Welcome

To
My class
 LECTURE PLAN

Course Title: Physics 1 Course No: Phy 111

Number of Credit: 3 Number of Lecture/week: 2

Course Teacher
Professor Dr. Faruque Uz-Zaman Chowdhury
 COURSE CONTENT
Oscillations: Oscillations, SHM, Two body Oscillation, reduced mass,
damped oscillation, forced oscillation, resonance, group and phase
velocity.
Optics: Reflection and Refraction, Smith-Helmholtz Equation and
Lagrange Law. Defects of images: spherical aberration, astigmatism,
coma, distortion, curvature, chromatic aberration, Interference: Fresnel bi-
prism, interference in thin films, Newton's ring, interferometer,
Diffraction: diffraction from a circular aperture, resolving power of an
optical instrument. Polarization: Brewster's Law, Malus law, polarization
by double refraction.
Thermal Physics: Heat and Thermodynamics: Heat, Thermal expansion,
Heat and Temperature, Absorption of heat by solids and liquids, First Law
of thermodynamics and its applications, Translational KE, Distribution of
molecular speeds, Molecular specific heats of an ideal gas, Degree of
Freedom, Maxwell distribution of molecular speeds, Second Law of
Thermodynamics, Thermodynamic functions, Maxwell relations, Clausius
and Claypeyron equation.
 LECTURE PLAN
Text Books and
lecture materials:

Book No. Title Author(s) Edition

T-1 A Text Book of Optics N. 22nd
Subrahmanyam,
Brijlal
T-2 Physics for Engineers 1 Dr. Giasuddin 1st
&2 Ahmad
LM Lecture materials
 Physics
Why Physics is so important for engineering students?
✓ Physics is the most fundamental of sciences.

✓ Technically, engineering is applied physics.

Physics is the science of figuring out how things work, while engineering is the
practice of making things that work.

✓ Advances in technology are often based on discoveries in physics and inventions

based on a new interpretation of existing physics knowledge.
Applications:
➢ Newton’s 3rd law and its applications (Ex. Rocket)

➢ Heat engine was discovered based on the 2nd law of thermodynamics

➢ Wilhelm Rontgen discovered X-rays more than a century ago, and X-ray machines are
now a major piece of medical equipment. X-ray machine also used in research field.
➢Enrico Fermi studied existing knowledge on nuclear fission and experimented until he
achieved the first nuclear chain reaction, and now nuclear energy plants produce electricity
to power homes and businesses worldwide.
 LECTURE PLAN
Lecture plan in details:
Lecture Detail of Lecture topic Ref. No.
No.
01 Oscillations: Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM), T-1, T-2
Differential equation of a simple harmonic motion, Total LM
energy and average energy: calculation and graphical
representation.
02 Combination of simple harmonic oscillations: Composition T-1, T-2
of SH vibrations of same frequency but different phase and LM
amplitude, Lissajous’ figures.
03 Two-body oscillation, reduced mass, Damped Vibrations, T-1, T-2
Derivation of an expression for damping oscillation. LM
04 Forced oscillation, Derivation of an expression for forced T-1, T-2
oscillation, resonance. LM
 LECTURE PLAN
Lecture plan in details:
Lecture Detail of Lecture topic Ref. No.
No.
05 Wave and particle velocity, Phase and group velocity, T-1, T-2
relation, Energy distribution and energy current (intensity) LM
of a plane progressive wave.
06 Solving problems LM
08 Optics: Reflection and Refraction, Smith-Helmholtz T-1, T-2
Equation and Lagrange Law. Defects of images: spherical LM
aberration.
09 Continuation of previous lecture, astigmatism, coma. T-1, T-2
LM
10 Continuation of previous lecture, distortion, curvature of T-1, T-2
fields. LM
 LECTURE PLAN
Lecture plan in details:
Lecture Detail of Lecture topic Ref. No.
No.
11 Continuation of previous lecture, chromatic aberration, T-1, T-2
Interference: coherence sources, conditions for LM
interference; and relation between path difference and
phase difference. Young’s double slit experiment and
energy distribution. Fresnel bi-prism.
12 Continuation of previous lecture, interference in thin films, T-1, T-2
Newton’s rings: theory, Newton’s ring by reflected light, LM
result, the determination of the refractive index of a liquid
using Newton’s ring experiment.
13 Interferometer, Diffraction: diffraction from a circular T-1, T-2
aperture. LM
14 Resolving power of an optical instrument. Polarization: T-1, T-2
Brewster's Law. LM
 LECTURE PLAN
Lecture plan in details:
Lecture Detail of Lecture topic Ref. No.
No.
15 Continuation of previous lecture, Malus law, polarization by T-1, T-2
double refraction. LM
16 Problem solving . T-1, T-2
LM
17 Problem solving. T-1, T-2
LM
18 Thermal Physics: Heat and Thermodynamics: Heat, T-2
Thermal expansion, Heat and Temperature, Absorption of LM
heat by solids and liquids.
19 First Law of thermodynamics and its applications. T-1, T-2,
LM
20 Translational KE, Distribution of molecular speeds, T-1, T-2,
Molecular specific heats of an ideal gas. LM
 LECTURE PLAN
Lecture plan in details:
Lecture Detail of Lecture topic Ref.
No. No.

21 Degree of Freedom, Maxwell distribution of molecular T-2, LM

speeds, Second Law of Thermodynamics.
22 Continuation of previous lecture, Thermodynamic T-2, LM
functions, Maxwell relations.
23 Continuation of previous lecture, Clausius and T-2, LM
Claypeyron equation.
24 Problem solving. T-2, LM
25 Discussion on Oscillation and optics.
26 Discussion on Thermal Physics.
Course Objective:

The main objective of this course is to provide

fundamental knowledge of physics with an overview on,
simple harmonic motion (SHM), oscillation, Lissajous’
figures, damped vibrations, forced oscillation, resonance,
geometrical optics (reflection and refraction, defects of
images), physical optics (interference, diffraction,
polarization), first and second laws of thermodynamics,
Maxwell relations, Clausius and Claypeyron equation.
This will develop the student’s ability to identify, conduct,
analyze and interpret engineering physics related problems
and solve them such as by designing materials with
desired properties.
Expected Learning outcome:
After completion of this course, the students will be able to
1. think functionally and use appropriate concepts to analyze
critical problems based on the fundamental principles of
physics.
2. apply suitable mathematical techniques with concepts to
obtain quantitative solutions of problems in physics.
3. demonstrate basic theoretical skills.
4. understand basic scientific principles, theories and laws.
5. demonstrate the ability to write and speak on vital
questions addressed by the natural sciences.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion when it will:
1. trace and retrace the same path over and over again;

2. change direction at regular interval of time;

3. move along a straight line, and

4. possess the property such that the acceleration of the

moving particle at any time will be proportional to the
displacement, and will be directed to the mean position of rest
(initial undisturbed position).
The particle which satisfies the condition 1 only is said to be
execute periodic motion and which satisfies conditions 1 and 2 is
said to possess vibratory motion. The particle executing SHM
must satisfy all the four conditions.
The motion of the earth round the sun is ____? periodic
motion.

The motion of a pendulum of a clock, the

vibratory motion
motion of a prong of tuning fork etc. are
the examples of _____?.

A pendulum whose length is made large

and allowed to oscillate, such that the arc
of oscillation is made so small that it
SHM
approximate to straight line is said to be
a simple pendulum, that is it executes
___?.
Let P be a particle moving on the circumference of a circle
of radius ‘a’ with a uniform velocity v. let  be the uniform
angular velocity of the particle (v = a).
The circle along which P moves is
called the circle of reference. As the
particle moves round the circle
continuously with uniform velocity,
the foot of the perpendicular N,
vibrates along the diameter YY/. If If the particle moved
the motion of P is uniform, then the from X to P in time t,
motion of N is periodic, i.e., it takes then
the same time to vibrate once <POX = <NPO = θ = t
between Y and Y/. At any instant the
From the ∆NPO,
distance of N from the center O or
sinθ = sin t = y/a
the circle is called the displacement.
So, y = a sint (1)
ON or y is called the displacement of the vibrating particle.
The displacement of a vibration particle at any instant can be
defined as its distanced from the mean position of rest. The
maximum displacement of a vibrating particle is called its
amplitude.
As y = a sin t and thus the maximum value of ymax = a (called
amplitude) [as maximum value of sin t =1]

The rate of change of displacement of the vibrating particle is

called velocity.

So, velocity = dy/dt = v = a cost (2)

The rate of change of velocity is called the acceleration of the

vibrating particle.
 Acceleration = Rate of change of velocity =
d  dy  d 2 y
 = 2
dt  dt  dt
= -a2 sin t = -2a sin t = - 2 y (3)
The changes in the y, v and acceleration of a vibrating particle
in one complete vibration are given in the following table.
Angle Position of Displacement Velocity Acceleration
the vibratory y= asint dy
= a cos t − a 2 sin t = − 2 y
particle dt

zero O zero a zero

/2 Y +a zero -a2

 O zero - a zero
3/2 Y/ -a zero +a2

2 O zero a zero Displacement

Velocity
Acceleration
The number of oscillation per second of particle executing
SHM is called frequency (n or f).

The time taken by the particle in executing SHM to make a

complete oscillation is known as the time period (T). The time
taken by M to move from O to Y to Y/ to O again.
One oscillation takes place in T seconds then in one second
number of oscillation n =1/T.

Phase of a particle executing SHM represents the position and

direction of motion of the particle and is measured by the time
of or fraction of time period which has elapsed since the
particles last passage through the mean position of rest.

Epoch is the initial phase of the particle executing SHM, at the

commencement of the motion.
Differential equation of motion of a particle executing
SHM OR Differential equation of SHM:

For a particle vibrating simple harmonically, the general

equation of displacement is, y = a sin (t +  ) (1)

Here ‘y’ is displacement and ‘a’ is the amplitude and ‘α’ is the
epoch of the vibrating particle. Differentiating equation (1)
= a cos(t +  )
with respect to time dy
(2)
dt
dy
Here dt represent the velocity of the vibrating particle.
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time,
d2y
= − a 2
sin (t +  ) but y = a sin (t +  )
2
dt
 d2y d2y
 2 = − 2 y Or 2
+  2
y=0 (3)
dt dt
d2y
Here dt 2represents the acceleration of the particle.
Equation (3) represents the differential equation of SHM.

It also shows that in any phenomenon where an equation

similar to equation (3) is obtained, the body executes
simple harmonic motion.
 Average kinetic energy of a vibrating particle:

The displacement of a vibrating particle is given by y = a sin (t +  )

= a cos(t +  )
dy
v =
dt

If m is the mass of the vibrating particle, the KE at any instant

mv = ma 2 2 cos 2 (t +  )
1 2 1
=
2 2

The average KE of the particle in one complete vibration

1 + cos 2(t +  ) 
T
1 ma 2 2
T
ma 2 2
T
=  ma  cos (t +  )dt =
1 1 2 2
( ) 
4 0
 +  =
2 2
2 cos t dt 2  dt
T 02 T 4T
0
 2 
T
1 + cos 2 x
ma 2 2
1 + cos 2(t +  )dt =   
 cos 2 xdx = 
2 2 T T
=
4T  ma
4T  0
 dt + 0 cos 2( t +  )dt  2
0 
T
cos 2(t +  )dt = 0
1
T 0
but
 ma 2 2 ma 2 2 ma 2 (2n )
2

So, Average KE =
4T
.T + 0 =
4
=
4 =  2 ma 2 n 2

Total energy of a vibrating particle:

Displacement y = a sin (t +  )  sin (t +  ) =
y
a
y2 a2 − y2 a2 − y2
So, cos(t +  ) = 1 − = =
a2 a2 a

a2 − y2
Velocity, a cos(t +  ) = a
a
= (a 2
− y2 )
So, the KE of the particle at that instant when the displacement
is y can be expressed as
1 2 1
= mv = m 2 a 2 − y 2
2 2
( )
PE of the vibrating particle is the amount of work done in
overcoming the force through a distance y.
We know that acceleration = − 2 y and force = −m 2 y

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the acceleration

and force are opposite to the direction of the motion of the
vibrating particle. y y
1
 PE =  m 2 ydy = m 2  ydy = m 2 y 2
0 0
2

Total energy of the particle at the instant the displacement is y

= KE + PE
1
2
( ) 1
m 2 a 2 − y 2 + m 2 y 2
2
1
= m 2 a 2
2
= m(2n ) a 2
1 2

2 As the
average KE of the vibrating particle =
π2ma2n2, the average PE = π2ma2n2. The total
= 2 2 ma 2 n 2
energy at any instant is a constant.
Graphical representation of KE, PE and total energy of a SHM
Composition of two SH vibrations of equal time periods acting
at right angles (Lissajous’ figures)
When a particle is influenced simultaneously by two simple
harmonic motions at right angles to each other, the resultant
motion of the particle traces a curve. These curves are called a
Lissajous’ figures. The shape of the curve depends on the time
period, phase difference and the amplitude of the two constituent
vibrations.
Let x = a sin (t +  ) (1)
y = b sin t (2)

represent the displacements of a particle along the x-and y-axes

due to the influence of two simple harmonic vibrations acting
simultaneously on a particle in perpendicular directions. Here, the
vibrations are of the same period but are of different amplitudes
and different phase angles.
 y y2
From Eqn. (2), sin t = So, cos t = 1 − 2
b b

= sin t cos  + cos t sin  

x
From Eqn. (1), (3)
a
Substituting the values of sint and cost in equation (3):
x y y2 
=  cos  + 1 − 2 sin  
a  b b 
2
This represents the
x y y
or, − cos  = 1 − 2 sin  general equation of an
a b b ellipse. Thus, due to
the superimposition of
x2 y2 2 xy  y2  2 two simple harmonic
Squaring, 2
+ 2 cos  −
2
cos  = 1 − 2  sin 
a b ab  b  vibrations, the
displacement of the
or,
x2 y2
a 2
+
b 2
sin 2
 + cos 2

 −
2 xy
ab
cos  = sin 2
 particle will be along a
curve given by
x 2 y 2 2 xy equation (4).
 2 + 2 − cos  = sin 2  (4)
a b ab
Special cases: x 2 y 2 2 xy
 2 + 2 − cos  = sin 2 
a b ab
a) If  = 0 or 2; cos  = 1, sin  = 0.
x 2 y 2 2 xy
+ − =0
a2 b2 ab

or, x − y = 0 or , y = b x (5)
a b a

b) If  = ; cos  = -1, sin  = 0.

x 2 y 2 2 xy
 2 + 2 + =0
a b ab

x y b
  +  = 0 or , y = − x
a b a
c) If  = /2 or 3/2; cos  = 0, sin  = 1.

x2 y2
 2 + 2 =1
a b

d) If  = /2 or 3/2 and a = b; cos  = 0, sin  = 1.

x2 y2
 2 + 2 = 1  x2 + y2 = a2
a a

e) If  = /4 or 7/4;
 Two-body oscillation
A system of two bodies connected by a spring so that both are
free to oscillate simple harmonically along the length of the
spring constitutes a two body harmonic oscillator.

https://www.surendranath.org/GP
A/Oscillations/TwoBodyOscillati
ons/TBO.html

Two masses attached to a spring are oscillating on a smooth

horizontal surface. The spring is initially in an elongated state
and pressing start button releases the masses. Note that when the
masses are unequal the frequencies of oscillations are same but
the amplitudes differ. Red dot is the position of the center of
mass (CM) of the two masses.
 Undamped or free, Forced and Resonant vibrations
Undamped (free) vibrations

If a body or a particle which is capable of vibration is displaced from its

position of stable equilibrium and then released to vibrate without being acted
on by any external impressed force, then the vibrations of the body or of the
particle is called free or undamped.

So, vibration without any loss of energy or amplitude is called the free
vibration or undamped vibration, e.g., simple pendulum in vacuum loaded
spring, LC circuit etc.

For a simple harmonically vibrating particle, the KE for displacement y, is

given by 2
1  
dy
m 
2  dt 
1 2
At the same instant, the PE of the particle is y
2
where  is the restoring force per unit displacement. The total energy at any
instant,
 2
1  dy  1
= m  + y 2
2  dt  2

For an undamped harmonic oscillator this total energy remains constant.

2
1  dy  1 2
m  + y = const. (1)
2  dt  2
Differentiation of Eqn. (1) with respect to time, gives,

d2y
m 2 + y = 0 (2)
dt

d2y   
+  y = 0 (3)
m
2
dt

d2y
Equation (3) is similar to the equation 2
+2 y = 0 (4)
dt


Here 2 =
m
Damped vibrations:
Under normal conditions all vibrations are affected by the
resistance exerted by the medium as well as by the internal
friction of the body or of the particle. For example, when the
pendulum vibrates in air medium, there are frictional forces
and consequently energy is dissipated in each vibration. The
amplitude of swing decreases continuously with time and
finally the oscillations die out. Such vibrations are called free
damped vibrations. The dissipated energy appears as heat
either within the system itself or in the surrounding medium.

The dissipative force due to friction etc. is proportional to the velocity of

particle at that instant.

dy
Let K be the dissipative force due to friction etc.
dt
 d2y
For undamped harmonic oscillator we have m 2 + y = 0 (1)
dt

The dissipative force is to be added in eqn. (1). Therefore, the differential

equation in the case of free-damped vibration is

d2y dy
m 2 + y + k =0 (2)
dt dt

d2y     k  dy
+   y +   =0 (3)
   
2
dt m m dt
 Forced vibration:
In systems, such as a wall clock or an ideal LC circuit, oscillations
do not seem to die out. To maintain oscillations we have to feed
energy to the system from an external agent called a driver. In
general, the frequencies of the driver and the driven system may not
match. But in steady-state, irrespective of its natural frequency, the
system oscillates with the frequency of the applied periodic force.
Such oscillations are called forced oscillations.

However, when the frequency of the driving force exactly matches

the natural frequency of the vibrating system a spectacular effect is
observed; the amplitude of forced oscillations becomes very large
and we say that resonance occurs.
The time period of a body executing simple harmonic motion
depends on the dimensions of the body and its e1astic
properties. The vibrations of such a body die out with time due
to dissipation of energy. If some external periodic force is
constantly applied on the body, the body continues to oscillate
under the influence of such external forces. Such vibrations of
the body are called forced vibration.

We know for damped vibration d2y dy

m 2 + y + k =0
dt dt

Now for forced vibrations, the above equation is modified in the

form using Newton’s law:  F = ma
d2y dy
m 2 + y + k = F sin pt (1)
dt dt

we conclude that at resonance the applied force is in phase with the velocity
and the power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum.
 Wave motion:
Most of us experienced waves as children when we dropped a pebble into a
pond. At the point where the pebble hits the water’s surface, waves are
created. These waves move outward from the creation point in expanding
circles until they reach the shore. If you were to examine carefully the
motion of a beach ball floating on the disturbed water, you would see that
the ball moves vertically and horizontally about its original position but
does not undergo any net displacement away from or toward the point
where the pebble hit the water. The small elements of water in contact with
the beach ball, as well as all the other water elements on the pond’s surface,
behave in the same way. That is, the water wave moves from the point of
origin to the shore, but the water is not carried with it.
The world is full of waves, the two main types being mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves. In the case of mechanical waves, some physical
medium is being disturbed— in our pebble and beach ball example, elements of
water are disturbed. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium to
propagate; some examples of electromagnetic waves are visible light, radio
waves, television signals, and x-rays.
Considering further the beach ball floating on the water, note
that we have caused the ball to move at one point in the water
by dropping a pebble at another location. The ball has gained
kinetic energy from our action, so energy must have transferred
from the point at which we drop the pebble to the position of
the ball. This is a central feature of wave motion—energy is
transferred over a distance, but matter is not.
Wave motion may be defined as a form of disturbance which
travel through a medium and is due to the repeated periodic
motion of the particles of the medium about their mean
position, the motion being passed on from one particle to the
next.
All mechanical waves require (1) some source of disturbance,
(2) a medium that can be disturbed, and (3) some physical
mechanism through which elements of the medium can
influence each other.
In the study of sound, there are two distinct types of wave
motion a) longitudinal and b) transverse.
Longitudinal wave motion:
Longitudinal wave motion is that in which the medium particles move
periodically to and fro about their mean position in the same direction in
which the disturbance is travelling, i.e. parallel to the direction of
vibration of the particles.

Transverse wave motion:

Transverse wave motion is that in which the
medium particles move up and down periodically at
right angles to the direction of propagation of
disturbance.
 Wavelength (): It is the distance travelled
by the disturbance during the time the
vibrating body completes one vibration.
Or, it is the distance between consecutive
particles in the same phase. Or, it is the
distance between the two consecutive
crests or troughs.

Amplitude (A): It is the maximum

displacement of the vibrating particle from
its mean position.
Frequency (n or f): It is the number of
vibration completed by the vibrating
particle in one second.
Angular frequency (): The rate of change of phase with time is called
the angular frequency and is designated by .Since in one complete
cycle, a phase change of 2 occurs in a time T (the time period of the
cycle), angular frequency  = 2 = 2n and has the unit of radian per second.
T
Time period (T): It is the time required to complete one vibration. If f is the
frequency, then time required for completing one vibration is 1/f, which by
definition, is equal to time period.

1 1
T = or , f =
f T

Phase: Phase of a vibrating particle may be defined as the angle turned by it

since it last passed through its mean position or it may be defined as the
fraction of time period that has elapsed since it last passed through its mean
position.

Angular wave number: The angular wave number is defined as the rate of
change of phase with distance and is equal to 2


Wave number: The wave number is the number of waves in a unit length of
the wave pattern and is given by 1 = 1
 2
 Properties/characteristics of longitudinal wave:

❑ Each medium particle vibrates to and fro about its mean

position with the same amplitude and period.
❑ All medium particles do not move simultaneously.
There is a definite time lag between different medium
particles.
❑ The to and fro motion of the medium particles produces
a series of compressions and rarefactions which travel
in the direction of the propagation of the wave.
❑ At condensations, medium particles are crowded
together but at rarefactions, they are spread out.

❑ There is always a transfer of energy in the direction of the

travel of the wave.
 Progressive and stationary wave:
A progressive wave may be defined as a continuous transfer of
a particular state from one part of the medium to another part
due to similar movements (constant amplitude) performed
successively by the consecutive particles of the medium.
Progressive wave may be either transverse or longitudinal. In
either case, there exists a regular phase difference between
any two successive particles of the medium. A typical
waveform is shown in the figure below.
Let a wave originating at O, travel to the right along the X-axis. If
we start counting the time at the moment when the particle at O just
passes through its mean position in the positive direction (i.e.
upwards in the case of transverse wave and forward in the case of
longitudinal wave), the Eqn. of motion of this particle at O is y = a sin t
where y is the displacement of the particle at time t, a its amplitude
and  its angular velocity. Since the motion of O is received and
repeated by the successive particles to the right of O, the phase lag
goes on increasing as we proceed away from O towards right.

Thus for a particle at P which is at a distance x away from O, let

this phase difference be . Hence the equation of motion of the
particle at P is y = a sin (t −  )
For a difference in path of , i.e. one wavelength, the
corresponding difference in phase is 2. Hence for a distance x,
the corresponding phase difference is 2 .x

 Substituting this value of  in the above expression for y, we get,

 2 
y = a sin  t − x y = a sin (t − kx ) (1)
  

Where k = 2 is referred to as the propagation constant or the angular

 wave number.

Now  = 2
v
= 2 n . Again n= (from v = n) where n is the frequency of
T 
the particle or the wave.

Hence 2 . Eqn. (1) then becomes

=


 2 2 
y = a sin  t− x
   
2
y = a sin (vt − x ) (2)

y = a sin k (vt − x ) (3)
Any one of the expressions written above or any one of their variations, such as
those given below (Eqns. (4) – (7)), is referred to as the equation of a plane
progressive wave motion in the positive direction of x,

Eqn. (2) can be written as

2  x
y = a sin t −  (4)
  v
 x
y = a sin 2 n t −  (5) [as n = v, or, v/ = n]
 v

2  x   1
y = a sin t −  (6)  n = 
  v  T

 t x
y = a sin 2  −  (7)
T  
The expression most commonly used is given by Eqn. (2). Similarly, if the
wave travels towards the left, x becomes negative and we have

2
y = a sin (vt + x ) (8) y = a sin k (vt + x ) (9)
 Or,

The phase or the wave velocity is also given by

  2
v= = (from  = )
T 2 T


   2
v= = = (10) (since k =
2 2 k 
)

It should be noted that in deducing the above expressions, it has been
assumed that at t = 0, the particle O just passes through its mean position in
the positive direction, i.e. at t = 0, y = 0. If this is not the case and the
particle is said to have an initial phase , say, then the equation of
progressive wave becomes

2
y = a sin (vt − x +  ) (11)


y = a sin k (vt − x +  ) (12)

Where  is referred to as the initial phase or phase constant. If  =900,

we have y = a, at x = 0 and t = 0.
 Phase (or wave) and group velocity:

A group consisting of a number of waves of slightly different frequencies

superimposed upon each other is called wave packet. The velocity of each
individual wave of a wave packet is known as phase velocity and it is
denoted by vp.

 , where  is the angular speed and k the

It is defined as vp =
k propagation constant of the wave.

The average velocity with which the wave packet propagates in the medium
is known as group velocity, which is denoted by vg. Mathematically it is
defined as

d
vg =
dk
 Relation between phase and group velocity:

By definition phase velocity is expressed as


vp = Or,  = kv p (1)
k

Then the group velocity is given by

d
vg = =
d
(kv p ) = v p + k dv p
dk dk dk

dv p d
vg = v p + k (2)
d dk

The propagation constant k in terms of wavelength can be expressed as

2 (3)
k=

 2
k=
Differentiating Eqn. (3) with respect to , we  (3)
have
dk d  2  − 2
=  = 2 (4)
d d    

Using Eqns. (3) and (4) in Eqn. (2), we

get dv p d
2 dv p  
2
 vg = v p + k (2)
vg = v p +  −  d dk
 d  2 

dv p
i.e., v g = v p − 
d

This is the required relation between the phase velocity and

the group velocity.
 Differential Equation of a wave motion:

The equation of a harmonic wave can be represented by

2
y = a sin (vt − x ) (1) Eqn. (2) slide no. 45


Differentiating with respect to time, we get

dy 2va 2
= cos (vt − x ) (2)
dt  

d2y 4 2 v 2 2
= − a sin (vt − x ) (3)
dt 2
2


If Eqn. (1) is differentiated with respect to x, we get

2 2 d2y 4 2 2 4 2
dy
=− a cos (vt − x ) and =− a sin (vt − x ) = − y (4)
dx   dx 2
 2
  2
 Combining Eqns. (3) and (4), we get

d2y 2 4 2  2
2 d y d2y 4 2 2
(vt − x ) = − 4 2
= v  − 2 . y  = v =− a sin

y
2 2
  dx 2
2
dt  dx 2
d2y 4 2 v 2 2
= − a sin (vt − x )
dt 2 2 
d2y d2y
=v 2
dt 2 dx 2

This is the ‘differential equation’ for one dimensional wave.

 Wave Intensity

Progressive waves transfer energy.

The amount of energy passing through a unit area per unit
time is the intensity of the wave.
Therefore, the intensity is defined as power per unit area.
The intensity of a progressive wave is also proportional to
its amplitude squared and frequency squared.

Spherical waves
A spherical wave is a wave from a point source which
spreads out equally in all directions.
The area the wave passes through is the surface area of a
sphere: 4πr2
As the wave travels further from the source, the energy it
carries passes through increasingly larger areas as shown
in the next diagram: