. Such combinations may be investigated when verifying the design of the
most important dams, but are generally discounted in the analysis of lesser structures.

The design of gravity dam should be checked for two cases, i.e.,

i. When reservoir is full, and

ii. When reservoir is empty

Case I. Full Reservoir

USBR has classified the ‘Normal Load Combinations’ and ‘Extreme Load Combinations’
as below.

a) Normal Load Combinations

1. Normal water surface elevation, ice pressure (if
applicable), silt pressure and normal uplift → Taken when ice pressure is
serious
2. Normal water surface elevation, earthquake force, silt
pressure and normal up lift
3. Maximum water surface elevation, silt pressure and
normal uplift pressure

b) Extreme load combination

Maximum flood water elevation, silt pressure, and extreme uplift (with no drains) in
operation to release to uplift.

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Case II Empty Reservoir

1. Empty Reservoir with out earthquake has to be analyzed to determine bending

moment diagrams, etc; for reinforcement design, for grouting studies or other
purposes.
2. Empty reservoir with horizontal earthquake force towards the u/s has to be
checked or non development of tension at toe.

2.3. STABILITY REQUREMENTS OF GRAVITY DAM

A concrete gravity dam must be designed to resist, with ample factor of safety. There
are three tendencies of destruction.
1. Rotation or overturning
2. Translation or sliding
3. Overstressing or material failure

OVERTURNING STABILITY

The overturning of the dam section takes place, if tension is ignored; when the
resultant force at any section cuts the base of the dam d/s of the toe. The factor of
safety with respect to overturning can be expressed in terms of the moments about the
d/s toe of any horizontal plane. The factor of safety against overturning is defined as
the ratio of the summation of all restoring forces/moments (i.e. positive) to the
summation of all overturning moments (i.e. negative).

Values of F.S. in excess of 1.25 may generally be regarded as acceptable, but F.S.
should not be less than 1.5 (i.e. F.S.> 1.5 is desirable.)

SLIDING STABILITY

A dam will fail in sliding at its base, or any other level, if the horizontal force causing
sliding are more than the resistance available to it at that level. The resistance against
sliding may be due to friction alone, or due to friction and shear strength of the joint.
The planes of weaknesses are the necessary horizontal construction joints, including
the joint at the base. The shearing and frictional resistance of the joint must be
sufficient to with stand the tendency to slide.

If the shear strength is not taken in to account, the factor of safety is known as factor
of safety against sliding. If is the summation of all the horizontal forces

18
causing the sliding and are sum of the all vertical forces, factor of safety
against sliding is given by:

If f represents the coefficient of static friction of the material above and below the
joint, will be frictional resistance to sliding. For equilibrium, >

or where is the angle between the vertical and the

resultant. Values of f for masonry on masonry and masonry on rock foundation varies
b/n 0.6 and 0.75; F.S. >1.

It is considered that a low gravity dam should be safe against sliding considering
friction alone. However in large dams, shear strength of the joints should also be
considered for an economical design. The factor of safety in this case is, therefore,
known as Shear Friction Factor (S.F.F.) and is defined by the equation

Where s = unit shearing strength of the material

r = an averaging factor = ratio of the average to the maximum shearing
stress on the joint ≈ 0.5.

A = Area of the joint = 1XB

Shear strength s may be determined by tests. It is necessary to known the shear

strength of both the foundation and the concrete, smaller value being used. The factor
of safety against sliding when friction alone considered is relatively small. Low
values are permissible because of the added safety due to the neglected shearing
strength. When shear is included, S.F.F should approach 4 or 5. According to USBR
recommendation minimum S.F.F should be greater than 5 during the most sever
conditions of reservoir load combined with maximum horizontal and vertical
earthquake accelerations.

OVERSTRESSING

A dam may fail if any of its part is overstressed and hence the stresses in the dam
should be with in the specified limit (allowable working stresses) for the dam body
and in the foundation.

The stresses at any point at the base of the dam or with in the dam body can be
obtained from the following equation.

19
 Positive sign is used to calculate normal stress at the toe.
 Negative sign is used for calculating normal stress at the heel.

If exceeds the allowable compressive stress of dam material (for concrete

30 kg/cm2) the dam may crush and fail by crushing. For reservoir full condition,
maximum compressive stress ( ) is produced at the toe.

20
Fig 7 Normal stress distribution at the base

Evidently, the maximum compressive stress occurs at the toe and for safety this
should not be grater than allowable compressive stress ( ) all the foundation
material; i.e.

Concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension is
developed anywhere; since concrete cannot withstand sustained tensile stresses.

In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, we must ensure that

is at most equal to zero.

Hence, the maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of
the center is equal to B/6; which leads to the famous statement:

‘THE RESULTANT MUST LIE WITH IN THE MIDDILE THIRD’_

the middle third rule.

PRINCIPAL and SHEAR STRESSES: The vertical stresses determined

above are not maximum direct stresses produced anywhere in the dam. The
maximum normal stress will be the major principal stress that will be generated
on the major principal plane. Consider a small element near the toe of the dam.

21
Fig 8 Principal stresses at the toe and heel of gravity dam.
The stress intensities are assumed to be uniform on the faces of the element.

Since the tail water pressure acts normal to the face and there is no shear
stress, BA is a principal plane. Since principal planes are at right angles to each
other BC is perpendicular to AB.

Resolving all forces in the vertical direction, we get

Fig 9 Enlarged view of Element ABC

22
 For to be maximum, should be zero, i.e. no tail water and
=
Since is always more than 1 will be greater than

Therefore, this maximum normal stress produced anywhere in the body of the
dam must be calculated and compared with the allowable compressive stress.

Similarly the equation at the heel is given by

= =

Where, is the angle the u/s face makes with the vertical.
P and Pe are water pressure and hydrodynamic pressure respectively

But at the heel, water p[pressure P is always more than and hence P will be
the major principal stress and is the minor principal stress.

A shear stress also acts on plane AC. No shear stress on AB and BC (principal
planes). Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we get

Neglecting tail water,

ELEMENTARY PROFILE OF A GRAVITY DAM

The elementary profile of a gravity dam, subjected only to the external water
pressure on the u/s side will be a right angled triangle, having zero width at top
water level and a base width B at the bottom.
23
 Fig 10 Elementary profile of a gravity dam

For reservoir empty condition the elementary profile provide the maximum possible
stabilizing force against overturning w/o causing tension in the base. This is so
because the weight of the dam (the only force) acts at a distance B/3 from u/s
face.

Vertical stress distribution (reservoir empty) at base is

; e = B/3*1/2 = B/6 (at u/s middle third

point)

Considering the elementary profile of the gravity dam (fig. 10) of height H and
base width B;

i. Weight of dam,

Where S = Specific gravity of dam material

= unit weight of water Unit wt of concrete

24
 ii. Water Pressure,

iii. Uplift Pressure,

= Up lift intensity factor

Base Width of Elementary Profile for No Tension

For no tension at any point in the base of the dam, the resultant must pass through the
middle third of the base.

Thus for reservoir full condition the outer middle third point A is the limiting position of
the point at which the resultant may meet the base for no tension at any point in the base
of the dam. Thus taking moments of all forces about A, and equating it to zero, we get;

…………..(a)

Hence, if B is taken equal to or greater than , then no tension will develop at the
heel (full reservoir).
When = 1 (usually ) ……. Full uplift is considered.

is the worst case. But if uplift is not considered,

Base width of elementary profile for No sliding

For no sliding to occur, the force resisting sliding must exceed the force causing sliding
and in the limiting case these forces must be equal. Assuming sliding is resisted only by
friction, and then the force resisting sliding is equal to f(W-Pu) and the force causing
sliding is equal to P and in the limiting case we have;

25
 ………………(b)

Therefore, the minimum base width to be provided for the elementary profile of a gravity
dam should be the greater of the base widths given by equations (a) and (b).

Limiting Height of Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam- High and Low Gravity
Dams

The normal stress at te toe and heel is given by

In the case of elementary profile,

In the limiting case of no tension at any point in the base of the dam, e = B/6, and hence

The principal stress at the toe of the dam is given by

= (for no tail water)
Substituting the value of for elementary profile from equation (**), we get;

Therefore, ………………………………(c)

From equation (a),

By substituting this value in equation (c), we get
…………………………………………………..(d)

26
Equation (d) shows that the value of varies only with H as all the other terms are
constant for any dam. In order to avoid failure of the dam, due to crushing the value of
(at toe) should not exceed the allowable working stress fall for the dam material and
the limiting case.

Thus, this value of H is the maximum height which may be provided for an elementary
profile of a dam w/o exceeding the allowable working stress for the dam material.

However, a lower value of H will be obtained when uplift pressure is not considered (i.e.
=0). Hence to be on the safer side to determine the limiting height of a dam having
elementary profile, the uplift pressure is neglected. This height is given by:

………………………………………………………(e)

If the height of the dam is more than given by equation (e),the maximum compressive
stress will exceed the permissible stress. This condition is undesirable.

Equation (e) defines the distinction b/n a low and high gravity dam. Low gravity dam is
one in which H is less than that given by equation (e) and maximum compressive stress is
not more than the allowable stress.

If the height of the dam to be constructed is more than that given by equation (e), the dam
is a high gravity dam. For such a dam, the section has to be given extra slopes at the u/s
and d/s sides, below the limiting height to bring the compressive stress with limits.

27
Fig 11 Low and High gravity dams

PRACTICAL PROFILE OF A GRAVITY DAM

The elementary profile of a gravity dam is only a theoretical profile. Certain changes will
gave to be made in this profile in order to cater to the practical needs. These needs are:

i. Providing a straight top width, for road construction over the top
of the dam and/or at least to resist the impact action of the
floating debris
ii. Providing a free board above the top water surface so that water
may not spill over the top of the dam due to wave action, etc…

The addition of these two provisions will cause the resultant force to shift towards the
heel. For reservoir empty condition, the resultant shift more towards to the heel, crossing
the inner middle third point, and consequently, tension will be developed at the toe. In
order to avoid the development of this tension some concrete have to be added on the u/s
side of the dam.

Fig 12 practical profile of a gravity dam

Top Width: The concrete added to provide the top width affects the cross section of the
dam.

28
 Fig 13 Effect of top width on the profile of a gravity dam

In fig(13a) M1 and M2 are the inner and outer third points on the base. Thus AM 1 and
AM2 are the inner and outer third point lines, respectively. Let ADE be concrete added to
provide top width with AD = a and MI will be the line passing through the centeroid of
the added triangle ADE. This line when produced intersects AM1 and AM2 at points G
and J respectively.

For Reservoir Empty Condition, due to the additional concrete ADE, the resultant force
will intersect at a point to the right of AM1 outside, the middle third for all the sections
above plane FGH and on the left of AM1 outside the middle third for all the sections
below plane FGH. Hence tension will develop at the d/s face of the dam below plane
FGH. Therefore, to avoid this tension, concrete will have to be added at the lower levels
on the u/s side of the dam by providing u/s batter FC1shown in fig (13a).

This would result in increasing the total volume of concrete in the dam.

To find the depth h’ of the plane FGH below which u/s batter is required, we have

FG = AM = 2/3 a
FH = 3FG = 3x(2/3)a = 2a

But

For reservoir full condition, due to the additional concrete ADE, for all sections below
plane KJE, the resultant force will intersect at a point on the left of AM2within the
middle third (because of added wt, since before ADE is added R was at outer middle
third).

However, for the sake of economy the resultant force must intersect at the outer third
point line at all sections. As such in order to make the resultant force to intersect at the
outer third point at all sections the d/s face of the dam may be shifted from EB to EB1,
resulting in the reduction of concrete. Thus, due to the provision of some top width the
modified dam section will be ADEB1C1F shown in fig 13b.

Thus an increase in top width, will increases the concrete in the added element and also
increase it on u/s face, but shall reduce it on the d/s face. It has been further observed that

29
within limits the concrete added for providing the top width decreases rather than
increase the total concrete volume in the dam. Thus it is so b/c the increased volume of
concrete in the upper portion of the dam is compensated by reduction in the lower levels.

Hence, the most economical top width is a function of height of dam. Without
considering earthquake forces, the most economical top width, has been found by
Creager to be equal to 14% of the dam height. However, for low dams the top width is
usually greater than that provided on the bases of economy, b/c of minimum roadway
requirement & capacity of top width to withstand shock of floating objects. Its useful
value varies b/n 6m and 10 m.

FREE BOARD: Free board is generally provided equal to 3/2hw where hw is wave
height. However modern practice is to provide a maximum free board equal to 3 to 4% of
the height of dam, though free board equal to 5% or more might prove economical.

DESIGN OF GRAVITY DAMS

Two of the various methods used in the gravity dams are:-

1. Multiple step method (or zone method)
2. Single step method

MULTIPLE STEP (OR ZONE) METHOD OF DESIGN

In this method the section of the dam is considered to be divided into a number of zones.
(The face slopes are altered at suitable interval). Design commences from crest level, and
descends through profile stages corresponding to predetermined elevations. Each zone is
designed in such away that all requirements of stability are satisfied (i.e. stress levels are
maintained with in acceptable limits e.g. no tension under any condition of loading).

Figure 14 below shows a typical dam section with seven zones in a non-overflow gravity
dam.

ZONE I: This is the portion above the maximum water surface (1-2-3-4) or if there is
ice, it is the one above the bottom of the ice sheet.

If there is no ice, the height of zone-I is controlled by free board requirements and the
width is determined by practical consideration or economy for the section as a whole. In
case of ice sheets the height of zone I is fixed on the consideration of sliding of the zone
due to ice pressure.

ZONE II: For a limited distance below the bottom of zone I, the resultants, reservoir full
and empty, lie well with in the middle third (or kern). Both u/s and d/s faces, therefore,
may remain vertical until, at some plane 5-6, the resultant, reservoir full, intersects the
joint at the exact extremity of the middle third. That portion of the dam b/n the bottom of
zone I and the plane 5-6 constitutes zone II.

30
ZONE III: Below the bottom of zone II, the u/s face continues to be vertical while the d/s
face must begin to batter.

The line of the resultant continues to coincide with the d/s extremity of the middle third
when the reservoir is full. The resultant, reservoir empty, still being with in the middle
third, the u/s face may remain vertical until at some plane 7-8, where it intersects at the
u/s extremity of the middle third. Therefore, zone III is the portion b/n 5-6 and 7-8,
determined by tension criteria, reservoir full.

Fig 14 zones for Non-overflow section of Gravity dam

ZONE IV: In this zone, the u/s face also begins to batter so that the lines of the resultants
for reservoir empty lie along the corresponding extremities of middle-third. The position
of lower limit plane 9-10 of this zone is governed by the criterion that the maximum
inclined stress (principal stress) at the d/s toe, for reservoir full condition is just equal to
the allowable limit, (which thus fixes the lower limit of zone IV).

31
The design of zone IV especially the height and d/s and u/s slopes, are determined by
trial, by dividing zone IV into a number of convenient blocks till the bottom of zone IV is
reached. It should be noted that Low Dams lie with in the limits of zone IV. Zones V, VI
and VII are applicable only for high dams.

ZONE V: - Below the plane 9-10 for some distance the inclination of the d/s face of the
dam will have to be so adjusted that for reservoir full condition the principal stress at this
face does not exceed the max allowable limit. In this case the resultant for reservoir full
condition will remain well within the middle third. On the other hand the inclination of
the u/s face is so adjusted that for reservoir empty condition the resultant continues to
intersect just at the u/s extremity of the middle third. However, at some plane 11-12 for
reservoir empty condition the principal stress at the u/s face may reach the maximum
allowable limit, which thus fixes the limit of zone V. (B/n 9-10 & 11-12).

ZONE VI: In this zone the conditions of the design are determined by the maximum
pressures (principal stresses) at both u/s and d/s faces under reservoir empty and reservoir
full conditions, respectively (the inclinations are adjusted that 1 should not to exceed the
limit). The line of the resultants under both the conditions lies well with in the middle
third. The position of the bottom plane 13-14 is reached when the inclined pressure at d/s
toe just reaches its maximum value.

ZONE VII: As the height of the dam increases, the batter of both u/s and d/s faces
increases. Consequently, at some plane the value of sec 2 (for d/s face) may become so
great that the principal stress at the d/s face may exceed the maximum allowable limit.
The portion of the dam in which this condition prevails constitutes zone VII. However,
this zone should be eliminated by revision of the entire design.

If the height of the dam is so large that it is more than the position of plane 13-14 of zone
VI, various changes are made in the upper zones so that the height of the dam lies with in
zone VI. If this is not possible, then the height of the dam is reduced or superior material
is utilized so that the height is accommodated with in zone VI.

SINGLE STEP METHOD OF DESIGN

For high dams, going beyond zone IV, it is found that the shape of u/s and d/s slopes is
sometimes unusual shape. The u/s face has a relatively flat slope while the d/s face has
outward convex shape. A convexed face under compression, whether smoothly covered
or polygonal, may be subject to tensile stress on surface parallel to the face. Such a shape
for the d/s face of the dam is not desirable b/c the outer layer of such a section tends to
buckle outward and unless the buckling forces is cancelled by the weight component
normal to the face, tension results. The dam section will have to be then redesigned so
that such a curvature for the d/s face of the dam is avoided. Alternatively the dam section
may be designed by SINGLE STEP METHOD.

32
In the single step method of design a section of the dam is suitably assumed and the
entire dam is considered as a single zone.

In the assumed section of the dam the u/s face is kept vertical for some depth to be
determined by trial. As a first trial, the vertical portion of the u/s face may be assumed to
be extended up to the plane FGH shown in fig 13 (a), below which it is given some slope.
The slope given to the u/s and d/s face of the dam are so adjusted that the principal
stresses at the u/s face for reservoir empty condition and at the d/s face for the reservoir
full condition reach their maximum values simultaneously. This may be accomplished by
trial and error. The dam section is then checked for all stability requirements for reservoir
empty and full conditions, which will normally be satisfied at all the points above the
base of the dam when the slopes for the u/s and d/s faces are adjusted as indicated above.

Fig 15 shows the sections of a high dam designed both by single-step method and
multiple step- method. It is quite clear from the two sections that the multiple-step design
is more economical for the upper portion of the dam. The single step method section is
under stressed at all the points except at the base. Hence, if the height of the dam is less,
multiple step design method would give substantial saving in material.

From the above discussion we draw the following conclusions.

i) Dams of lesser heights can be designed economically only by multiple-step design
method.
ii) It may be economical to increase the concrete (or masonry) strength through the use
of expensive materials, thus keeping out of zones V and VI by dividing into four
zones (for high dams).
iii) High dams beyond zone IV are designed by single step method so that convex
curvature of d/s face is avoided.

33
 Fig 15 Comparison of zone method (multiple-step) and single step for design of high
dams

JOINTS IN GRAVITY DAMS

Depending upon the location and purpose served, joints provided in dams may be
classified under two heads:
a) Construction joint (or horizontal joints)
b) Contraction joints.

Construction joints: usually called horizontal joints are necessary since the entire work
of concreting the whole dam cannot be completed in one stretch. They are the joints
introduced b/n successive lifts. (The lift is the height by which the dam is raised in one
continuous operation by pouring concrete (or laying masonry).

For solid gravity dam lifts of about 1.5m is adopted. The concrete of the next lift is
placed after sufficient time is allowed for the previously placed concrete to cool and
attain its initial set and become hard. As such horizontal joints are provided to allow
sufficient cooling b/n the successive lifts of concrete.
Prior to the placement of concrete of the next lift, the surface of the previous placed
concrete is thoroughly cleaned by the use of high velocity jet of water and air as well as
wet- sand blasting process. Further, immediately before the concrete placing of the next
lift begins, a 12.5mm thick layer of mortar should be applied to permit a proper bond
between the previously placed concrete and the new concrete. Such treatment of the

34
surface and the use of good concrete create tight horizontal joints for which no provisions
to ensure water tightness, such as water stops, keys, etc, are necessary.

Contraction Joints: are mainly provided to avoid cracks caused by shrinkage of concrete
due to temperature changes. They are vertical joints. The cracks may be the result of
tensile stresses produced when the volumetric changes of concrete is restrained.

Volumetric change results in shrinkage from drying concrete & from temperature
variations. The major change, however, results from temperature variation. Surface
cracks may develop due to high daily temperature difference b/n the surface and near the
surface areas of the dam. Cracks adversely affect water tightness, durability, appearance
and internal stresses of concrete.

Contraction joints are of two types:

i) Transverse joint
ii) Longitudinal joints depending upon the plane in which they lie

Transverse Joints: They are provided normal to the axis of the dam. They extend
vertically from the foundation to the top of the dam and are continuous from the u/s to the
d/s face of the dam, thus divide the dam into separate blocks. They are provided to allow
contraction of concrete on the two sides and thus prevent development of transverse
cracks in the dam.
The spacing of transverse joints is governed by physical factors of the dam site; details
of the structures associated with the dam such as spillway gates, outlets, penstocks,
spillway bridge piers, etc, results of temperature studies and probable plant capacity. For
concrete dams these are usually spaced 15 to 20m.

Longitudinal Joints: are provided parallel to the axis of the dam. They are provided to
prevent longitudinal cracks.

Longitudinal joints run b/n two adjacent transverse joints and are thus not continuous all
along the length of the dam. Spacing of these joints varies b/n 15 and 30m.

35
The longitudinal joints subdivide each block formed by transverse joints in to several
smaller blocks, but since each block must be monolithic block, these joints are provided
with horizontal keys over the entire surface of the joint ground. These joints are usually
provided in the core of high dams b/c as the height of the dam increases the base width
also increases & it approaches limit beyond which vertical cracks parallel to the axis of
the dam may develop if longitudinal joints are not provided. Thus these joints serve the
same purpose in each block of the dam as the transverse joints serve in the dam as a
whole.

Fig 16 Joints in Gravity Dam

Keys: are the regular projections provided in contraction joints of a dam for transfer of
load from one block to the other through shear. In transverse joints vertical keys are
provided which are designed to transfer horizontal shear and to assist in minimizing
leakage of water through the joints.

In longitudinal joints horizontal keys are provided which are designed to take vertical
shear.

36
Water Stops (or water seals): - Provided across transverse joints, adjacent to the u/s face of
the dam, to prevent the leakage of water from the reservoir through the transverse joints if
the transverse joints are not grouted.

Water stops can be one of the following three types.

- Metal water stops. Most common types
- Asphalt water stops or
- Rubber/PVC water stops

Openings in Dams: Based on their purpose they are divided in to two: -

i) Water ways
ii) Gallery system

Water ways: - are the openings provided for obtaining water from the reservoir for various
purposes such as irrigation, water supply, power generation, etc as well as for allowing
the excess water which cannot be stored in the reservoir during floods to over flow to the
d/s side. These include outlets, penstocks, spillways etc.

Fig 17 Water
stops

GALLERIES

A gallery is an opening provided for obtaining access to the interior of the dam for
various purposes. It may run in transverse or longitudinal direction and may run
horizontally or on a slope.

37
Shape:- Usually rectangular with its top and bottom either flat or semi-circular. For flat
top and bottom all corners are rounded to reduce stress concentration.

Size:Large enough to provide working space and access for equipment for normal
maintenance. Its size in general varies from 1.5m to 1.8m in width and 2.2 to 2.4m in
height.

Fig 18 galleries

Purposes of a Gallery
1. To provide drainage of the dam section. Water seeping from u/s face of the dam
is drained off through galleries.
2. To provide facilities for drilling and grouting operations for foundation of the
dam.
3. To provide space for the piping system and equipment used for grouting of the
contraction joints as well as for the post cooling of concrete blocks.
4. To provide access to the interior of the dam for inspection and also for installing
various instruments to study structural behavior of the dam after completion.
5. To provide access to, and room for mechanical and electrical equipment required
for the operation of gates for outlet conduits, power penstocks and spillway crest.
6. To provide access routes for visitors; to provide access through the dam for
control cables and/or power cables.

Depending upon the purposes served the galleries can be classified as follow:
i) Foundation gallery
ii) Drainage gallery
iii) Grouting gallery
iv) Inspection gallery
v) Gate gallery

38
Foundation Gallery: Provided at the foundation level and follows the configuration of the
valley. It extends over the entire length of the dam and it normally runs parallel to the
axis of the dam. Always it is provided very close to the u/s face of the dam. Minimum
distance from u/s face (for structural safety) should be either 10%of the maximum head
water on u/s side or 6m which ever is more. There should be a minimum of 1.5m
concrete b/n foundation and floor of the gallery. Its purpose is drainage of water seeping
(percolating) through u/s face of the dam. Hence it is also called drainage gallery.

They are also used to drill and grout the holes for grout curtain on the u/s edge of the
gallery.

Control of cracking in concrete dams

If proper temperature control is not exercised, the large concrete blocks b/n the joints
may crack due to high temperature gradient b/n the interior and the surface. These large
blocks of concrete are subject to deep as well as surface cracking. The cracks in the
interior of the blocks are produced due to heat of hydration liberated by cement thus
giving rise to high temperature gradient. The surface cracks may appear due to daily
variations of temperature at the surface. The surface cracks are more harmful, since the
disintegration starts through them by wedge action. Water inters these surface cracks,
accumulates there and then solidifies; at 4oc it expands resulting in widening and
deepening of cracks.

Following methods are employed to check or minimize the development of the cracks in
mass concrete.

1. Pre-cooling of concrete: The concrete is pre-cooled before it is placed in the dam.

This is accomplished by cooling the aggregate by refrigerated water, blowing air through
them, cooling of sand and using refrigerated water for the manufacture of concrete. The
low temperature of concrete counteracts the heat of hydration of the cement, and thus
controls the rise in temperature of the concrete. It involves high cost.

2. Post Cooling of concrete: Achieved by circulating refrigerated water through pipes

embedded in concrete in each lift. The cooling is begun immediately after a block is laid
and is continued till the mass temperature falls to the mean annual temperature of the
locality. The system consists of pipe or tubing placed in a grid like coils over then top
surface of each lift of concrete after the concrete has hardened. Thus coils are formed by
joining thin walled metal pipes. They are commonly 25mm in diameter, and their
horizontal spacing varies from 0.5m to 2m depending on the extent of cooling required.
The number of coils in a block depends on the size of the block & horizontal spacing of
pipes. The velocity of flow is kept > 60cm/sec. Thermometers (resistance type) are
embedded in the concrete to ascertain the temperature.

3. using Low heat Cement: low heat of hydration in concrete

39
 4. Using Lower percentage of cement in concrete for interior of the blocks, say about
80% of that of the exterior.
5. restricting the height of the lift, say 1.5m

6. Allowing considerable time b/n lying of two successive vertical lifts. The usual time
is about 4 days.

7. Use of water curing

Foundation Treatment: - The foundation must be strong enough to withstand the entire
load acting up on it.

Defects In foundation Rock: - Geological conditions which constitute defects in dam

foundation are primarily features such as bedding planes, unconformity, shale beds, etc…
which are developed during the rock formation and secondary features such as faults,
joints, cracks, cavities, seams, etc, which result from various stresses, deformation and
weathering. Some of these defects are common to all rocks; others are restricted to
certain rock types. Thus bedding planes are found in sedimentary rocks which may also
have unconformity. Faults, joints, cracks are found in all consolidated rocks; solution
cavities are found in limestone and related carbonate rocks; seams and zones of decayed
material are found in siliceous, argillaceous and other non-calcareous rocks and flow
contracts and flow tunnel in lava.

Methods of Treatment: First surface has to be prepared. This is done by removing all
loose overburden of weathered rock as well as any decayed or weak rock till sound bed
rock is exposed. In this process the underlying sound rock should not be damaged.

Further, the final rock surface should be excavated to develop stepped or benched
foundation to increase the sliding resistance of the dam. The surface should also be
thoroughly cleaned with wet sand blasting and washing before concrete is laid.

In order to rectify the deficiencies in deep foundation as well as the water tightness of the
foundation, the following methods of treatment are employed.

i) Excavation of seams of decayed or weak rock by tunneling and back filling tunnels
with concrete.
ii) Excavating for and making concrete cutoff walls across leakage channels in the dam
foundation where the water channels are too large or too wet for mining and grouting.
iii) Grouting the foundation to increase its strength and tender it impervious.

Foundation Grouting: This consists of injecting under pressure a mixture of cement and
water (called grout) in to holes drilled in the foundation rock for the purpose of sealing
seams, cracks and fissures or filling voids present in the rock. Foundation grouting
classified on the basis of pressure used for grouting may be either (i) low pressure
grouting (ii) high pressure grouting and when classified on the basis of the purpose
served by the grouting, it may be (i) consolidation grouting or (ii) curtain grouting.

40
Consolidation grouting is low pressure grouting and curtain grouting is a high pressure
grouting.

Consolidation Grouting: Done to consolidate the entire rock foundation and thus to
increase its strength. Shallow holes of depth ranging from 3 to 15m (also called B-holes)
are drilled through the foundation rock on a grid pattern at spacing of 6 to 30m. Before
grouting operation starts the holes are thoroughly washed with water and compressed air
to remove all loose material and drill cuttings. Then the holes are tested for tightness by
injecting water under pressure, which helps to decide on the consistency of the grout to
be used and to locate seams and other openings in the rock which are to be plugged. The
grout is then injected in to these holes at a relatively low pressure which is usually less
than about 392.4KN/m2 (4kg f/cm2). This grouting results in the consolidation of the
foundation in to more or less monolithic mass by bonding together the jointed rock.
Moreover this grouting serves as cutoff against the leakage of the grout of the high
pressure grouting which may be required to be done later.

Curtain Grouting: - Done to create a deep curtain or a barrier in the foundation rock at the
heel of the dam which will prevent leakage from the reservoir and thus reduce the uplift
pressure on the dam. Deep holes (called A hole) which are either vertical or inclined are
drilled. Inclined holes are drilled to intercept the principal joints in the rock to develop an
effective curtain, the primary series of holes being spaced 4.5 to 7.5m depending on the
nature of the rock. A second series comprises an equal number of intermediate holes.
This one is repeated for a third series but reducing the spacing of holes to quarter of that
of the first series (i.e. spacing 1.2 to 1.5m). The depths of holes depend on nature of the
rock and in general vary b/n 30-40% of the head water depth on dense foundation to 70%
of head water depth for poor foundations.

3. ARCH DAM
3.1 General

41
An arch dam may be defined as a solid wall curved in plan standing a cross the entire
width of the river, in a single span. It is one type of concrete dam.
Unlike a concrete gravity dam which carries the entire load by its self weight an arch
dam obtains its stability by both the self weight and to a great extent by transiting the
imposed loads by arch action in to the valley walls. The geometry of the dam site is
therefore the most basic consideration in the selection of an arch dam. As a general
rule an arch dam requires a site with abutments of sufficient strength to support the
arch trust. Concrete saving in such dams relative to gravity dam is 50-85% &
abutment stability is critical to the structural integrity & safety of an arch dam.
The concepts of overturning and sliding stability applicable to gravity or buttress
analysis have little relevance to the arch. An arch represents a stable structural form
and given that the integrity of the supporting abutments is assured, failure can occur
only as a result of overstress. Arch dam design is therefore centered largely up on
stress analysis & the definition of an arch geometry which avoids local tensile stress
concentrations and /or excessive compressive stress. In a achieving this objective it is
frequently necessary to adopt varying curvatures & thicknesses b/n arch crown &
abutments & also from crest level to base.
The horizontal component of Arch trust must be transferred in to the abutment at a
safe angle, i.e., one which will not promote abutment yielding or instability. At any
elevation the arch trust may be considered to enter the abutment as shown in fig 1.

Fig 1 Abutment Entry angle geometry for Arch dams

3.2 Valleys suited for arch dams
Narrow gorges provide the most natural solution for an arch dam construction, the
usually recommended ratio of crest length to dam height being 5 or less.
Sarkaria has proposed a Canyon Shape Factor (C.S.F.) which would indicate the
suitability or otherwise of the site for an arch dam. The Canyon Shape Factor is Given
By:
The usual values of C.S.F = 2 to 5; the lower the value, the thinner the section.

42
 Fig 2 Valley shape and Dimensions

3.3 Types of Arch Dams

Arch dams may be divided in to two types via, the massive arch where a single
curved wall, usually vertical or nearly so, spans the full width b/n abutments and the
multiple arches, consisting of a number of smaller arches usually inclined, supported
on piers or buttresses.
Massive arch dams may be further divided in to
i) Constant radius arch dams
ii) Constant angle arch dam
iii) Variable radius arch dam
Constant radius arch dams: - It has simple geometry. A constant radius of arch dam
is the dam in which the radius of extrados (outside curved surface of the arch ) is
constant, most of the time , all elevations from the top of the dam to its base.
However, the radius of the d/s face (or intrados) gradually decreases as the depth
below the crest is increases to provide increased concrete thickness towards the base
to account the hydrostatic water pressure. Thus, in this case, the u/s face of the dam is
vertical and the dam is triangular in cross section with increased width at crest.

In constant radius Arch dam, the arch center for the u/s face d/s face and the
centerline of horizontal arch rings, at various elevations lie on a straight vertical line
that passes through the center of the horizontal arch rings of the u/s face at the crest.
Hence it is also known as Constant center arch dam.

Fig. 3 Constant Radius Arch Dam

43
In this type of dam the central angles of arch rings of the intrados vary at various
elevations, the maximum being at the top of the dam and a certain minimum at the
bottom of the dam. Due to reduction in central angle and the central rise of arch rings
at the lower elevations near the base of the dam, considerably low arch action will be
developed for these arch rings. Hence relatively large proportion of the water load at
the lower elevations will be carried by cantilever action for which the arch rings at the
lower elevations will have to be made considerably thick.

This will result in uneconomical design. For U–shaped valleys the constant radius
arch dams are found suitable since there is a relatively less reduction in the central
angle and the central rise of the arch rings at the lower elevations. Reduction at the
central angle at the lower elevations would be considerable in the case of narrow V-
shaped valleys and would result in uneconomical design for such types of dams.

Constant angle arch dam: - The central angle of the horizontal arch rings is of the
same magnitude at all elevations. Theoretically, for economical design of constant
angle arch dams central angle of arch rings equal to 133 0 34’ may be adopted.
However, the practical range of central angle from 100 0 to 1500 depending on the
valley shapes. Due to large central angle greater arch action will be developed for the
arch rings at all elevations. Hence water load at all elevations is carried by arch
action. In general, the thickness of constant angle arch dam is smaller than that of
constant radius arch dam. As a result, under same condition it requires only about
70% of concrete as compared to constant radius arch dam.

The radii of arch rings of constant angle arch dam decreases as the depth below the
crest increases since the central angle at all elevations has the same magnitude.
Moreover, the curvature of each arc ring will be different and the various arch rings
may be arranged to have the crowns of either extrados or intrados of all arch rings
flushing. These arrangements will result in an overhang of the u/s face near the
abutments and that of the d/s face near the crown of the arch. Hence, the formwork
required is complicated and costly than that of constant radius arch dam.

Constant angle arch dams are suited to narrow V-shaped valleys with large central
angle fairly large arch action will be developed even at lower elevations & hence the
design will be economical.

44
 Fig 4 Constant angle Arch dam

Variable Radius Arch Dam: Neither the radius nor the central angle is constant.
Radius is maximum at the top & minimum at the base. The central angle of the arch
rings usually vary b/n 80 to 1500 & these are so adjusted that large arch action is
developed even for arch rings at lower elevations. The radii at various elevations are
also so adjusted that the over hangs are avoided or minimized. Further in this dam,
centers of the arch rings at various elevations do not lie on the same vertical line.
This type of arch dam is suited to u-shaped valleys as well as for narrow V-shaped
Valley b/c by adjusting the radii & the central angles a fairly large arch action may be
developed even for arch rings at lower elevations.

This type of arch dam is suited to U-shaped valleys as well as V-shaped valleys since
large arch action will be developed at lower elevations for arch rings having smaller
spans by adjusting the radii and the central angles.

As compared to the constant angle arch dam a variable radius arch dam is less
economical since under the same conditions a variable arch dam requires about 17%
more concrete than constant radius arch dam since under the same conditions the
concrete required for a variable radius arch dam is only about 82% of that required
for a constant radius arch dam. Hence it is a compromise b/n constant radius &
constant angle arch dams.

FLOW

45
 Fig 5 Variable Radius Arch dam

3.4. Methods of Design of Arch Dams

Commonly used methods of design or arch dams are

i) Thin cylinder theory
ii) Thick cylinder theory
iii) Elastic arch theory
iv) Trial load analysis

Thin cylinder theory: - In this theory the horizontal section of the arch dam is
assumed to behave as part of thin cylinder ring at the corresponding elevation. Further
it is assumed that the horizontal water load is carried entirely by arch action. The
pressure on the arch ring equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the corresponding
elevation and the stress distribution across the arch ring is uniform.

Fig 6 Thin Cylinder Theory definition sketch

The figure shows a section of a thin arch ring having extrados radius r e, subtended
angle of arch ring and thickness t
If the arch ring is at a depth of h below reservoir water surface, then P = (the
hydrostatic pressure acting in the radial) direction.

46
And the total hydrostatic pressure force p is given by:
P= ×2 re sin
P= 2 h re sin
If R is the abutment reaction its component in the upstream direction which resists the
pressure force P is equal to R sin  / 2
2Rsin/2 =2h re sin/2

R = h re (Abutment Reaction)
If the thickness (t) of the arch ring is small compared with r e it may be assumed that
uniform compressive stress is developed in the arch ring.
If is the compressive stress developed in the arch ring at the abutments then

(Average Stress) ( )

If f is the allowable compressive stress for the arch material then in the limiting case
f and
t=
This equation indicates that the thickness t of the arch ring increases linearly with
depth below the water surface and for a given pressure the required thickness is
proportional to its radius.
Thickness relation in terms of intrados, ri and mean radius r, can be derived as
follows.
ri = re-t  re = ri+t
t=
r = re-1/2 t  re = r+ t/2

Most Economical central angle

The concrete volume of any given arch is proportional to the product of the arch
thickness and the length of the center line arc. For a fixed combination of span,
loading and permissible cylinder theory stress, the follwing can be shown.

The Volume of Concrete, V, per unit depth of Arch Ring is given by

Where A = tx1 = cross sectional area of arch ring for unit height
= in radians

Substituting the expression for , we get

47
 If L is the span of arch ring, then
L/2 = rsin /2  L = 2rsin /2  r =L/(2sin /2) --------------------(a)

And

By differentiating V with respect to and equating it to zero,

 tan /2 = 2 which gives (by trial and error)

= 133034’ ---------------------------------------(b)

Thus, on the basis of thin cylinder theory, the volume of concrete required for arch
dam would be minimum if the central angle is 133034’. By substituting /2 in
equation (a) we get

--------------------(c)

L = the arch span and the radius may be re,r or ri if L is the corresponding span.
In a site with a variable span length, a constant radius dam can have the correct
central angle only at one elevation.

The smallest concrete volume for the whole dam, with constant radius, is obtained by
increasing the top angle to get the best average angle. The top angle which gives the
best average can be found by trial and topography seldom permits value greater than
1500 for at the top of the dam.

Thick Cylinder Theory

Improvement in thin cylinder theory was made by considering the arch as thick cylinder.
The stresses at the extrados and intrados are given by

48
The thickness is given by the relation

4. BUTTRESS DAMS

Efforts have been made from time to time to innovate methods for affecting economy in
the use of concrete, by cutting down concrete from concrete gravity dam’s portion where
it remains unstressed. Attempts have therefore been made to provide hollow gravity
dams. Buttress dams are an improvement innovation over the hollow concrete gravity
dams in which solid wall of specified thickness & section are constructed parallel to the
flow at some suitable intervals called buttress & include slabs which are supported on u/s
side on these buttresses.

4.1 Component parts of Buttress Dams

A buttress dams consists of the following component parts.

49
 Road

Fig 1 Deck slab or flat slab or Amberson Type buttress dam

1) Sloping membrane: - The sloping membrane or u/s deck supports the water and
transmits the water load to a series of buttresses at right angle to the dam axis.
2) Buttresses: - are constructed at right angles to the axis of the dam at certain intervals.
They support the slopping membranes & transfer the load to the foundation. They are
thin walls of triangular profile with sloping u/s face.
3) Mat foundation or Footings: - Footings are required for the buttresses to transfer the
loads to the foundation. If the foundation is relatively strong, spread footings are
provided but for relatively weak foundation mat footing is required.
4) Lateral Braces (strut):- are provided b/n adjacent buttresses at right angles to them to
reduce unsupported length & thus provide lateral stiffness and resistance to buckling of
buttresses.
5) Haunches or Corbels: - The wide upstream end of buttresses which help in transiting
the load from the u/s deck to the buttresses.

50
6) Cutoff (Concrete): - is provided at the upstream end of the dam to reduce/prevent the
seepage & up lift.

4.2. Types of Buttress Dams

They may be classified in the following two ways
1. on the basis of the sloping membrane
2. on the basis of joint b/n the sloping membrane & buttresses
Classification Based on the Type of Sloping Membrane
This is further classified in the following categories
i. Deck slab or flat slab or Ambursen type buttress dams
ii. Multiple -arch type buttress dams
iii. Multiple -dome type buttress dams
iv. Massive head type buttress dams or bulk head type buttress dams
i. Deck slab/Flat Slab or Amburesn type Buttress Dam
In this type of buttress dam the u/s sloping deck slab consists of a reinforced concrete
slab supported by as series of buttresses. The slab is separated by buttress tounge and
supported by reinforced haunches which are constructed monolithically with the
buttress. The inclination of the deck slab is kept b/n 35 0 and 450 with the horizontal.
The corbel or haunch is always reinforced since tensile stress could develop. The rest
of the buttress may or may not be reinforced. Struts are of R.C.
Deck slab may Further Sub divided into:-
a) Simple deck slab type buttress dams (Simply Supported Slab)
The deck slab is not rigidly connected to the buttresses but it is in the form of simply
supported slab. In order to provide a wide support for the slab, the upstream end of
the buttress where it joints the slab is made wider by providing haunch or corbel. The
joint b/n the slab & the buttress tongue is filled with bituminous mastic or some
flexible joint compound.
This permits each slab to act independently and allows free expansion of the slab in
the direction parallel to the base line of the dam. Reinforcement is placed only at the
down stream face (since it is simply supported). But it requires thicker slab. These
types of buttress dams are suitable for wide valleys where a long dam is required &

51
the foundation is weak. The main disadvantage of this type is that it requires a thicker
slab as compared to the fixed (continues) slab.

Fig 2
b) Fixed (or continuous) Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams
The deck slab is cast monolithic with the buttresses and it acts as a continuous slab.
Reinforcement is provided both on upstream & down stream faces of the slab. This
type of deck can be used only when the foundation is strong; where it will be more
economical than the freely supported slab b/c the deck slab is thinner.

Fig 3
Cantilever Deck slab type Buttress Dams
The deck slab is cast monolithically with the buttresses in such a manner that it over
hangs on either side of the buttress and acts as cantilever.

52
 Fig 4

Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dams

The sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C arches supported by a
number of buttresses. The u/s face of the damn is usually inclined at 45 0. The arches
are cast monolithic with the buttresses.
Multiple -Dome Type Buttress Dams:-
Sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C domes supported by a number
of buttresses.
Massive Head Type Buttress Dams:-
No Separate water retaining member (Deck) is provided but the water retaining
member is formed by enlarging the upstream end of buttress. The dam is thus made of
a series of buttresses with massive heads placed side by side. Buttress heads are so
shaped that the tensile stress are not developed in any portion of the buttress heads
and hence the buttress heads are not reinforced.
These types of buttress dams may be further of the buttress heads and hence the
buttress heads are not reinforced. These types of buttress dams may be further sub-
divided on the basis of the buttress head into:-
A) Round head buttress dams
B) Diamond head buttress dams

53
 C) Tee head buttress dams

Fig 5 Multiple Arch Type Buttress Fig 6 Massive Head Type

Dam Buttress Type Dam

Classification Based on the joint b/n the sloping membrane Buttresses

Under this we have following categories
1) Rigid buttress dams: - The up stream deck is cast monolithically with the
buttresses and hence the ends of the deck can not move.
E.g. continuous deck slab type, multiple arch type & multiple dome type buttress
dams
2) Flexible (or articulated) Buttress Dams: sloping membrane or deck is not
constructed monolithic with the buttresses. as such these dams are flexible. E.g.
simple deck slab type.

54
3) Semi - rigid buttress Dams: - It is neither as rigid as rigid buttress dam nor as
flexible as a flexible buttress dam. It is therefore in b/n that of rigid buttress dam
& a flexible buttress dam.
E.g. The massive head type buttress dam

4.3. FORCES ON BUTTRESS DAMS

They are the same as those on gravity dams. Uplift pressure acting on a buttress dam
depends on the type of the dam and type of foundation provided for buttresses. If
separate spread footings are used for each buttress then the uplift pressure is relieved
by the gap b/n the buttresses.
Buttress dams on rock foundation are subject to the uplift pressure due to head water
is usually neglected and only the uplift pressure due to TW (if any) is considered for
the entire footing. However, in the same case if the foundation rock is such that uplift
pressure due to head water cannot be neglected, then under the deck and haunch
section full uplift pressure due to head water is considered and the remaining portion
of the footing full uplift pressure due to tail water is considered. If a mat foundation is
provided for all buttresses, uplift pressure may be computed in a similar manner as in
the case of gravity dam.
Buttress dams should full fill stability requirements as that of gravity dams. Further in
the case of a buttress dam the total force acting per buttress unit must be considered
instead of force per unit length of dam as in the case of gravity dam.

4.4 DESIGN PROCEDURE OF FLAT-SLAB TYPE BUTTRESS DAMS

The design involves the following steps:-
i) Determination of economic buttress spacing & upstream slope
ii) Design of deck slab &other details
iii) Preliminary design of buttress & check for overall stability
4.4.1 Economic Buttress Spacing
The spacing of the buttresses is governed by economy. If the spans are short, face
slabs may be thin with a small volume of concrete and reinforcement steel in deck but
increase in cost of form work. Wider buttress spacing result in reduction of cost of
form work but volume of concrete & reinforcing steel for the deck slab increase
considerably. Thus economic buttress spacing is that which gives economic balance
of concrete reinforcing steel and formwork & satisfy design requirement.
The most economical spacing depends up on the following factors
i) The mean height of dam
ii) Type of footing (spread or mat foundation)
iii) Unusual foundation and side hill conditions
iv) Upstream slope of dam

55
Height of dam:-Economic buttress spacing increases with the height of the dam; whereas
for low dams the buttress spacing will be proportionally less.
For buttress dams on sound rock foundations the most economical buttress spacing for
deck slab buttress dams are given below.
Height of dam (m) Economical spacing c/c of buttress (m)
15 to 30 5 to 6
30 to 45 9 to 12
Above 45 12 to 15

Type of Footing: it is not economical to have very large spacing of buttresses b/c the
quantities of material required for spread footing (or mat foundation) & for the apron of
spillways increase with an increase in the buttress spacing and hence it will be
economical to have a smaller spacing for buttresses.

Upstream slope: Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by the requirements of sliding
factor, i.e., H/v resistance against sliding is achieved from the vertical component of
the water pressure since self weight of the buttress dam is relatively small. Vertical
component of the water pressure varies with the upstream slope.
Further, for constant buttress spacing, small variation in the u/s slope results in an
appreciable change in the quantity of concrete and hence it affects economy. Likewise for
constant u/s slop the variation in the buttress spacing also results in change in the quantity
of concrete and hence affects economy.
Thus for each value of u/s slop there would be an economical buttress spacing which may
be determined from a master curve which may be prepared as indicated below. Further
from the same curve, a combination of the most economical buttress spacing and the u/s
slope may also be determined.
A master curve is extremely useful for determining the most economical spacing for d/t
upstream slopes.

56
Fig 7 Simplified diagram of buttress dam

Let H = height of dam in meters

PV = Vertical component of water pressure per meter length of dam
PH = Horizontal component of water pressure per meter length of dam
WC = Weight of dam per meter length of dam
Cq = Quantity of concrete (m3) per meter length of dam
f = sliding factor
= Unit weight of concrete

Taking

1 
Cq  0.2083H 2   cot  
f 

The equation shows that for a given height h and a given value of f the quantity of
concrete depends up on cot . Thus for a given value of h and f the quantity of concrete
Cq, obtained are independent of the buttress spacing and hence this will plot as vertical
lines on the plot of buttress spacing vs quantity of concrete. Next choosing certain value
of , the dam is designed by considering a number of buttress spacing and the quantity
of concrete required per unit length of the dam for each buttress spacing is determined.
The value of the quantity of concrete so obtained are plotted against the corresponding
buttress spacing on the same graph to obtain a curve for the chosen value of . By
repeating the same procedure for d/t values of a series of such curves are obtained as

57
shown by joining the points of intersections of the curves and the vertical lines
corresponding to each value of which is shown by a solid line. The master curve gives
the value of economical buttress spacing for each value of for the given height of dam.
Further, the apex of the master curve gives the value of the most economical buttress
spacing as well as the corresponding value of and the quantity of concrete per meter
length of dam.

Fig 8 MASTER CURVES

Design of Deck Slab

The deck slab is designed as a simply supported slab by using the standard methods of
R.C.C/ design. The slab thickness is controlled by bending moments at higher levels and
shear at lower levels. (Refer any R.C.C. text)

Design of A Haunch

58
The width of the bearing face of the haunch is determined from the permissible bearing
pressure and the assumed load distribution on the face. The load distribution on the
bearing face is usually assumed to be triangular with the maximum at the outer edge and
zero at the inside corner of the haunch.
a) Width (B). The actual load distribution on the bearing surface is indeterminate.
However the triangular distribution is usually assumed, with the maximum pressure p at
the outer edge and zero pressure at the inner edge of the haunch. Thus the total reaction R
is Given by

R = 0.5pB

B = the width of the bearing surface and p = the maximum pressure.

b) Depth The depth dm and ds are as per the design requirements respectively, for
bending moment and shear. These depths are so proportioned that the bracket profile
adequately envelopes the theoretical minimum depth profile for moment and shear.
The depths D1 and D2 are the actual depths provided.

Fig 9

Though the conventional formulae of the design of RCC beams and cantilevers are not
strictly applicable for trapezoidal brackets of the haunch, approximate depth profile can
be determined from the conventional RCC design formula ( see any text on RCC
DESIGN).

Resisting moment, M = Qbd2

Resisting Shear = sbjd

Preliminary design of Buttress and Check for Overall Stability

59
For preliminary design of buttress only water pressure on the deck slab, weight of deck
slab and buttress are considered. The final design is checked for other forces such as
earthquake, uplift pressure, wave pressure, silt pressure etc…

Preliminary design of buttress is carried out on the bases of Unit column theory, in which
the buttress is assumed to be made of a number of unit columns.

A unit column is a curved column of unit width.

Fig 10 Unit columns and resultant forces for frictionless joints

Assumptions:

1) Each column transfers the load from the top of the column to the foundation
independently of the adjacent columns above or below it.
2) Each column is so proportioned that at every section of the column uniform
compressive stress is developed and it is curved to avoid eccentric loading.
The magnitude of the initial load Po depends on the type of joint b/n deck slab and the
buttress. Thus if the joint is frictionless then Po = Pw + Wdn (total water pressure on the
deck and component of the weight of the deck slab normal to the buttress face (fig 10).
On the other hand if the joint is monolithic then Po is equal to the resultant of the total
water pressure on the deck slab Pw and the weight of deck slab Wd. In this method in
general, five columns distributed over the entire buttress will be adequate.

60
For each unit column, the value of the initial thickness to is obtained from:

------------------------------------(1)
Where fc is the permissible compressive stress in concrete

The thickness t at any point in the unit column at a vertical distance y from the origin o is
given by --------------------------------------(2)

Where y is negative downwards

c = a constant = fc/ ; = unit weight of concrete
to is the thickness of buttress near the deck slab.

Since the width of the column is constant (i.e. unity), the thickness of the column
increases from the deck to foundation.

Further, the equation of the axis of the unit column is

-------------------------------------------------(3)

Where angle made by Po with horizontal

angle made by the tangent to the column axis at any point on the axis to
the horizontal

The angle may also be expressed as

------------------------------------------(4) and in radians

By substituting value of from equation (4) in to equation (3), the coordinates (x,y) of
any point on the column axis with respect to origin o may be obtained from

-----------------------------------(5)

The minimum thickness of buttress determined on the bases of unit column theory is
usually much less than the minimum thickness required from practical considerations.
Thus the minimum thicknesses to be provided are given below.

Buttress spacing Min. Thickness of buttress

4.5 to 6 m 0.2 to 0.3m
> 6m 0.45 to 1.2m

61
The design of the unit column should therefore be carried out with actual thickness
provided as per the requirements of the minimum thickness (as given above).

Downstream Slope of Buttress: The unit column theory gives a curved d/s face for the
buttress. However, a buttress with a curved d/s face is difficult to construct and hence
from practical point of view a buttress a plane sloping d/s face is usually provided. The
slop of the d/s face should satisfy overall stability requirements. Usually the base length
of the buttress varies from 1.2 to 1.5 times the depth below the maximum water level in
the reservoir.

After determining the dimensions, the buttress has to be checked for overall stability
against overturning g and sliding. Using the same formula as that of the gravity dam
analysis, the direct stress sliding factor and S.F.F. are computed.

After the buttress has been found adequate for the axial loads, it should be investigated
for column ration (slenderness ratio) and massiveness factor.

Column Ratio: Is the ratio of unsupported length of buttress measured along lines of
principal stress to the thickness of the buttress. Low buttresses having no lateral support
may have a column ratio of b/n 12 and 14, but for high buttresses which require lateral
support the column ratio should be limited to the range 7 to 10.

Massiveness factor: Is the ratio of spacing of buttress to the thickness of the buttress. In
general its value varies b/n 2.5 and 3.

Finally after calculating foundation pressure (of the design deck slab and buttresses)
spread footings and mat foundations are designed depending on magnitude of foundation
pressure.

Advantages of Buttress dams

i) less concrete used compared to a gravity dam of the same height
ii) More safety against overturning and sliding b/c of the larger vertical
component of hydrostatic force exerted on the dam.
iii) More equal distribution of stresses at foundation
iv) Less massive than gravity dam hence may be used on weak foundations that
are not suitable for gravity dam
v) Decreased uplift pressure ( if no spread footing joining the buttresses is used)

Disadvantages
i) Needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering
ii) Additional skilled labor is required to create form work
iii) Threat of deformation of concrete from impounded water is more likely than
from a thick gravity section
iv) More susceptible to damage by sabotage.

===============================================================

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 5. EMBANKMENT DAMS

The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials
excavated or obtained near by. The materials available are utilized to the best advantage,
in relation to their characteristics as bulk fill zones with in the dam section. The natural
fill materials are placed and compacted with out the addition of any binding agent, using
high capacity mechanical plant.
An embankment dam is therefore a non rigid dam which resists the forces exerted up on
it mainly by its shear strength. These dams usually provide the most economical and
most satisfactory solution for sites at which suitable foundation at reasonable depth may
not be available for a dam of concrete or masonry.

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The two main forms of embankment dams are (1) Earth (earth fill) dams made
predominantly of earth or soil. (2) Rock fill dams made predominantly of quarried rock.
However a composite earth and rock fill type of embankment dams are also being widely
used.

5.1. Earth Dams (earth fill dams)

An embankment may be categorized as an earth fill dam if compacted soils account for
over 50% of the placed volume of material.
Some of the merits of earth dam are:-
 Local materials is used which is readily available & easy to handle
 Can be built on almost all types of foundation
 Large base width of earth dams is suited for pervious foundation
 Easier and cheaper to extend up wards
 The natural appearance blends with the surrounding
The disadvantage of earth dams is in that they require greater maintenance than do
concrete gravity dams and also because they require a separate spillway for discharging
excess flows.

The design of an earth dam involves both a hydraulic and structural analysis. The
hydraulic analysis deals with the determination of the seepage patterns and the magnitude
of seepage as well as the internal hydrostatic seepage forces for both the dam body and
the foundation. Of particular importance is the investigation for possible removal of fine
particles near the toe by emerging seepage water (piping). The structural analysis
involves the study of the stability of the embankment under the given conditions of
seepage and other forces. Settlement and stability studies of the foundation are also
important.

5.1.1 Types of Earth Dams

Earth dams may be classified on the basis of methods of construction.

Accordingly we have:-
i) Rolled-fill earth dam
ii) Hydraulic-fill earth dam
iii) Semi-hydraulic fill earth dams
i) Rolled fill Dam

In rolled-fill earth dams the embankment is constructed in successive mechanically

compacted layers. The material (sand, clay gravel etc) is transported from the borrow pits
to the dam site by truckers or scrapers. It is then spread with in the dam section by
bulldozers to form layers of 15 to 45 cm thickness. Each layer is then thoroughly
compacted and bonded with the preceding layer by means of power operated rollers of
proper design and weight.

ii) Hydraulic fill dam

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In the case of hydraulic-fill dam the materials are transported from borrow pits to their
final position (dam site) placed through the agency of water. Thus in this case, at the
borrow pits the material is mixed with water to form a slurry which is transported through
flumes or pipes and deposited near the faces of dam. The courser materials of the slurry
stay near the faces of the dam while the finer ones move towards the center and get
deposited there. This would provide a dam section with shoulders of the course free
draining particles and an impervious central core of fine grained material such as clay and
silt.

iii) Semi-hydraulic dam

In the semi-hydraulic fill dam construction, the material is dumped near the upstream and
down stream face of the dam to form rough levees as in the case of rolled fill dam w/o the
use of water. Then the space b/n the levees are filled with water and the material placed
in or upon the levees is washed to wards the center of the dam. For this jets of water are
directed on the dumped fill which cause the finer material from the fill near the faces of
the dam to be washed away. The finer material moves towards the central portion of the
dam and is deposited there thus forming an impervious central core while course material
stays near the faces of the dam. However, in the absence of proper jetting action the
dumped fill at the faces of the dam may be more dense and impervious than the material
immediately below it on the inside of the dam which may result in the failure of the dam.

Out of these three types, the rolled-fill earth dams are the most common. This is so b/c
in the case of other two types of dams lack of control in placing the material may result in
the failure of the dam.
Rolled Fill dams are of three types
a) Homogenous type
b) Zoned type
c) Diaphragm type

A) Homogenous type: A purely homogeneous type of dam is composed of

a single kind of earth material except for the slope protection. It is used when only a
single type of material is economically and locally available. Such a section is used
only for low to moderately high dams and for dykes. Large dams are rarely designed as
homogenous embankments.
For a completely homogeneous section it is inevitable that seepage will emerge on the
down stream slope regardless of its flatness and the impermeability of the soil if the
reservoir level is maintained for a sufficiently long time. At the down stream slope up to
1/3 of the height may be saturated if internal drainage arrangement are not provided.
Besides larger sections (flat slopes) are required to make it stable and safe against piping.
Because of this an internal drainage system such as a horizontal drainage layer and a rock
toe is added so as to keep the phreatic line well with in the body of the dam. This permits
the use of steeper slopes and thus smaller sections.

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The material comprising the dam must be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate
water barrier & the slopes must be relatively flat for stability. To avoid sloughing the
upstream slope must be relatively flat if rapid draw down of the reservoir is anticipated.
Although formerly very common in the design of small dams, the purely homogenous
section has been replaced by a modified homogeneous section in which small amounts of
carefully placed pervious materials control the action of seepage so as to permit much
steeper slopes. The modified homogeneous section is the one provided with internal
drainage filter system in the form of a horizontal drainage blanket or a rock toe or a
combination of both.

Fig
5.1 Homogeneous dam Section B.
Zoned embankment type: These are the most common for high dams of rolled fill type.
They are provided with a central impervious core, covered by a relatively pervious
transition filter which is finally surrounded by a more pervious outer zones or shells.
The core thickness should not be less than 3 m or the height of the dam above the section.
The central core checks the seepage; the transition filter zone prevents piping through
cracks which may develop in the core. The outer zones (shells) provide stability to the
core and also distribute the load over a larger foundation area. The core is usually a

66
mixture of clay and sand or gravel or silty clay. Pure clay that shrinks and swells
excessively is not suitable .Freely draining materials such as coarse sands and gravels are
used as the outer shells. This is necessary b/c the down stream pervious zone should act
as a drain to control the line of seepage.
I f a variety of soil are readily available, the choice of type of earth fill dam should
always be the zoned embankment type b/c its inherent advantages will lead to economies
in cost of construction.

Fig 5.2 Zoned Dam Section

C. Diaphragm type
In this type of section the bulk of embankment is constructed of pervious materials
(Sand, grave, or rock) and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is provided to form
the water barrier. The position of this barrier may vary from a blanket on the up stream
face to central vertical core. If the diaphragm is provided as an impervious blanket on the
u/s face of the dam it needs to be protected against shallow sloughs and slide during
draw down and from erosion by wave action. For this the diaphragm is held buried below
a thin layer of pervious material over which the up stream slope protection is provided.
The diaphragm may be of earth, Portland cement or asphalt concrete or other material.
If the core thickness at any elevation is less than 3m or less than the embankment height
above the corresponding section then the dam embankment is considered to be the
diaphragm type.

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Fig 5.3 Diaphragm type

Foundation Requirements

The essential requirements of a foundation for an earth dam are that it provides support
for the embankment under all conditions of saturation and loading and that it provides
sufficient resistance to seepage to prevent excessive loss of water. Although the
foundation is not actually designed certain provisions for treatment are made in designs
to assure that essential requirements will be met.
Foundations are grouped in to three main classes according to their predominant
characteristics as rock foundation, Foundation of coarse-grained material (pervious
foundation) and foundations of fine grained materials (Impervious foundation).
Impervious foundation Foundations of fine silt and clay are impervious and have very
low shear strength. Shear failure may occur in such foundations: If the foundation
material is impervious and comparable to the compacted embankment material in
structural characteristics, little foundation treatment is required. The minimum treatment
for any foundation is stripping of the foundation area to remove the topsoil with high
content of organic matter & other unsuitable material which can be disposed of by open
excavation. In many cases where the over burden is comparatively shallow the entire
foundation is stripped to bed rock.
Rock foundation: - foundations of rock including hard shale do not present any problem
of bearing strength for small earth fill dam. The principal considerations are dangerous
erosive leakage and the excessive loss of water through joints, crevices, permeable strata
and along fault planes. Ordinarily, the design and estimate for a storage dam should
provide for the injection of grout under pressure to seal seams, joints & other opening in

68
the bed rock to a depth equal to the reservoir head above the surface of the bed rock.
Grouting is usually done with neat cement and water starting with a ratio of 1:5 pressures
usually applied are (0.25 D kg/sq cm) where D is the depth of grouting below the surface.
Pervious foundations: - often the foundations for dams consist of recent alluvial
deposits composed of relatively pervious sand and gravel over lying impervious
geological formations. Two basic problems are found in pervious foundations. One
pertains to the amount of under seepage and the other is concerned with the forces
exerted by the seepage.
Quantity of under seepage and seepage forces: - To estimate the volume of under
seepage, it is necessary to determine k, by Darcy’s formula, the accuracy of which
depends on the homogeneity of the foundation and the accuracy with which the
coefficient of permeability is determined.
Seepage forces are caused as a result of the friction b/n the percolating water and the
walls of the pores of the soil through which it flows. The forces are exerted in the
direction of flow and are proportional to the friction loss per unit distance. As the water
percolates up ward at the d/s toe of the dam, the seepage force tends to lift the soil
resulting in piping.

5.1.2 Design Criteria for earth dams

An earth dam must be safe and stable during all phases of construction and operation of
the reservoir. For this the following must be met.
i) The embankment must be safe against over topping during occurrence of the
inflow design flood and also by action of wave, by provision of spillway of
sufficient capacity and of sufficient free board.
ii) The slope of the embankment must be stable during all stages of construction
and under all conditions of operation including rapid draw down in case of
storage dam.
iii) The embankment must be designed in such away that it will not impose
excessive stress up on the foundation.
iv) Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments must be
controlled so that no internal erosion takes place so that no sloughing takes
place where the seepage emerges
v) The upstream slope must be protected against erosion by wave action, and the
crest & down stream slope must be protected against erosion due to wind and
rain ( by growing grass on it and /or putting riprap but not good for aesthetic).
vi) The seepage line should be well with in the down stream face and there should
be no opportunity for the free passage of water from the u/s to the d/s face.

5.1.3 Seepage through earth dams

For any dam of homogenous material, seepage will pass trough the dam and appear at
the downstream face regardless of the tightness of the material. The line of saturation
i.e. the upper boundary of the flow line below which the flow is under hydrostatic
pressure is called the phreatic line. If this line of saturation is allowed to intersect the

69
d/s slope above the toe, a serious sloughing will always occur unless prevented by
construction of toe drains or filters or rock fill toe.
Location of the position of the phreatic line is desirable for determination of the
amount of through seepage and for construction of the flow nets as it represents one
flow boundary.

PHREATIC LINE FOR A HOMGENOUS EARTH DAM WITH A

HORIZONTAL DRAINAGE BLANKE

Fig 5.4

Kozeny has shown that the phreatic line in this case coincides with the base parabola
ADC except at the entrance. The base parabola has its focus (F) at the starting point
of the horizontal drainage blanket & intersects the water surface at A (0.3L from B).
The basic property of parabola which is utilized to draw the base parabola is that the
distance of any point P from the focus is equal to the distance of the same point from
the directrix.
I) Graphical Method
i) With center at A & radius AF draw an arc. The arc cuts the line AB
when produced at E. Draw a vertical line GE through point E which is
the directrix of the base parabola.
ii) The intermediate points are located by utilizing the above mentioned
basic property of the parabola.
iii) Join all intermediate points by a smooth curve. The last point C on the
parabola will be midway b/n F & G as FC = CG
II) Analytical Method
Let us take the origin (O) at the focus with X- positive u/s & Y-positive up
ward.
From the basic property of parabola: distance PF = distance PR
…………………………………………(i)
Squaring both sides & rearranging
…………………………………………….(ii)

70
Where yo is the distance from the focus to the directrix, also called focal
distance (f) Thus FG = Yo. The value of Yo can be obtained from the known
coordinates ( X = b, Y = h) of the starting point A.
Substituting the values in equation (i) we have
For different values of X the corresponding values of Y can be computed
using the parabola equation (II). The intermediate points are plotted from the
known coordinates to obtain a smooth curve.
As the actual phreatic line starts from point B and not from point A, a short
transition entry correction curve is sketched free hand by eye judgment such
that it is perpendicular to the u/s face & meets the basic parabola tangentially.

After the phreatic line is determined, then it is also possible to draw the flow
net, considering the phreatic line as the first/top most flow line. And thus, one
can compute the quantity of seepage through dam. Discharge through dam can
also be quantified using analytical approach for this particular situation.

From Darcy’s Law:

v = ki

k = Coefficient of permeability
i = the hydraulic gradient

The the seepage discharge per unit length can be given by:

q = vA= kiA
Where A is area of flow per unit length

For steady flow, the discharge through all vertical planes across the dam
section will be the same.

Considering the discharge through the vertical section PQ passing through the
point P (x.y),
q = kiA

Substituting for the value of y from above,

71
 PHREATIC LINE FOR A HOMOGENEOUS DAM SITH OUT ANY
DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Fig 5.5

In this case the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point J above the toe. In
addition to the entry correction an exit correction is also required.
The focus (F) of the base parabola is located at the d/s toe of the dam & its
starting point A is located at a distance of 0.3L from B.
Casagrande has shown that the exit correction ( depends up on the slope
of the discharge face and he has given the values ) for different
values of angle  as follows.

Fig 5.6

The value of (a+ ) may be obtained from the figure by measuring FK from the toe
after the base parabola has been drawn or by using the following polar equation of the
parabola.

72
 Where

Then the point J is marked at a distance from point K by drawing a smooth

transition curve by eye judgment such that the phreatic line meets the d/s face
tangentially.
To determine discharge, the same concept as above can be adopted.

Variation of the slope angle is measured clockwise from the horizontal. The
above equation for fig 5.4, cannot be applicable for determining for <
30 Approximate analytical solutions for such case are:
0.

i) Approximate analytical solution for the determination of the distance a for the slope angle <
300

For the slope angle < 300, Sceffernak and Van Iterson gave the analytical solution
for the determination of the distance a. In this case it is assumed that the hydraulic
gradient (i) is equal to the tangent of the angle.

Thus
This assumption is true for small values of the angle

A vertical line is drawn through the point J to cut the base at J’ (Fig ). The discharge
through the vertical section JJ’ per unit length is given by:

Simplifying,

73
ii) Approximate analytical solution for the determination of the distance a for the slope angle30 0<
< 600

An approximate value of the distance JF (= a) can be found from the approximate

analytical solution as given below.

Casagrande suggested that in this case the hydraulic gradient should be taken as sin
instead of tan .That is it should be taken as (dy/ds) instead of (dy/dx), where s
is the distance measured along the phreatic line.

Thus the discharge per unit length is given by:

Where So = is the total length of the phreatic line,

or
or

For a slope angle up to 600, the length of the phreatic line So can be taken
approximately equal to the straight distance FA = , thus the above equation
becomes

After a is determined, the discharge q can be calculated from above equation.

PHREATIC LINE FOR HOMOGENEOUS ERATH DAM WITH ROCK TOE

74
The figure below shows an earth dam with rock toe. The u/s face of the rock toe is
usually inclined downstream i.e., > 900 as shown in figure below (fig 5.7).
However, sometimes the u/s face of the rock toe is kept vertical. The drawing
procedure for phreatic line is the same as previous cases but the exit correction is
somewhat d/t.

Rock Toe

Fig 5.7 Homogeneous Earth Dam with Rock toe

Exit Correction of Phreatic line for earth dam with rock toe

The u/s face of the rock toe acts as the discharge face. It makes an angle with the
horizontal. The base parabola cuts the discharge face at point K. The value of
) may be obtained by measuring the distance FK or from equation given above for a
given value of and calculated value of yo
For the known value of , the value of can be obtained from fig 5.6. The
exit correction, , is then found from the values of the equations. The joint J is then
marked on the u/s face of the rock toe at a distance of from K. The phreatic line
is drawn by making a transition curve by eye judgment from the point J to the point
M on the base parabola. The transition curve is tangential to the vertical line at J, and
it meets the base parabola tangentially at M. It may be noted that the phreatic line
drops vertically in to the rock toe.
PHREATIC LINE FOR ZONED ERATH DAM WITH A CENTERAL CORE

For zoned earth dam the phreatic line construction depends mainly on the geometry
and thickness of the core section. B/c the permeability of shell material (example

75
 sand) is quite large as compared to core material (example clay), the effect of outer
shells on the phreatic line in the core is negligible. As such the u/s shell has
practically no effect on the position of the phreatic line. The phreatic line can just
start from point B where the extension of the water level cuts the core. The d/s shell
in this case acts as a drain. Thus the usual practice is to draw the phreatic line for the
core section only.

For drawing the phreatic line, the focus F is to be located at the d/s toe of the core and
assuming the u/s shell as a reservoir. Then the core section is treated as a
homogeneous dam and the same of constructing phreatic line for homogeneous dam
is considered.
However, in this case, the phreatic line at the exit end will be slightly above the base
of the core so that the seepage water can flow under gravity through the d/s shell
which acts a drain (fig 5.8).

Flow net and Flow net construction (assignment to read)

Control of Seepage through earth dam and its foundation

The effects of seepage are:

 Loss of water
 Piping failure
 Reduce slope stability and result in dam failure
 Causes local sloughing
Seepage control measures are divided in to two main categories

A. Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage – lessen loss of water

B. Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No piping

Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage

IN DAM:
The only measure is provision of impervious core within the body of the dam called
embankment zonation.
Embankment zonation : -for reducing seepage through the body of the dam, a core
of impervious material such as silt clay or clayey silt is generally provided. For most
effective control of through seepage and seepage during reservoir draw down, the
permeability should progressively increase from the core out towards each slope.
Sometimes flat slopes without drains are provided for some dams constructed with
impervious soils having flat embankment slopes & infrequent, short duration , high
reservoir levels, the phreatic surface may be contained well with in the d/s slope &
escape gradients may be sufficiently low to prevent piping failure.

IN FOUNDATION:

76
If the foundation consists of alluvial deposits of pervious sand and gravel with
impervious stratum at a great depth measures to be adopted are cut-off, u/s
impervious blanket and d/s berm.

Cutoff trenches: This is the most positive means of controlling the amount of
seepage and insuring that no difficulty will be encountered by piping through the
foundation or by uplift pressure at the down stream toe. Whenever economically
possible, seepage through a pervious foundation should be cut off by a trench
extending to bed rock or other impervious stratum.

Partial cutoff trenches The partial cut offs are effective only when they extend down
into an intermediate stratum of lower permeability. This stratum must be continuous
across the valley foundation to ensure that three- dimensional seepage around
discontinues stratum does not negate the effectiveness of the partial cutoff. Such type
of measures is effective when the foundation material is stratified alluvial deposit.

Sheet pilling cut offs: - A steel sheet pile cut off consists of interconnected sheet
piles to form a continuous impervious barrier. It is relatively expensive and leakage
through the interlocks b/n the individual piling is considerable. It is used occasionally

77
 78

in combination with a partial cutoff trench as a means of increasing the depth of the
cutoff. Sheet piling cutoffs are practically limited to use in foundations of silt, Sand
and fine gravel.
Slurry trench cutoff: - is an important method of constructing positive cut offs when
wet conditions or deep cutoffs in alluvial valleys make conventional constriction
methods uneconomical.

Grouting- The stability and impermeability of pervious overburden foundation can

be improved by injection a substance which will act as a binder & fill the voids.
Cement or cement -clay grouts are usually used to treat foundations over lain by
coarse alluvial material.

Upstream blankets: - The path of percolation in pervious foundations can be

increased by the construction of a blanket of impervious material connecting with the
impervious zone of the dam and extending upstream from the toe. Blankets are
usually used when cutoffs to bed rock or to an impervious layer are not practicable
b/c of excessive depth; they are also used in conjunction with partial cut off trenches.
The length of the blanket will be governed by the desired reduction in the amount of
under seepage and its thickness usually varies from 1.5 to 3.0 m.

It may be provided in homogenous dams constructed of relatively impervious soil.

The length of the u/s blanket can be obtained from the following formula.

Where k = mean horizontal permeability coefficient

h = the gross height
p = percentage (stated as decimal) of flow under dam w/o a blanket to which level it
is desired to reduce the seepage by meanse of a blanket
b =length of impervious dam material
q = k(h/b)xdx1 seepage flow under the dam (approximate)
d = depth of pervious foundation

q’ = pq

Where q’ is the seepage quantity after provision of u/s blanket

78
 79

Fig 5.8

Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No piping

Some water always seeps through the dam and foundation even after adopting several
seepage control measures discussed earlier. The seeping water should be safely
drained through the dam and foundation without causing ill effects.

IN DAM:
Horizontal drainage blanket Rock toe
Chimney drain Strip drain

i) Horizontal drainage blanket: Vertical (or inclined) and horizontal drains

Because of the often variable characteristics of borrow materials, vertical (or inclined)
and horizontal drains with the down stream portion of the embankment are provided
to ensure satisfactory seepage control. Also the vertical (or inclined) drain provides
the primary line of defense to control concentrated leaks through the core of an earth
dam.
Horizontal drainage blankets are commonly used for earth dams of moderate heights.
The blanket extends from the d/s toe for a distance of about three times the height of
the dam but not longer than 2/3 of the base width. In the case of zoned section it
extends up to the core.
The blanket should consist of a pervious material which should quickly drain the
seeping water and the layers of the filter should fulfill the filter criteria to avoid
migration of materials/ soil particles. The main disadvantage of such a measure is that

79
 80

it is not effective if the embankment material has stratifications and the horizontal
permeability is greater than the vertical permeability.

Fig 5.9

ii) Rock toe: The rock toe is provided at the d/s toe of the earth dam and it forms part
of the dam. It consists of stones of size varying from 15 to 20 cm. The u/s face of the
rock toe may be vertical or inclined. A graded filter may be provided between the
rock toe and the soil mass as well as b/n the foundation and the rock toe to avoid
migration of materials.
The rock toe is suitable for low to moderate height of dams. The height of the rock
toe is generally b/n H/3 to H/4, where H is the height of the dam. Rock toe can also
be used in conjunction with horizontal drainage blankets.

Fig 5.10

iii) Strip drain: A strip drain is provided instead of a horizontal drainage blanket if
there is scarcity of pervious materials in the area. Transverse drains are provided to
carry water from the strip drain to another parallel drain located at the d/s toe of the
dam (refer figure).

80
 81

As far as possible a horizontal drainage blanket is preferred to a strip drain. If there is

chocking of an individual transverse drain in the strip drain system, a significant
length of the d/s face of the dam would become un-drained and there may be
sloughing.

Fig 5.11

iv) Chimney drain: A chimney drain is a vertical/nearly vertical drain located inside
the dam so that it intercepts all layers of the dam in the seepage zone. Thus it is
helpful in stratified embankments. A chimney drain renders the d/s portion of the dam
free from seeping water and it increases the stability of the d/s slope. It also helps in
reducing the pore water pressure during construction and sudden draw down
condition.

Chimney drains are rarely provided in homogeneous dams and they are provided d/s
of the impervious core in zoned earthfill dams. From the chimney drain water is
carried to d/s by a horizontal drainage blankets. The chimney drain should be
accompanied with proper filters.

Fig 5.12 81
Chimney Drain
 82

IN FOUNDATION:

In general, the drainage systems provided for the dam can also serve for the purpose
of drainage of foundation. Additional measures such as mentioned below can be
taken in to account.

Toe drains Drainage trenches

Relief Wells Vertical Sand Drains

i) Toe drain and drainage blanket: The purpose of toe drains is to collect the seepage
water from the horizontal drainage blanket (construction in conjunction with it –fig)
and foundation to carry it to an outfall pipe which then discharges the water in to the
river or spillway stilling basin.

Toe drain pipes are usually of verified clay or perforated asphalt dipped corrugated
metal pipes placed in trenches excavated to the required depth below the ground
surface to ensure effective interception of seepage flow. Filters are provided as usual.

Fig 5.13 Toe drain

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 83

ii) Drainage trenches: Drainage trenches are used when a thin impervious top
stratum overlies a shallow pervious stratum of the foundation so that the trench can be
built to penetrate the pervious stratum substantially. They are similar in arrangement
with that of toe drains, but in this case there is no pipe provided to drain. The trenches
are excavated to the required depth and backfilled with properly graded layers in
accordance with the filter criteria such that the coarser materials are at the inner side.
Drainage trenches, however, are not effective if the underlying pervious stratum is
quite deep and stratified.

Drainage
Trench
Fig 5.14

iii) Relief Wells: Are generally used for drainage of the foundation if it consists of a
deep pervious stratum which is stratified and whose permeability increases with
depth. Relief wells are provided at or near the d/s toe of the dam to collect water
seeping through the foundation and to reduce the pore pressure in the foundation.

Relief well consists of an interior perforated pipe or a well screen with a minimum
diameter of 15 cm. The well screen is surrounded by a small thickness of gravel pack
which is properly graded so as to meet the filter criteria for the surrounding soil. (Fig.
). Seepage from the relief wells is usually discharged at the toe of the dam in the river
channel through the horizontal overflow pipe and a lined drainage ditch. The spacing
of the relief wells is usually b/n 15 to 30m.

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 84

Fig 5.15 Relief Wells

iv) Vertical Sand drains: These drains consist of vertical holes drilled in the
foundation all along the base of the dam. These holes are filled with clean, course
sand of high permeability to form sand columns (Fig 12). These sand drains reduce
the path of drainage in the horizontal direction and help in the drainage of the
foundation. They also accelerate consolidation of the foundation soil by providing
drainage.

Vertical sand drains are quite effective for the drainage of soft clay foundation which
can not be easily drained by other methods. Vertical sand drains can also act as relief
wells and thus help in reducing the pore pressure and controlling under seepage.

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 85

Soft clay
stratum

Fig 5.16 Vertical Sand drains

5.1.4 Embankment Design

The design of an earth dam essentially consists of determining such a cross sections
of the dam which, when constructed with the available materials, will fulfill its
required function with adequate safety.
Thus there are two aspects of the design of an earth dam, viz.
i) To determine the X-section of the dam and
ii) To analyses the stability of the proposed x-section.
For determining the X-section of an earth dam there are no mathematical analyses or
formula as in the case of rigid dams.
The design of slopes of earth fill embankments depends on the nature of the materials of
construction and the type of dam (i.e. zone, homogeneous & diaphragm). It depends on
the nature of the material used for the core and the shells and in the case of zoned
embankment on the relative proportion of them.

Details of Earth Dams

i) crest width:- The crest width of an earth fill dam depend on several
considerations such as:-
 Sufficiency to keep the top flow line well with in the dam body when the
reservoir is full.
 sufficiency to provide the embankment mass for resistance to earth quake
shock
 Satisfactory for secondary requirement such as minimum road way width.

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Crest width can be calculated using the following formula:

H/5 + 3 for very low dams

for dams lower than 30m
1.65(H+1.5)1/3 for dams higher than 30m
Where: - H is the height of the dam.
ii) Freeboard: Sufficient free board must be provided so that there is no
possibility what so ever of the dam being over topped. The necessary free
board is calculated by assuming that the maximum flood will occur when the
reservoir is full and that the highest possible waves will develop at the same
time .The minimum free board shall be 1.5 times the wave height plus a safety
factor.

Freeboard = 1.5 hw + additional safety provision

The additional safety provision generally various from 0.6 to 3m depending up on the
size of the reservoir, the height of the dam the reliability of the flood computation etc.
The free board should not be less than 2m in any case.
iii) Embankment slopes: - The design slopes of an embankment may vary
widely depending on the character of the materials available for construction,
foundation conditions and the height of the structure. The upstream slope may
vary from 1:2 to as flat as 1:4 (V:H) for stability usually it is 1:2.5 or 1:3. Flat
upstream slopes are sometimes used in order to eliminate expensive slope
protection.
The usual down stream slopes for small earth fill dams are 1:2 where a down stream
pervious zone is provided in the embankment and 1:2.5 where the embankment is
impervious. Theses slopes are stable for soil types commonly used when drainage is
provided in the design so that the down stream slope of the embankment does not be
come saturated by seepage.
The table below shows slopes recommended by Terzaghi.

Type of Type of Material u/s slope D/s slope

Section (V:H) (V:H)
Homogeneous Homogeneous, well graded material 1:2.5 1: 2
Do Homogeneous, coarse silt 1:3 1:2.5
Do Homogeneous clay or silt clay
i) < 15m height 1:2.5 1:2
ii) > 15m height 1:3 1:2.5
Zoned Sand or sandy gravel with silty core 1:3 1:2.5
Zoned Sand or sandy gravel with R.C. core 1:2.5 1:2
Source: Arora (2000), Page 377

iv. Slope protection: - usual types of surface protection for the upstream slope
against destructive wave actions are riprap and concrete pavement. The upstream
slope protection should extend from the crest of the dam to a safe distance below
minimum water level and ordinarily terminate on a supporting berm.

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Usual type of surface protection of the upstream slope is stone riprap, either dumped
or hand placed. For thin layers, hand placed riprap may be economical than dumped
riprap.
V. Surface drainage: - may be necessary to prevent gull eying at the contact of the
embankment and valley slopes. This is done by providing a gutter concrete or stone
pavement.
Vi. Filters: - filers are always provided between any two dissimilar materials when the
difference in their particles is so great that the particles of the finer material can migrate
in to the voids of coarser material with seepage water & can cause piping.
There fore filters are provided:-
 B/n the drainage system & the adjoin soils to prevent the migration of the soil
particles in to the drains.
 B/n impervious zones (cores) of fine-grained soils and the pervious zones (shells)
of the coarse -grained soils for the same purpose.

Criteria for filter design according to USBR

 D15 of the filter = 5 to 40 provided that the filter does not contain
D15 of base material more than 5 percent of material finer than 0.074 mm

 D15 of the filter = 5 or less

D85 of base material
 D85 of the filter = 2 or more
max. Opening of drain
 The grain size curve of the filter should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material
Where D15 is the grain size with 15 percent of the total soil practices are smaller& D85
is the grain size wit 85% of the total soil particles are smaller.
If more than one filter is used, the preceding layer is considered as the base material and
the succeed in layer as the filter and the same rules above are applied.
Vii) Cores:- the core may be defined as a membrane built with in an embankment dam to
form the impermeable barrier, the balance of the dam being provided to ensure stability.
It may be of natural materials clay, gravels etc. or prepared materials such as cement or
asphaltic concrete or of metal, plastic, rubber etc.
The thickness of the core will depend primarily on the martial available. A general core
thickness is one half of the height of the dam depending on materials available. Thin
cores may be adequate for impermeability but it is essential to provide well designed
filters on either side.

5.1.5 Slope Stability Analysis

Failure of an embankment dam can result from instability of either the upstream or down
stream slopes. The failure surface may lie with in the embankment or may pass through
the embankment and the foundation soil. The critical stages in u/s slope are at the end of

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construction & during rapid draw down. The critical stages for the d/s slope are at the end
of construction & during steady seepage when the reservoir is full.
Stability of an embankment is determined by its resistance to shearing stresses that may
result from external loads (such as reservoir pressure & earth quake) and internal or body
force.
Various methods of slope stability analysis are available but the Swedish slip -circle or
slices method is the most common. In this method the factor of safety against sliding is
defined as the ratio of resisting moments to actuating moments (or the ratio of resisting
forces to actuating forces). The forces are computed taking a trial slip surface and
dividing the soil mass above the assumed failure surface in to some number of slices.
The potential surface of rupture is taken to be any cylindrical surfaces.

Fig 5.17 Slices (methods of slicing for computing F.S)

The figure shows a trial slip surface AB which is circular; the radius of the circle, r and
its center o.
The trial failure wedge is divided in to vertical slices (or strips) by drawing vertical lines.
The slices are usually of equal width, but not necessary so. The number of slices is
usually kept 5 to 15. The greater the number the more is accuracy. It is convenient to
have all the slices of equal width b, but not necessarily. In the case of the zoned section,
the slicing should be in such a way that the base of each slice is resting on only one type
of the material.

Procedure for Analysis

After proper slicing of an assumed failure surface and let us consider the equilibrium of
any one slice and forces acting on it. It is subjected to the following forces (slice 4).
 The driving force is the tangential component of the weight

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1. The weight W4 acting vertically downwards through its center of

gravity.
2. Cohesive for C4 along the curved surface, in the direction
opposite to the direction of probable movement of the wedge.
The cohesive force C4 is equal to c∆L, where c is unit cohesion
and ∆L is the length of the base of the strip.
3. Reaction R4 at the base of the slice, acting along the line inclined
at angle to the normal, where is the angle of the searing
resistance of the soil.It is is assumed that the slippage is
imminent and the full shear strength of the soil has been
mobilized. Therefore, the inclination of the reaction with the
normal is equal to .
4. The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the
slice exerted by the adjacent slices on the right and left slices
respectively.

Fig 5.18 Slicing and consideration of forces and the direction of application (SWEEDISH CIRCLE
METHOD)

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5. The forces due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on

the left face, right face and at the base respectively. The force U B
acts in the normal direction.

In the conventional Swedish circle method, it is assumed that the reactions E R and EL are
equal and opposite in direction and cancel each other. Like wise the U L and UR. Thus
there are four forces which are normally considered in the analysis viz, W4, C4, R4 and UB.
Resolving the Vector W in to its tangential and Normal components by drawing a
perpendicular from the tip of the vector W to the normal direction,

T = W sin and N = W cos

Where , is the angle which the normal makes with the vertical

Thus resolving all the forces in the normal and tangential direction,

In normal (radial) direction

In tangential direction

This implies that

T is the driving force which is counterbalanced by the frictional resistance ( )

and cohesion resistance ( ). When the forces just balance the failure is imminent.
For margin of safety, the soil reaction would be inclined to the normal at angle less
than the angle . As soon as the reaction becomes inclined at angle , the
maximum resistance is developed and the failure is imminent.

On any trial surface, the safety factor against sliding is given by:

The resisting force is the internal frication resistance plus cohesion, if any
i.e. Resisting force = (N- ) tan + c L and T is the driving force
Where: - N= Normal force along the arc

= pore water pressure force at the base of each slice = UB

C and  are cohesion & internal angle of friction of the soil
L = base length of each slice along the arc.

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For the total sliding surface;

For a homogeneous section  is constant

Therefore

Where:-La is the length of the entire arc of the slip circle.

Where is the angle in degrees subtended by the slip surface at the center.
Pore water pressure force ( ) = pore water pressure (u) × u is determined
from flow net or other means.

If the soil is dry then the FS CAN BE COMPUTED FROM:

Various centers and radii are used and those computations are repeated until the arc
which gives the minimum safety factor is established. The slip surface which gives
minimum factor of safety is the critical. The minimum Fs should be greater than the
allowable one (1.5).
Summary of procedure for earth dam stability analysis

1. Take a trial slip surface and divide the wedge above the slip surface into 8 to 15
vertical slices.

2. Determine the Weight W of each slice and its line of action.

For convenience, the weight of the slice is generally taken proportional to the middle
ordinate of the slice and its line of action is taken through the middle of the slice. Thus W
= (b x where is the middle ordinate of the slice, b is the width of the slice and
is the unit weight of the soil.

3. Measure the angle which the normal makes with the vertical and compute N and T.
4. Determine the pore water pressure, u, at the base of the slice or otherwise. Compute the
force UB due to the pore water pressure as:
5. Determine the cohesive force,
6. Determine the factor of safety for slip surface from equations given above.

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7. Repeat the procedure for a number of other trail surfaces. The trail surface which gives
the minimum factor of safety is the most critical circle. The minimum factors of safety
should be greater than the specified safe value.

But how to determine the most critical circle???? Fellenius suggested something……

Location of the most CRITICAL circle

In the course of stability analysis, it is quite cumbersome to take so many trial surfaces
and hence Fellenius has shown, to reduce number of trials, suggested a line called
Fellenius line (line AB) for a homogeneous slope (see fig below) on which the most
critical circle lies.

Fig 5:19 Fellenius Line for determining the most critical circle

To draw the Fellenius Line AB, point B is located at a depth of H below the toe and 4.5H
from it (Fig 5 :19). Point A is then located by drawing two lines PA and QA. The line PA
makes an angle with the slope line and PQ and the line QA makes an angle with
the horizontal line drawn through the point Q. The values of and are given in table
along with fig 5: 19 above.

The center of the most critical circle may lie anywhere on the line AB or its extension.
However the exact position of critical circle is obtained after conducting the stability
analysis for different points. The center O with minimum factor of safety is the center of

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the most critical circle. The above procedure of drawing Fellenius line is applicable for
soils. For a purely cohesive soil, the point A itself represents the center of the
most critical circle.

For Zoned dams, taking point A and go with successive trials may help at arriving the
most critical failure circle. The so called nine point matrix method may help a lot with
this regard (Refer Arora, pp 403-405).

Critical cases to be considered for Earth dam stability Analysis.

The critical conditions to be analyzed for stability are:

 Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage

 Stability of u/s slope during sudden drawdown condition
 Stability of u/s and d/s slopes during construction

5.1.6. CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAMS

Earth dam failures are caused by improper design, frequently based on insufficient
investigation and lack of control and maintenance. The various causes may be grouped in
to the following three broad categories:-

i) Hydraulic failure
ii) Seepage failure
iii) Structural failure

i) Hydraulic failure: - Caused by surface erosion of the dam by water. They

include washout from overtopping, wave erosion of upstream face, scour from
the discharge of spillways & erosion of the d/s slope by rain.
ii) Seepage failure: - uncontrolled or concentrated seepage through the dam body
or through the foundation may lead to piping and sloughing and subsequent
failure of the dam. the following are the common modes of seepage failure:-
 Seepage through pervious foundation: - Presence of strata or lenses of
sand or gravel of high permeability or cavities and fissures in the
foundation permit concentrated flow of water from reservoir leading to
piping.
 Leakage through embankment: - This is mainly due to poor construction
control, in sufficient compaction adjacent to out let conduits, poor bond
b/n embankment & foundation or b/n successive layers of the
embankment.
 Conduit leakage: - failure may be either due to contact seepage along the
conduit or due to seepage caused by leakage in the conduit.
 Sloughing: This occurs when the down stream portion of the dam
becomes saturated either due to choking or filter toe drain or due to
presence of highly pervious layer in the dam body...

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iii) Structural failure: - Consists of foundation slide and or embankment slide.

 Foundation Slide: - When the foundation of soft soil such as fine silt, soft
clay etc. the entire dam may slide over the foundation. Partial failures of
embankment may also occur over part of the foundation where seams of
fissured rock, shale’s or soft clay may occur.
 Embankment Slide: - When the embankment slopes are too steep for the
strength of the soil, they may slide causing dam failure. For the upstream
slope the critical condition is during sudden draw down and for the down
stream slope the full reservoir and steady seepage condition is the most
critical.

5.2 ROCKFILL DAMS

The cost producing large quantities of rock for the construction of rock fill
dams makes this type of dam economical only in remote areas where the cost
of concrete would be high or in areas where there is a scarcity of earth fill
materials and the only material for construction of the structure consists of
durable hard rock.
A rock fill dam is an embankment which uses variable sizes of rock to provide
stability and an impervious membrane to provide water tightness.

The watertight membrane for a rock fill dam should be constructed on the
upstream slope where its condition can be inspected when the reservoir is
drawdown. And repairs made as necessary. Usually the membrane will consist
of Portland cement concrete although steel plates and wood planking have
been used to the limited extent of the life of those materials.

Rock fill dams can prove economical when any of the following conditions
exist.

1. Large quantities of rocks are available or will be excavated in

connection with the project such as
2. Earth fill materials are difficult to obtain or require much
processing to be used
3. Short construction season prevails
4. Excessively wet climatic condition limit the placement of large
quantities of earth fill materials.

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Fig 5:21 Rockfill dam

The major components of Rockfill dam may consist of:

 Impermeable membrane
 Rock fill
 U/S cut-off
 Rock cushion/rubble masonry

The membrane is usually placed on the u/s face, and in some instances it is
placed in the center of the rock fill. The material of the membrane could of
concrete, asphalt, steel, timber or impervious soil.

The rock fill usually owns the natural slope at the d/s face. The dry rubble
masonry/well compacted rock is provided b/n u/s impervious membrane and
the rockfill to make smooth compact bedding for the impervious membrane.

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Fig 5. 22 Types of rock fill dams

Depending up on the location of the membrane, rockfill dams may be classified in to

three.
i. Central core
ii. Sloping core
iii. U/s membrane or deck
Impervious membrane is used as a water barrier placed either within the embankment or
on the u/s slope. Internal membrane constructed of earthen materials should preferably be
placed in the central core. For external membranes concrete, asphalt or steel are
recommended.

Advantages of Internal membrane:

 Less total area exposed to water
 Shorter grout curtain length
 Protection from effect of weathering and external damage

Disadvantages of Internal membrane:

 Inability to place rockfill material without simultaneous placement of core

material and filter
 The dependence on a smaller section of the dam for stability against sliding
 Instability of membrane for damage inspection

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Advantages of u/s membrane

 Available for inspection and repair

 Membrane can be constructed after embankment is completed
 A large portion of the dam available for resistance against sliding
 Membrane can be used as a slope protection

Foundation requirement: - The foundation requirement for a rock fill dam is less sever
than for a concrete gravity dam. But more sever than earth fill dams. Rock fill dams
require foundations which will result in a minimum of settlement.
Generally rock foundations consisting of hard, durable rock which can not be softened or
eroded appreciably by percolating water is recommended.
To prevent seepage, the foundation must be grouted.

Cutoff wall: - A watertight seal must be provided along the contact of the impervious
membrane with the foundation and abutment at the upstream toe of the dam to prevent
seepage under the dam. In existing dams, this seal has been in the form of a concrete
cutoff wall which extends from the upstream toe of dam to the bed rock. The cutoff wall
must provide adequate support for the weight and thrust of the membrane in addition to
its function of preventing under seepage.

Dowell slab cut-offs have the advantage of not requiring extensive excavation in rock,
thereby allowing grout operation to begin earlier saving time and reducing design costs.

The depth of penetration of the cutoff wall in to bedrock depends up on the character of
the foundation rock. If the rock is sound, the cutoff wall should extend in to the
foundation rock not less than 1 meter. A deeper wall or special treatment such as
grouting may be required if the rock is not sound or if open joints or broken rock
structure exists.

Embankment Design

Selection of embankment material: - The rock must be hard & durable to resist
excessive breakdown during the hauling and placing operation and must be located near
the dam site for economy .The rock also should with stand disintegration under the action
of freezing and thawing.
Un-weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks are of satisfactory quality for rock fill.
Sedimentary rocks should be avoided. The rock should be abrasion resistant.
The rock produced in the quarry or obtained from natural sources should be well graded
from 0.014 - 0.73 cubic meters in size and should contain less fine than sufficient to fill
the voids.

Dam section:- In as much as stability from sliding is not a design consideration in a

small rock fill dam b/c of its mass and weight, the determination of the external slopes
depends up on the relative cost of dumped rock and rubble masonry. For small rock fill

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dams, the downstream slope should be equal to the angle of repose of dumped rock fill
(about 1.4 to 1) & the u/s slopes should be 2:1 to facilitate construction of the u/s
impervious facing. The u/s and d/s slopes depend up on the type of impervious membrane
and its location. Central core/sloping membrane slope ranges from 2:1 to 4:1 u/s and d/s
slope. For u/s membrane type rockfill dam, u/s slope ranges from 1.3: 1 to 1.4:1 and d/s
slope approximate the natural slope of the rock fill.

Asphalt or concrete faced dams have u/s slopes of range 1.6:1 to 1.7: 1 to facilitate the
construction of the membrane whereas steel and concrete faced dams could have slopes
in the range of 1.3: 1 to 1.4:1. D/s slopes usually range from 1.3: 1 to 1.4:1 for both above
cases.

Fig 5.23 Earthfill central core rockfill dam section

Rock fill zone: - The placement of the rock fill is one of the most important operations in
the construction of a rock fill dam as it is essential to minimize total settlement and the
possibility of damage to the impervious membrane. Settlement of rock fill takes place in
two stages. The first major settlement occurs during the construction of the rock fill. This
stage of settlement has a minor bearing on the security of the impervious membrane,
provided the membrane is not placed concurrently with the rock. The second major stage
of settlement occurs as the reservoir fills and the thrust due to water load is transmitted to
the rock fill.
For small rock fill dams placement of rock in relatively thin layers is considered to be
advisable. The rock should be dumped on the embankment and spread in layer with a
maximum thickness of 1 meter. The spreading operation will assure a minimum number
of large voids and provide a compact rock fill.

Preparation of upstream facing: - for small dams a zone of graded sand and gravel or
quarry fines when well compacted present smooth bedding for the impervious membrane.
This zone should have a minimum horizontal width of 1 meter to facilitate compaction. It
should be constructed in 30 cm layers thoroughly wetted and compacted. The material

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used in this zone should be pervious and well graded from 0.6 cm to 7.5 cm. After
placing the upstream face can be dressed smooth to accept any type of membrane.

Design of upstream facing: - Reinforced concrete pavement is the most common type
although asphaltic concrete. Steel and timber planking may serve the purpose.
For low dams, a reinforced concrete slab with a minimum thickness of 20 cm should be
provided. Horizontal and vertical expansion joints are not required b/c of low reservoir
head and minor amount of settlement expected. However, vertical joints may be
required to compensate for horizontal expansion on low dams of considerable length.

Reinforcement should be provided: areas of steel equal to 0.5% and 0.7% of the concrete
area, vertically and horizontally is considered good practice.
Timber planking is not recommended for general use, although it is often the cheaper
type of membrane to construct. The principal objections to this type of construction are
the danger of loss by fire at low water and the relatively short life of timber construction
when alternately exposed to wetting and drying.

Decked rockfill dam consists of three zones called A, B, C

Zone C: The larger d/s zone of the dam consists of best quality, larger sized compacted
rock. This zone provides high stability to the section.

Zone B: Rock of lesser quality than such as excavated from spillway, used to minimize
total dam cost.

Zone A: well graded small sized rock gravel; this is used to provide bedding to the u/s
membrane and to retard excess water losses when the membrane cracks.

In general, materials in zones B and C should grade from fine rock u/s to course rock d/s
with the largest and strongest material placed in the lower d/s portion of zone C.

For central earth core, rockfill dams, the larger and the stronger rock should be placed in
the d/s rock fill zone and grade from fine rock next to the filter to course rock near the d/s
slope.

The u/s rock fill zone may be rock of lesser quality than the d/s zone and grade from fine
at the filter to course at the u/s face.

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Fig 5.24 Typical section of decked type rockfill dam with zones

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VI. SPILLWAYS

6.1 Introduction:

Spillways are provided for storage dams to release surplus or flood water, which cannot
be contained in the allotted storage space, and at diversion dams to bypass flows
exceeding those, which are turned into the diversion system.

There are several spillway designs. The choice of design is a function of the nature of the
site, the type of dam and the overall economics of the scheme. The importance of a safe
spillway cannot be overemphasized; many failures of dams have been caused by spillway
of insufficient capacity. Ample capacity is of paramount importance for earthfill and
rockfill dams, which are likely to be overtopped, whereas concrete dams may be able to
withstand moderate overtopping. Usually, increase in cost is not directly proportional to
increase in capacity. Very often, the cost of a spillway of ample capacity will be only
moderately higher than that of one which is obviously too small.

A spillway may be located either within the body of the dam or at one end of the dam or
entirely away from the dam as an independent structure.

6.2 Essential Requirements Of a Spillway

The essential requirements of a spillway are:

i) The spillway must have sufficient capacity;

ii) It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate;
iii) It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water, i.e. spillway
discharge will not erode or undermine the d/s of the dam;
iv) The bounding surfaces of the spillway must be erosion resistant to
withstand the high scouring velocities created by the drop from the
reservoir surface to the tail water.
v) Some device will be required for dissipation of energy on the d/s side of
the spillway.

6.3 Spillway Capacity

The required capacity of a spillway, i.e. the maximum outflow rate through the spillway,
may be determined by flood routing and requires the following data:
i) Inflow hydrograph (plot of rate of inflow vs. time)
ii) Reservoir capacity curve (plot of reservoir storage Vs water surface
elevation)
iii) Discharge curve (plot of rate of outflow Vs reservoir water surface
elevation).
By flood routing, corresponding to a particular inflow hydrograph, the maximum outflow
rate and maximum rise in the water surface may be determined.

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However, the required capacity of a spillway depends on the following factors:

i) The inflow flood;
ii) The available storage capacity;
iii) The discharge capacity of other outlet works;
iv) Whether the spillway is gated or ungated;
v) The possible damages if a spillway of adequate capacity is not provided.
The selection of the inflow flood for the spillway design depends on the degree of
protection that ought to be provided to the dam, which, in turn, depends on the type of
dam, its location, and consequences of failure of the dam.

6.4 Components Of a Spillway

The following are the main components of a spillway:

i) Control Structure: Major component, which regulates and controls the outflow
from the reservoir. It prevents outflow from a reservoir below a fixed level and
allows the flow when the water surface in the reservoir rises above the level. In
most of the cases, the control section consists of a weir, which may be sharp
crested, ogee, or broad crested. Gates may also be provided on the crest of the
control structure to regulate the flow of water from the reservoir.
ii) Discharge channel (or waterway, or conveyance structure): Its main function
is to convey the water safely from the reservoir downward to the river. Located
next to the control structure. The conveyance structure may be the d/s face of the
spillway, an open channel excavated along the ground surface, a closed conduit
placed through or under the dam, or a tunnel excavated through an abutment.
iii) Terminal structure or energy dissipator: Provided to dissipate the high energy
of flow from spillway before the flow is returned to the river. It is provided on the
downstream of the spillway.
iv) Entrance or approach channel and outlet channel: Entrance channels may be
required to draw water from the reservoir and convey it to the control structure.
Similarly outlet channels may be required to convey the spillway flow from the
terminal structure to the river channel below the dam. The entrance and outlet
channels are not required where a spillway draws water directly from the reservoir
and delivers it directly back into the river; e.g. overflow spillway. However, in the
case of spillways placed through abutments or through saddles or ridges, the
entrance and outlet channels may be required.

6.5 Types Of Spillway

Spillways may be classified:

1. According to their function (or based on the time when the spillway comes into
operation) as

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(a) Service (or main) spillways: Designed for frequent use in conveying flood
releases from the reservoir to a watercourse downstream from a dam. It is
designed to pass the entire design flood.

(b) Auxiliary Spillways: - Designed for infrequent use and may sustain limited
damages when used. Some damages of the structure from passage of
infrequent flood is permissible. It is provided as a supplement to the main
spillway and its crest is so located that it comes into operation only after the
floods for which the main spillway is designed are exceeded. It is provided in
conjunction with the main spillway. The total capacity of the spillway is then
equal to the sum of the capacities of the main and auxiliary spillways.

(c) Emergency spillways:- Designed to provide a reserve protection against

overtopping of a dam and are intended for use under extreme conditions, such
as mis-operation or malfunction of a service spillway or other emergency
conditions. Under normal reservoir operation, emergency spillways are never
required to function. The control crest is, therefore, placed at or above the
designed maximum reservoir water surface.

Some of the situations, which may lead to emergency, are:

a) an enforced shut down of outlet works,
b) a malfunctioning of spillway gates,
c) the necessity for bypassing the regular spillway because of damage or
failure of some part of that structure.
2. According to Mode of Control as:
(a) Free (or uncontrolled) spillways,
(b) Gated (or controlled) spillways.
3. Based on prominent features pertaining to the various components of the
spillway (or according to hydraulic criteria) as:
(a) Free overfall or straight drop spillway,
(b) Overflow or ogee spillway,
(c) Chute or open channel or Trough spillway,
(d) Side channel spillway,
(e) Siphon spillway,
(f) Shaft or Morning Glory spillway,
(g) Conduit or tunnel spillway.

6.5.1 Free Over fall Or Straight Drop Spillway

This is the simplest type of spillway, which is constructed in the form of low height weir
having d/s face either vertical or nearly vertical. Water drops freely from the crest, and
the underside of the falling nappe is ventilated sufficiently to prevent a pulsating,
fluctuating, jet. Occasionally, the crest is extended in the form of an overhanging lip to
direct the small discharge away from the face of the overfall section.

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Since vacuum gets created in the underside portion of the falling jet, sufficient ventilation
of the nappe is required in order to avoid pulsating and fluctuating effects of the jet.

If no artificial protection is provided on the d/s side of the over-fall section, the falling jet
usually causes the scouring of the stream bed and will form a deep plunge pool.

The free over fall spillway is suitable for thin arch dams and for those dams with nearly
vertical downstream face and would permit free fall of water. Free over-fall spillways are
used where the hydraulic drops from head pool to TW are not in excess of about 6m.

Spillway crest

Overhanging lip

Free overfall

Fig 6.1 Straight drop spillway

6.5.2 Overflow (or Ogee) Spillways

Overflow spillways are by far the most widely adopted. They are mainly used on
masonry or concrete dams, and if used with earth fill and need a separate concrete
structure.

An overflow spillway is an improvement upon the free overfall spillway. The essential
difference between the free overfall spillway and the overflow spillway is that in the case
of the former the water flowing over the crest of the spillway drops as a free jet clearly
away from the downstream face of the spillway, while in the case of the latter the water is
guided smoothly over the crest of the spillway and is made to glide over the downstream
face of the spillway.

6.5.2.1 Crest Shape Of Overflow Spillway

The shape of the crest or the upper curve of the ogee profile of this spillway is made to
conform closely to the profile of the lower surface of the nappe (or lower nappe) or sheet
of water flowing over a ventilated sharp-crested weir when discharging at a head equal to
the design head of the spillway.

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Fig 6.2 Crest shape of overflow spillway

At the design head (H = Hd) the water flowing over the crest of the spillway will remain
in contact with the surface of the spillway as it glides over it and optimum discharge will
occur. In this case no pressure is exerted on the spillway by the flowing water, as there
will be atmospheric pressure along the contact surface between the flowing water and the
spillway.

At head less than the design head (H < H d) the overflowing water will remain in contact
with the surface. The natural trajectory of the nappe falls below the profile of the spillway
crest, then there will therefore be positive gage pressures over the crest, as the nappe
tends to be depressed. In this case, as the spillway is supporting a sheet of flowing water
backwater effect will be created and the discharge will be reduced.

At a head greater than the design head (H < H d), the nappe trajectory is higher than the
crest profile, and the overflowing water tends to break contact with the spillway surface
and zone of separation will be formed in which negative or suction pressure will be
produced. The effect of negative pressure will be to increase the effective head and
thereby increase the discharge. This may result in cavitation. However, in practice, this
pressure reduction is not normally a serious problem unless H > 1.5 H d. Indeed recent
work suggests that separation will not occur until H approaches 3 Hd.

6.5.2.2 Design Of Crest Of Ogee Spillway

The shape of the nappe shaped profile depends upon the head, the inclination of the
upstream face of the spillway and the height of the spillway above the streambed or the
bed of the entrance channel (which influences the velocity of approach to the crest of the
spillway).

Several standard ogee shapes have been developed by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at
their Waterways Experimental Station (WES). Such shapes are known as 'WES' standard
spillway shapes. The downstream profile can be represented by:

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(6.1)
Where:x, y = Co-ordinates of the points on the crest profile with the origin at the highest
point of the crest called APEX.
Hd = Design head excluding head due to velocity of approach,
K, n = Constants depending on the slope of the upstream face.

The crest equation gives the crest shape downstream from the origin of coordinates. This
equation is applicable to positive values of x and y.

HD

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Fig 6.3 WES- standard spillway shape (vertical upstream face)

The following table gives values of K, n and other constants and crest equations

a b R1 R2
U/s Face K n Hd Hd Hd Hd Crest Equation
slope
Vertical 2.000 1.850 0.175 0.282 0.200 0.500
1H: 3v 1.936 1.836 0.139 0.237 0.210 0.680
2H: 3v 1.936 1.810 0.115 0.214 0.220 0.480

3H: 3v 1.873 1.776 0.000 0.119 (Straigh 0.450
t line)

According to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the u/s curve of the ogee spillway (u/s of
origin, though in the form of compound circular curve) having a vertical u/s face, should
have the following equation:

(6.2)
Where the upstream profile extends up to
The corresponding y value is equal to 0.126 Hd.
The curved profile of the crest section is continued tangentially along the straight sloping
surface, which forms the d/s face of the spillway. The location of the point of tangency
(P.T) depends on the slope of the straight portion of the d/s face of the spillway, which in
turn depends on the stability requirements and on the features of the stilling basin at toe
of the spillway. The slope of the straight portion varies between 1V: 0.6H to 1V: 0.8H. At
the end of the sloping surface a curved bucket is provided to create a smooth transition of
flow from the spillway to the outlet channel or the river on the d/s side and prevent
scoring.

The approximate radius R of the bucket may be obtained from (empirical)

(6.3)
V= velocity of flow at to e of spillway [m/s
H = head excluding head due to velocity of approach (m)

Neglecting energy loss over the spillway, velocity of flow v at the toe will be
(6.4)
Where Z = the fall, m
Ha = head due to velocity of approach, m
y = depth of flow at the toe, m

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Figure 6.4 Profile of an ogee spillway

6.3 Discharge of Overflow Spillway

The discharge over an overflow spillway is given by

(6.5)
Where Q = discharge, m /s3

C = coefficient of discharge
Le = effective length of crest of spillway, m
HD = total head over the crest including that due to velocity of approach.
HD = Hd + Ha
For high ogee spillway Ha is very small, and HD ≈ Hd

(i) Coefficient of discharge, C, of Overflow spillway

An overflow spillway has a relatively high coefficient of discharge the maximum value
of which may be about 2.2 if no negative or suction pressure is allowed to develop. Its
value depends on the following factors:
a) Depth of approach, p
b) Heads differing from design head
c) Upstream face slope
d) Downstream apron interference and downstream submergence

a) Effect of Depth of Approach: With increase in the height of spillway the velocity of
approach decreases and the coefficient of discharge increase. Model tests have shown
that the effect of approach velocity is negligible when the height of the spillway above
the streambed is equal to or greater than 1.33 Hd (P ≥ 1.33 Hd) where Hd is the design
head excluding the head due to velocity of approach
A plot of C versus P/H D is shown below, where HD is the design head including head due
to velocity of approach (i.e. HD = Hd + Ha). It may be observed from this plot that there is
a marked increase in the value of C till the height of the spillway (P) becomes equal to

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twice the design head HD. With further increase in P there is no much increase in the
value of C.

Fig 6.5 Plot of coefficient of discharge versus (P/HD)

(b) Effect of heads differing from the design head: The plot of (C/C’) versus (H e/HD)
for a spillway of height P above stream bed greater than 1.33 H d, where C is coefficient
of discharge corresponding to the actual head of flow H and C’ is the coefficient of
discharge corresponding to the design head H D. It may be observed from this plot that
with increase in the value of (H e/HD) the value of (C/C’) increases. In other words, with
increase in the head H the coefficient of discharge increases. However, for H e< HD, C <
C’; and for He > HD, C > C’.

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Fig 6.6 plot of C/C' Vs (He/HD)

Since for heads of flow higher than the design head higher will be the coefficient of
discharge, if the spillway crest is designed by assuming a lower design head, for most of
the range of heads of flow higher coefficient of discharge will be obtained.

However, the design head should not be less than about 80% of the maximum head in
order to avoid the possibility of cavitation.

Model tests have shown that for P > 1.33 H d the head due to velocity of approach is
negligible and when the total head of flow is equal to the design head, i.e. H e = HD, the
coefficient of discharge is equal to 2.2.

When the actual operating head is less than the design head, the prevailing coefficient of
discharge, C, tends to reduce, and is given by

(6.6)

Where HD = design head including velocity head and C’ = 2.2

(c) Effect of upstream face slope: For small values of the ratio (P/H D) a spillway with
sloping upstream face has a higher coefficient of discharge than a spillway with vertical
upstream face. However, for large values of the ratio (P/H D) the coefficient of discharge
for spillways with sloping upstream face tends to decrease.

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Fig 6.7 Coefficient of discharge for various u/s slopes

(d) Downstream apron interface and submergence effects: The coefficient of

discharge is reduced due to submergence. When the tailwater level is such that the top of
the weir is covered by it, such that the weir cannot discharge freely; the weir is then said
to be submerged weir. Where the hydraulic jump occurs, the coefficient of discharge may
decrease due to backpressure effect of the downstream apron and is independent of the
submergence effect. When the value of exceeds 1.7, the downstream apron is
found to have negligible effect on the coefficient of discharge. But there may be a
decrease in C due to tail water submergence.

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Fig 6.8 Maximum TW depth for a non-submerged weir

(e) Effective Length Of Crest Of Overflow Spillway: The effective length of an

overflow spillway is given by

Le = L - 2 (NKp + Ka) HD (6.7)

Where Le = effective length of crest
L =net length of crest which is equal to the sum of the clear spans of the gate bays
between piers
HD = total head on crest including velocity head
N = number of Piers
KP = Pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient

The pier contraction coefficient, Kp depends on

i) Shape and location of pier nose;
ii) Thickness of pier;
iii) Velocity of approach; and
iv) Ratio of actual head to design head.

For flow at design head the average values of Kp may be assumed as follows:
Pier coefficients, Kp:
1. Square nosed piers with corners rounded on a radius equal to about 0.1 of pier
thickness → Kp =0.02
2. Round-nosed piers → Kp = 0.01

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3. Pointed nose piers → Kp = 0.00

The abutment contraction coefficient Ka depends on:

i) Shape of abutment;
ii) Angle between upstream approach wall and axis of flow;
iii) Approach velocity; and
iv) Ratio of actual head to design head

For flow at design head, average value of Ka may be assumed as follows:

Abutment coefficients, Ka:

1. Square abutment with head wall at 900 to the direction of flow → Ka= 0.20
2. Rounded abutment with head wall at 900 to the direction of flow, when
0.5 Hd  r  0.15 Hd → Ka = 0.10
3. Rounded abutments where r > 0.5 Hd and headwall is placed not more than 45 0
to the direction of flow → Ka = 0.00.

Where r = radius of abutment rounding

Hd = design head.

VII. ENERGY DISSIPATION

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The water flowing over the spillway acquires a lot of kinetic energy by the time it reaches
near the toe of the spillway due to the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy.
If arrangements are not made to dissipate this huge kinetic energy of the water, and if the
velocity of the water is not reduced, large-scale scour can take place on the downstream
side near the toe of the dam and away from it. These arrangements are known as energy
dissipation arrangements or energy dissipators.

For the dissipation of the excessive kinetic energy possessed by the water the two
common methods adopted are:

i. By converting the supercritical flow into subcritical flow by hydraulic

jump.
ii. By using different types of buckets, i.e. by directing the flow of water into
air and then making it fall away from the toe of the structure.

7.1 Jump Height and Tailwater Rating Curves

Hydraulic jump can form in a horizontal rectangular channel when the following relation
is satisfied between the pre-jump depth (y1) and post – jump depth (y2).

(7.1)

(7.1)
Where y1 = pre-jump (initial) depth
y2 = post- jump (sequent) depth
Fr1 = Froude number of the incoming flow

For a given discharge intensity q over a spillway, y1, will be equal to q/v1; and v1 (mean
velocity of incoming flow) is determined by the drop H 1 , if head loss is
neglected, (see fig. 7.1)

Fig 7.1 Hydraulic jump at the toe of a spillway

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Hence, for a given discharge intensity and given height of spillway, y 1 is fixed and thus y2
is also fixed. But the availability of a depth equal to y 2 in the channel on the downstream
cannot be guaranteed as it depends upon the tail water level y0 which depends on the
hydraulic conditions of the river channel on the downstream side. The values of y o
corresponding to different values of q may be obtained by actual gauge discharge
observations and plot of yo versus q prepared, known as Tailwater Rating curve
(T.W.R.C.). The post-jump depth (y2) for all those discharges, are also computed from
equation (7.1) and a plot of y2 versus q may be made which is known as jump height
curve (J.H.C.). If J.H.C. and T.W.R.C. are plotted on the same graph, five possibilities
exist regarding the relative positions of these curves.

1. T.W.R.C. (y2’) coinciding with y2 curve for all discharges

2. T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying above the y2 curve for all discharges
3. T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying below the y2 curve for all discharges
4. T.W.R.C (y2’) lying below the y2 curve for smaller discharges and lying above y2
curve for larger discharges
5. T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying above the y2 curve for smaller discharges and lying below
the y2 curve for larger discharges

The energy dissipation arrangement that can be provided is dependent upon the relative
positions of T.W.R.C. and y2 curve.

Condition 1: In this case for the entire discharges jump will develop close to the toe of
the spillway. In such a case, a simple horizontal concrete apron may be provided whose
length is equal to the length of the jump corresponding to the maximum discharge over
the spillway.

Fig 7.2a Condition 1

Condition 2: The jump forming at toe will be drowned out by tailwater, and little energy
will be dissipated.

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Fig.7.2b Condition 2 Fig 7.2c Hydraulic jump on a sloping apron

Water may continue to flow at high velocity along the channel bottom for a considerable
distance. The problem can be solved:
i) By constructing a sloping apron over the riverbed extending from the
downstream surface of the spillway. The jump will form on the sloping apron
where depth equal to y2 (lesser than the tailwater depth at toe) is available.

The slope of the apron is made in such a way that proper conditions for a jump to occur
somewhere on the apron at all discharges.

ii) By providing a roller bucket type energy dissipater. Also a drop provided in the
riverbed to lower the TWL can be used to dissipate the energy.(Fig 7.2c).

Condition 3: In this case the jump will develop at a certain section far downstream of the
toe of the spillway. This is the most frequent one, and shows that a stilling basin (with a
depressed horizontal apron) is required for all discharges in order to produce a jump close
to the toe of the spillway.

Fig 7.2d Condition 3

If the tailwater is very low, ski-jump type dissipator may be provided. But it needs sound
rock at the riverbed, since part of the dissipation takes place by impact; the rest being
dissipated by aeration and diffusion in air.

Condition 4: In this case the following measures may be taken to develop jump close to
the spillway.

i) Provide a stilling basin with an end sill for developing a jump at low discharges
and combine the basin with a sloping apron for developing a jump at high
discharges.
ii) Provide a sloping apron which lies partly above and partly below the riverbed so
that jump will develop at lower portion of the apron at low discharges and at
higher portion of the apron at high discharges.

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Fig. 7.2e.Condition 4

In this case, the tail water depth is insufficient at low discharges and is greater at high
discharges.

Condition 5: This condition is just the reverse of condition (4) and the same arrangement
that was made for condition (4) will serve the purpose. (Fig 7.2e)

7.2 Stilling Basin

A stilling basin consists of a short, level apron at the foot of the spillway. It must be
constructed of concrete to resist scour. The function of the basin is to decelerate the flow
sufficiently to ensure the formation of a hydraulic jump within the basin. The jump
dissipates much of the energy, and returns the flow to the subcritical state.

7.2.1 Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin

The passage of water from a reservoir into the downstream reach involves a number of
hydraulic phenomena such as the transition into supercritical flow, supercritical non-
aerated and aerated flow on the spillway, entry into the stilling basin with a transition
from supercritical to subcritical flow, and echoes of macro-turbulence after the transition
into the stream beyond the basin. It is, therefore, possible to consider the energy
dissipation process in the following stages, all of which may be combined.

 On the spillway surface

 In the stilling basin
 At the outflow into the river.

7.2.2 Energy Dissipation On Spillway Surface

The energy loss on the spillway surface may be expressed as

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( 7.2)

(7.2)
Where V’ = the (supercritical) velocity at the end of the spillway

α = Coriolis coefficient (energy coefficient)

= head loss coefficient.

The total energy, E, can be expressed as

(7.3)

(7.3)
and taking

Hence, (7.4)

(7.4)
The ratio of the energy loss, e, to the total energy E (i.e. relative energy loss) is

(7.5)
(7.5)

For the ratio of the height P of the spillway crest above its ending and the overflow head
H, with P/H < 30, and smooth spillways (Novak & Cabelka, 1981),

(7.6)

(7.6)

For a given P, φ increases as H increases, i.e., if for a given discharge Q the spillway
width b decreases and thus q increases.

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Thus, for P/H = 5, φ = 0.92 and the relative head loss (e/E) is 15%, where as for P/H =
25, φ = 0.61 and relative head loss is 62 %.

The value of head loss coefficient (ζ) could be increased (and φ decreased) by using a
rough spillway or by placing baffles on the spillway surface. However, unless aeration is
provided at these protrusions, the increased energy dissipation may be achieved only by
providing an opportunity for cavitation damage.

7.3 Energy Dissipation in the Stilling Basin

Referring to the notation is Fig (7.3) and to equations (7.2) and 7.4) we can write

(7.7)

(7.7)

(7.8)

(7.8)
The stilling basin depth is then given by
(7.9)

(7.9)
and the length of the stilling basin is given by
(7.10)

(7.10)
where σ´ and k are coefficients derived from laboratory and field experiments.

According to Novak and Cabelka Coefficients σ´ and k can be taken as 1.1 <
and 4.5 < k < 5.5, where the lower value of k applies for Fr1 > 10 and the higher for Fr1 ≤
3.

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Fig. 7.3 Definition sketch for hydraulic jump stilling basin

When applying equations (7-7) –(7-10) we start with a known discharge q and the
corresponding downstream depth y0 and apply the iterative procedure, which follows:

Take the energy (reference) datum at downstream riverbed level, and compute E
assuming an initial value of y' = 0;
Choose a suitable value of
Compute y' for qmax from equation (3.7); y2 from equation (3.8); and y' from equation
(3.9) (From a chosen value of safety coefficient,
Compute y0 (from uniform flow equation – Manning, Chezy) and compare it with y2
If y2 < y0, no stilling basin is required; if y2 y0 stilling basin is required and therefore
compute y´ with 1.1 < σ´ < 1.2 from equation (3.9);
Take new reference datum at basin bed level; and calculate new E and repeat steps 2-4 to
check that
Repeat the above steps at least for one smaller q to check whether the designed stilling
basin is adequate for lower discharges as well.

Note: Equations (3.8) and (3.10), and thus the design under discussion, apply to
basins with a horizontal floor only.

7.3.1 Additional Considerations in Stilling Basin Design

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The hydraulic jump entrains a substantial amount of air additional to any incoming
aerated flow. The main significance of the presence of air in the jump region is the
requirement of higher stilling basin sidewalls due to higher depth of flow.

The major problems in spillway stilling basin are cavitation, uplift, and abrasion.

The highly turbulent nature of the flow in the hydraulic jump induces large pressure
fluctuations and is the cause of cavitation. Cavitation number can be expressed as

(7.11)
where P´ is the deviation of the instantaneous pressure P from the time average pressure.
If σ falls below a critical value, σc, then cavitation occurs.
Another serious structural problem in hydraulic jump stilling basins is the effect of uplift
pressures due to the dam drainage system or the tailwater level or the water table in the
basin bank, which is aggravated by the macro-turbulent pressure fluctuations underneath
the jump. Therefore, it is sensible to design the floor slab for the full downstream uplift
pressure applied over the whole area of the floor with the basin empty or the uplift
pressure head equal to the root mean square value of pressure fluctuations of the order of
0.12V12 /2g (V1= inlet supercritical velocity) applied under the whole full basin.
Furthermore, all contraction joints should be sealed, no drain openings should be
provided, and the floor slab should be as large as possible and connected by dowels and
reinforcement (ICOLD, 1986).

Abrasion of concrete in the basin could take place if this is also used for bottom outlets
carrying abrasive sediments (unlikely to happen for V<10m/s), or from sediment drawn
into the basin from downstream either by bad design or operation. The basin should be
self-cleaning to flush out any trapped sediment.

The prevention of vibration of basin elements (due to turbulence of the flow) also
requires massive slabs, pinned to the foundation when possible.

7.2.5 Standard Stilling Basins

Although the stilling basin based purely on a simple hydraulic jump works well and
relatively efficiently, in certain conditions other types of basins may produce savings in
construction costs. Certain accessories such as chute blocks, baffle blocks (or floor
blocks), and end sills (or baffles) are usually provided in the stilling basins to reduce the
length of the jump and thus to reduce the length and the cost of the stilling basin.
Moreover, these accessories also improve the dissipation action of the basin and stabilize
the jump.

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The type of stilling basin to be provided depends on the type of jump, which in turn
depends on the Froude number Fr1 of the incoming flow.

7.2.5.1 U.S.B.R. Stilling Basins

7.2.5.1.1 Stilling basin for 1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5 (Type I)

Only horizontal apron needs to be provided. The flow does not have much
turbulence and hence no accessions are required. However, the apron must be
sufficiently long to contain the entire jump. The length of the apron should be the
length of the jump (i.e. 5y2 = L, and (L 4y2) where y2 = sequent depth).

7.2.5.1.2 Stilling Basin for 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5 (Type IV)

Type IV stilling basin is found effective. It is provided with chute blocks and end sill is
optional. The length L of the stilling basing may be obtained from the following table.

Fr1 2 3 4 5
L/y2 4.3 5.3 5.8 6

7.2.5.1.3 Stilling Basins for Fr1 > 4.5

True hydraulic jump will form. Depending on the incoming velocity of flow two types of
basins are developed:

a) V1 < 15 m/s: Type III stilling basin may be adopted. This basin utilizes chute
blocks, baffle blocks and end sill (the size, spacing and location of the chute and
baffle blocks are shown in the Figure). The length of the stilling basin and the
height h3 and h4 of the baffle blocks and the end sill may be obtained for
different values of Fr1 as follows:
b)

Fr1 5 6 8 10 12 14 16

2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8

1.5 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3

1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

The use of chute blocks, impact baffle blocks, and an end sill shortens the jump length
and the stilling basin. This basin relies on dissipation of energy by the impact blocks and
on the turbulence of the jump phenomena for its effectiveness. Because of the large
impact forces to which the baffles are subjected by the impingement of high incoming
velocities and because of the possibilities of cavitation along the surfaces of the blocks

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and floor (due to downstream suction), the use of this basin should be limited to heads
where the velocities do not exceed 15 m/s.

c) V1 > 15 m/s: Here impact baffle blocks are not employed and they are
designated as Type II stilling basin. Because the dissipation is mainly
accomplished by hydraulic jump action, the basin length will be greater than that
indicated for type III basin.
However, the chute blocks and dentated end sill (instead of solid end sill) will still be
effective in reducing the length from that which would be necessary if they were not
used. In this basin baffle blocks are not provided because.
i) due to the high velocities of incoming flows these blocks will be subjected to
excessively large impact forces, and
ii) There is a possibility of cavitation along the downstream face of these blocks
and the adjacent floor of the basin due to large negative pressure being
developed in this region.

The length L of Type II stilling basin may be obtained for different values of F r1 from the
following table

Fr1 5 6 8 10 12 14
L/y2 3.85 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3

7.3 Submerged bucket dissipaters

When the tail water depth is too great for the formation of a hydraulic jump (i.e. when
TW depth are too large as compared to the sequent depths required for the formation of
hydraulic jump), dissipation of the high energy of flow can be effected by the use of
submerged bucket deflector.
They are of two types, viz.
i) Solid roller bucket
ii) Slotted roller bucket

Solid Roller Bucket: Consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile of
large radius and a deflector lip. When water flows over the bucket the entire sheet of
water leaving the bucket is deflected upwards by the bucket lip and two rollers are
developed. One of the rollers, called bucket roller, moves in counterclockwise direction
and is developed on the surface of the bucket. The other roller moving in clockwise
direction, called ground roller, is developed on the ground surface immediately
downstream of the bucket. The movement of the rollers, also with the intermingling of
the incoming flows, causes the dissipation of energy.

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Figure 7.4

7.3.1 Slotted Roller Bucket: Consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular
profile of large radius and a slotted or dentated deflector lip. Its action is, in general, same
as solid roller buckets. The two rollers are also developed in this case. However, in this
case water leaves the lip at a flatter angle and only a part of it is deflected upwards. Thus
surface boil is considerably reduced and less violent ground roller occurs which results in
a smoother flow on the downstream side.

Figure 7.5 Ground and surface rollers

7.4 Ski – Jump /Deflector Bucket

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This type of dissipater has a longitudinal profile, which resembles the submerged bucket.
However, the deflector is elevated above the tail water level, so a jet of water is thrown
clear off the dam and falls into the stream well clear off the toe of the dam. Spillways
may be arranged in pairs, and then the jets made to angle inwards so that they converge
and collide in mid – air. This breaks up the jets, and is very effective means of energy
dissipation.

The ski – jump bucket may be used where the tail water depth is less than the sequent
depth required for the formation of hydraulic jump and the riverbed is composed of stiff
rock. In this case, the energy is dissipated by air resistance, breaking up of the jet into
bubbles and the impact of the falling jet against the riverbed and tail water.

Figure 7.6

The use of ski-jump brings substantial economies where geological and morphological
conditions are favorable, and particularly where the spillway can be placed over the
power station. The head loss in the jet itself, whether solid or disintegrated, is only about
12% (Novak, 1996). But if the jet is split into several streams, which collide, substantial
energy will be dissipated. The main benefit for energy dissipation from jet spillways is in
the impact into the downstream pool. The major amount of energy dissipation occurs in
the region where the jet plunges into the tailwater.

The key parameters for flip-bucket (ski-jump bucket) design are:

 The approach flow velocity and depth
 The radius R of the bucket, and
 The lip angle, θ.
At low flow, the bucket acts like a stilling basin with water flowing over the lip and the
downstream face; the foundation of the bucket has, therefore, to be protected against
erosion.

As the flow increases, a ‘sweep-out’ discharge is attained at which point the flip-bucket
starts to operate properly wit a jet. Here, the impact zone of the jet has to be as far away
as possible from the bucket to protect the structure against retrogressive erosion. The jet
trajectory is hardly affected by air resistance for v < 20 m/s, but for velocities of 40 m/s

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the throw distance can be reduced by as much as 30% from the theoretical value given by
(V2/g) sin2 θ.

The throw distance x can also be computed from

(7.12)

Where x = throw distance, m

y = vertical drop from lip to tail water surface, m
Hv = V2/2g = velocity head of jet at bucket lip, m
θ = bucket lip angle

Factors affecting horizontal throw distance include:

1. Initial velocity of jet
2. Bucket lip angle
3. Difference in elevation between lip and tail water

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8. Outlet Works through Dams and River Intakes

8.1 Dam outlets or sluices ways

Dam outlets are provided in the body of the dam or its abutments below
the crest level of the spillways so that water can be released for the
various purposes for which the dam was constructed.( i.e dam outlets
are opening for withdrawal of water from the dam)
The outlet of most of the dams consists of one or more sluice ways with
their inlets at about minimum pool level. In most of the cases, a number
of outlets are generally provided at different levels: as a single large
capacity outlet may be structurally unsatisfactory or difficult to
construct. More over by having more number of smaller capacity outlets,
greater control on discharge can be obtained, which can be varied as &
when desired. Hence, when wider fluctuations in the demand are
anticipated, it is always, advisable to go in for more number of small
capacity sluiceways, although it may prove to be some what costlier as
compared to a few large capacity sluiceways.

Location of dam outlets

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An outlet is a closed conduit formed in the body of the dam. It may also
be in the form of a pipe or tunnel that passes through the hill side at one
end of the dam. The function of an outlet is to discharge the stored water
in to the channel d/s. For a concrete (or masonry) dam, the outlets pass
through the body of the dam and are called sluice ways.
For earthen dams, it is preferred to place the outlets outside the limits of
the embankments. But if no adjacent hill site is available & there is no
alternative left but to pass the sluiceways through the dam, projecting
collars, must be provided so as to reduce seepage along the outside of
the conduit. The seepage is thus, reduced by increasing the length of the
seepage path by at least 25 percent.

Fig. Typical outlet arrangement through an earthen dam

If L is the total length of sluiceways from u/s to d/s, the length of the
seepage path will be given as
L+ (2x) N or 2NX 0.25L
Where N is the number of collars, X is the projection of the collar
measured from the outer face of the conduit & L is the length of the
conduit.
Attention should be given to the design of entrance of outlet. In a square-
edge entrance, separation may occur. To reduce the loss at entry bell
mouth entrance is usually provided for high velocity outlet works.

Where Q= discharge
A= area of outlet sluice
H= differential head causing
flow i.e the difference of u/s &
d/s water level

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Cd= coefficient of discharge whose

value depends up on various factors
such as the type of gate & trash
rack provided, conduit friction,
transitions etc…

In an outlet work the following hydraulic losses should be considered:-

i) Iterance loss:- depends up on the shape & size of the entrance
It may be taken as for square edged entrance and equal to

for bell mouthed iterance

Where:- V is the flow velocity through the conduit.
ii) Friction Loss: - depends on the surface of the conduit, its size &
length and velocity

Where: - f= friction factor

L = length
D= diameter
ii) The head loss through the gate : depends up on the type of gate
& valve provided
 A loss of about may be taken for fully open gate &
butterfly valve
 Head loss is taken as nil for ring follower gates
iii) The head loss through the trash rack depends up on the design
of the trash rack and the velocity through it

Velocity in trash Head loss in

rack(m/s) meters
0.15 0.006
0.3 0.03
0.45 0.09
0.62 0.15

The net effective head which is responsible for flow, should be taken
as Heff = differential head (H) – head loss

Then the discharge is calculated as

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8.2 Intake structure

An intake structure is required at the entrance of an outlet conduit when
the outlet is not an integral part of the dam. An independent intake
structure is constructed through which the water is withdrawn from the
river (or the reservoir). The primary function of the intake structure is to
permit withdrawal of water from the reservoir (or river) over a
predetermined range of reservoir levels and thus to protect the conduit
from being damaged or clogged by ice, trash, debris, waves etc.
An intake structure may vary from a simple concrete blocks supporting
the end of the conduit pipe to huge concrete towers, depending up on the
various factors such as reservoir characters tics, capacity and discharge
requirements, climatic conditions etc.

Types of intake structures

i) Simple submerged intakes it consists of a simple concrete blocks or
a rock filled timber crib supporting the starting end of the withdrawal
pipes as shown below

Fig Simple concrete block submerged intake

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Fig Rock filled timber crib submerged intake

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Such intake structures should be in the river or the reservoir at a place

where they may not get buried under the sediment. If the capacity of a
project is not much and if it is constructed for a single purpose, then
such type of intake devices may be used to justify the cost benefit
analysis. This type of intake is particularly suitable for water supply
intake from small rivers. They are not used on bigger projects as their
main disadvantage is the fact that they are not easily accessible for
repairing of their gates etc

ii) Intake Towers

Intake towers are generally used on large projects and where there are
large fluctuations of water level. Openings at various levels called ports
are generally provided in these concrete towers, which may help in
regulating the flow through the towers and permits some selection of the
quantity of water to be withdrawn.
There are two major types of intake towers, viz.
i) Wet intake towers
ii) Dry intake towers
Wet- intake tower:- A typical section of a wet intake tower shown
below, consists of a concrete cylindrical well filled with water to the level
of the reservoir. There is a vertical shaft inside the well which is
connected to the withdrawal conduit. The water enters the well through
entry ports. It then enters the vertical shaft through gate- controlled
ports (openings). A control room is usually constructed over wet-intake
tower.

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Dry intake tower

The essential difference b/n a wet intake tower and a dry intake tower is
that, in the case of a wet intake tower the water enters from the entry
ports in to the tower and it enters in into the conduit pipe through
separate gate controlled openings. Whereas in a dry intake tower the
water is directly drawn in to the withdrawal conduit through the gated
entry ports as shown.

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A dry intake tower will therefore have water inside the tower if its gates
are closed, whereas the wet intake tower will be full of water even if the
gates are closed.
When the entry ports are closed a dry intake tower will subjected to
additional buoyant force & hence must be of heavier construction than
the wet intake towers. However, the dry intake towers are useful and
beneficial in the sense that water can be withdrawn from any selected
level of the reservoir by opening the port at that level

8.3 Trash racks

The entrance to intakes and dam outlets are generally covered with trash
racks so as to prevent the entry of debris, ice etc in to the conduit.

These racks are generally bar screens, made from steel bars spaced at 5
to 15 cm center to center in both directions depending upon the
maximum size of the debris required to be excluded from entering the
conduit.
The velocity of flow through the trash rack is kept low (generally less
than 0.62m/s) so as to minimize losses.

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Half Cylinder-trash Rack and Tractor Gate installation

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