Is the Sum of All Triangle's Interior Angles Always Equal to 180°?

Submitted by:

Macaldo, Ronald B.

Pagulayan, Timothy D.

Pajarillaga, Dania A.

BSEd Mathematics 3-1

Submitted to:

Ms. Nor-Anne Marie Frias

February 03, 2022

 INTRODUCTION

The sum of a triangle’s angle is always equal to 180°. This theorem is one of the
generally accepted rules in Geometry and is adopted by many teachers. It is written in textbooks
and is proven time and again that whether a triangle was stretched indefinitely or randomly
select its side's size, this statement holds as long as the lines are straight and on a plane. But
what if the sides of the triangle curve outward or inward? To visualize, imagine connecting
three different countries on a globe forming a triangle, or if a triangle was drawn on the side of
a guitar, which creates a hyperbolic shape. In general, will this rule still hold if the triangle lies
on the surface of a sphere or hyperbolic object?

Geometry is a branch of Mathematics that focuses on shapes. As this is part of the

curriculum, students were introduced to the basics and complexities of this subject from grade
school until college. One of the lessons in Geometry is all about Triangle, wherein even grade
school teachers discussed that the sum of a triangle’s angle is always 180°. The most
challenging part of Mathematics is to learn how to prove concepts that are already confirmed
or people believed and accepted in the first place, like the concepts of triangle’s angle sum
(Quintanilla, 2013). Thinking outside the box, students might think that there is a possibility
that this concept may not be always true, or there's another concept that contradicts it.

In 1866, 36 years after the first Non-Euclidean Geometry was published, Bernhard
Riemann introduced the concept of two to three dimensions of Geometry (Britannica, 2008).
He founded Spherical Geometry, and it later on introduced the elliptical triangle (Patel, 2018).
In addition, Lobachevskian Geometry or the Hyperbolic Geometry introduced by Nikolay
Ivanovich Lobachevsky, which utilizes a hyperbolic space, presented another kind of triangle
also known as the hyperbolic triangle (Thorgeirsson, 2014). Contrary to the angle sum concept
of Euclidean Geometry, these triangles’ angle is said to have a sum not equal to 180°.

This study will be conducted to investigate the question in the researcher’s mind and to
answer whether all triangle’s angle is always equal to 180° or not. It will explore some parts of
the Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry, or the Spherical and Hyperbolic Geometry that
will focus specifically on attempting to prove the theorems presented about a triangle's angle
sum. Furthermore, it aims to emphasize whether one should consider this kind of triangle in
answering the research question. It will not go on to the details about the three different
Geometry that are not associated with the angle sum of a triangle in their respective field.
 The result of this study will significantly benefit both students and teachers to open up
to possibilities beyond Euclidean Geometry or flat surface. It will help teachers answer this
question more accurately and factually without limiting themselves to the textbook at hand.
They may not be able to discuss this study in class because it requires a deep understanding of
Geometry. However, it can help them introduce the other circumstances they may encounter
as they pursue this branch of Mathematics. Additionally, the result of this mathematical
investigation can be a secondary source for future researchers who wish to study topics related
to triangles or Geometry in general.
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Definition of Triangle
Triangle is a polygon with three vertices, and each has its measurement of angle, which
may be equal. It is also composed of three sides: the two legs and the hypotenuse, the longer
side. (Weisstein,2021). Likewise, it is defined in a popular dictionary as a polygon having three
sides (Merriam-webster, n.d.).

Lines
Defined as a straight set of points that extend in opposite directions with no ends in
both directions or infinite. It has no thickness and is one-dimensional.
Angles

A figure formed by two rays, known as the arms, and meeting at a common endpoint,
called the vertex, is measured using the unit degree (⸰) or radian is called angle. A complete
angle is equal to 360º or 2ℼ radians. An example of this is the vertices of a polygon that forms
an angle. The angles outside the shape are called "Exterior angles," while angles that are formed
inside of it are known as the "Interior angles," which will be the focus of this study
(SplashLearn.com, n.d.).

Axiom
Defined as a first principle accepted as true for the reason that it is particularly useful
and self-evident.

Postulates

It is the basic structure where the lemmas and theorems came from.

Theorem
According to Richeson (2008), a theorem is a statement that is proven to be true through
rigorous mathematical reasoning. The term theorem is often used in mathematical work to refer
to the most important results.
Lemma
A lemma is a small result that exists solely to aid in the proof of a theorem. It's a
necessary step on the way to proving a theorem. (Richeson,2008)
Symbols
A symbol is a mark or representation of ideas. The following tables contain symbols
and their meaning that are relevant in this study.
Table 1: Geometric Symbol (Rapidtables, n.d.)

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME DEFINITION / MEANING

∠ Angle Formed by two rays.
∡ Measured angle Measure of the angle formed
by two rays
° Degree 1 turn = 360°
∥ Parallel Parallel lines
≅ Congruent to Congruent to the
equivalence of geometric
shapes and size
~ Similarity Same shapes, not same size
Δ Triangle Triangle shape
Π Pi constant π = 3.141592654...
The ratio between the
circumference and diameter
of a circle
Α Alpha Greek letter that will be used
Β Beta to name a specific angle
Γ Gamma
∝ Proportional to Mathematical symbol
indicating that the left side is
proportional to the right side
Σ Summation (sigma) A Greek letter which
indicates the process of
adding things together
≡ Is identically equal to / is Mathematical symbol
equivalent to indicating that the left side is
identically equal to the right
side
Table 2: Set Theory Symbols (Rapidtables, n.d.)

SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME DEFINITION / MEANING

{} Set A collection of elements.
A⋂B Intersection Objects that belong to set A
and set B
A⋃B Union Objects that belong to set A
or set B
A∈A Elements of elements belong to set membership
X∉A not element of no set membership
(a,b) Ordered pair collection of 2 elements

History and Definition of Euclidean Geometry

Euclidean Geometry is the study of plane and solid formed based on the axioms and
theorems of Euclid, a Greek Mathematician (c. 300 BCE). The Elements remained the gold
standard of scientific explanation until the end of the nineteenth century when German
Mathematician David Hilbert published his famous “Foundations of Geometry” (1899). The
current version of Euclidean Geometry is the theory of Euclidean (coordinate) spaces of
numerous dimensions, where distance is measured by using an appropriate generalization of
the Pythagorean theorem. Its most basic form is the Plane and Solid Geometry, which are
frequently taught in secondary schools. Euclid knew that a thorough study of Geometry must
begin with the fundamentals. As a result, he started the Elements with some ambiguous
terminology like "a point is something which has no part" and "a line is a length without
breadth." He went on to define concepts like angles, circles, triangles, and several other
polygons and figures based on these terminologies. He suggested five common conceptions,
such as "things equal to the same thing are equal," and five unprovable but intuitive rules
known variously as postulates or axioms, as a foundation for future logical deductions.
(Artmann, 2020).

PROOF THAT TRIANGLE’S INTERIOR ANGLE SUM IS 180°

This part of the study is all about the proof that the sum of triangles' angle is always
180°. Wherein the use of geometric and algebraic representations is used in order to provide
an understanding of how to derive a specific answer. The following theorems in Geometry are
used in order to come up with an explanation about the angle sum of a triangle. This proving
is based on the process made by Mary Ellen Graves (2013), in her study titled “Situation: 180°
in a Euclidean Triangle.”
Properties of Euclidean Triangles
Triangles are closed, basic polygonal shapes. It has three edges, and the three vertices
are non-collinear, which means that three points do not lie on the same line. The measure of the
interior angle always sums to 180°. The six types of triangles are right, scalene, equilateral,
isosceles, acute, and obtuse. The sum of the triangle's any two sides of the length will be greater
than the length of the remaining side. (Graves, 2013)

Euclidean Plane

In recalling the definition of a Euclidean plane, first, state that a plane is a quadruple
and represent this as (P, L, d, m). Where P is a set and the elements in P are called points
denoted by (P, A, X), etc. Second, P has a certain subset of L where L is a non-empty collection.
Each member l of L is a subset of P, for example, (l ⊂ P) where l is called line in P. Note that
the lines in P are represented as l, k, h, etc. The third is the distance function in P where it is
denoted by d, meaning that for every two points P, Q in P, there is a real number of d(P, Q) and
called as the distance from P to Q. Fourth, the angle function in P where it is denoted by m,
meaning that for every ∠PQR in P there’s a given real number m(∠PQR ) in the interval of
[0,180], this called the measure of ∠PQR. Consider that the quadruple (P, L, d, m) has to satisfy
the six properties or axioms of plane Geometry (Graves, 2013).

Mathematical proofs that the sum of the triangle's angle is always 180°.
1. Converse parallel line theorem
States that two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles
are congruent. Similarly, if two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate
exterior angles are congruent.

By Definition:

1.1. The two distinct lines in P (is a plane) are denoted by l and l′. The t is the third line which
is called a transversal to the lines l and l′ if t intersects the lines l and l′ at distinct points.

1.2. The transversal to the lines l and l′ is denoted by t. Note that l ∩ t = {P}, l′ ∩ t = {P′}
where P and P′ are unique points.
1.3. The half-planes in the Euclidean plane are denoted by H and H′. Each of the half-plane
divides the plane, and it is bounded by a line with infinite length.

t
Figure 1. Converse Parallel line Theorem

Refer to Figure 1 and pick any points, then denote them as Q and R on l considering that Q ∈
H, R ∈ H′. By recalling the definition 1.3., H and H′ are half-planes in the Euclidean plane.
Then pick any points Q′, R′, on l′ considering that Q′ ∈ H, R′ ∈ H′. The four angles
∠R′PP′,∠PP′R′, ∠QPP′, and ∠Q′P′P, are the four interior angles defined by t. Then there are
two pairs of alternate interior angles which are (∠RP′P, ∠Q′P′P) and (∠QP′P, ∠R′PP′).
Remember that if one of the alternate interior angles consist of congruent angles, then there are
other pair that exist as well.
2. Alternate Interior Angles Theorem

States that when two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the resulting alternate
interior angles are congruent.

From the definition 1.1: The two distinct lines in P (is a plane) are denoted by l and l′. The t is
the third line which is called a transversal to the lines l and l′ if t intersects the lines l and l′ at
distinct points—assuming that alternate interior angles are congruent. Then l is parallel to l′ (l
|| l′).

Proof 2.1: Assuming the opposite, meaning that l ∩ l′ = {x}. As shown in Figure 2.1, without
the loss of generality, the x lies in H′. The half-planes are denoted by H and H′ and bounded
by t. Assuming that x ∈ H′. Thus, m(∠ YPX) = 180, so ∠YPX is straight. This implies that
the point Y∈ l and Y∈ l′. So, l′ equals the lines XY which also equals l. Hence, l = l′ therefore
based on the initial assumption, which is l and l′ are distinct, x and y are different points
because they lie in two different half-planes which don’t have an intersection. It can be
concluded that l is parallel to l’ (l || l′).
 Figure 2.1 Alternate Interior angle Theorem

Proof 2.2: (Refer to Figure 2.2) Based on the Corresponding Angle Theorem (see Theorem
3 for more information), it is known that m(∠CHF) and m(∠DIE) are congruent. Also,
m(∠FHA) and m(∠BIE) are congruent based on this theorem. By the Straight Angle
Theorem, know that the sum of the following angles m(∠FHC) + m(∠CHI), m(∠DIE) +
m(∠DIH), m(∠FHA) + m(∠AHI), and m(∠BIE) + m(∠BIH) is all equal to 180°. From these
congruencies and equalities, it can be said that m(∠FHA) + m(∠AHI) = m(∠DIE) + m(∠DIH)
⇒ m(∠FHA) ≃ m(∠DIH). It can also be a similar proof that can be used for m(∠FHC) ≃
m(∠BIE). Therefore, it can be said that it results to both congruent alternate interior angles
and alternate exterior angles.

Figure 2.2: Corresponding angle Theorem

3. Corresponding Angle Theorem

States that if two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the pairs of corresponding
angles are congruent. Conversely, if two lines are cut by a transversal and the corresponding
angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.

Figure 3. Corresponding angle Theorem

Proof 3.1 By Straight Angle Theorem, referring to Figure 3, it is known that the measures of
∠n + ∠m = 180˚ and same with the sum of measures of ∠p + ∠q. From the Alternate Interior
Angle Theorem (see Theorem 2) that ∠m ≅ ∠ p. Because ∠n + ∠m = 180˚ and ∠p + ∠q = 180˚
it can be said that ∠n + ∠m = ∠p + ∠q. Additionally, because ∠m ≅ ∠ p, it can be said that ∠n
+ ∠p = ∠p + ∠q. Therefore ∠n ≅ ∠q as desired. These can be referred to as corresponding
angles. This similar proof can also be used on other remaining corresponding angles to show
that they are congruent.

If two lines are cut by a transversal, and the corresponding angles are congruent, then it is
defined by the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem that the two lines are parallel.

4. Angle Sum Theorem

States that the sum of all the interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees (Sloman, 2010).

The plane is denoted by (P, L, d, m). It is said that for every triangle, the measure of the sum of
all the three angles in a triangle is 180°.
 Figure 4.1. Angle Sum Theorem

Let △ABC be any triangle, and the three angles are represented by α = m(∠A) and 𝛽= m(∠B)
and ɣ = m(∠C), as illustrated in Figure 4.1. Be the half-plane denoted by H with the boundary
line denoted by AB such that C∉H. By Axiom 5, there exists a point x in H such that (∠XAB)
≅ 𝛽. It is noted that l′ is equal to line AX. Based on the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem, it
shows that l′∥ l where l equal to the line BC. The other half-plane is denoted by H′ and bounded
by line AC such that 𝛽 ∉ H′. Based on Axiom 5, there exists a point Y ∈ H′ thus m(∠YAC) ≅
ɣ. note l′′ is equal to the line AY. This concludes that l′′ || l by the Alternate Interior angle
Theorem. Since the Axiom 7E holds in a plane, it finds l′= l′′. Therefore, α + 𝛽 + ɣ = 180˚.

Note: Axiom 7E (Euclidean Parallel Postulate) states for each pair (l, P), where l is a line in
P and P ∈ P but P ∉ l, there exists a unique line l′ passing through P such that l′ || l. On the
other hand, Axiom 5 states that “If two straight lines in a plane are met by another line, and if
the sum of the internal angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the straight lines
will meet if extended sufficiently on the side on which the sum of the angles is less than two
right angles”( Math.brown, n.d.).

Another process of proof for Angle Sum theorem (simplified):

Proof 2.2

Figure 4.2. Angle Sum theorem

Given △ABC, in Figure 4.2, the Alternate Interior angle Theorem can be utilized to prove
that the sum of the measure of the interior angle △ABC is 180 °. Observe the Figure 4.2. It
is seen that there is a line drawn through vertex A that is parallel to line BC. From the parallel
lines, observe that there is line AB and AC that are transversal to it. It shows that m(∠CBA)
≅ m(∠YAB), m(∠CAB) ≅ m(∠XBA), and m(∠BCA) ≅ m(∠ZAC). By looking at the
angles ∠YAB, α, and ∠CAZ, notice that these angles create a straight line. Moreover, using
the congruencies stated above, by substitution and supposing that α + 𝛽 + ɣ forms a straight
line, for example, a 180˚ line. So, as desired, α + 𝛽 + ɣ = 180 ˚

Non-Euclidean Geometry

Geometry is a practical science of measurement that can be dated back to 2000 B.C.
Many Mathematicians like Thales, Pythagoras, and Euclid himself, play a significant role in
the development of this field. Euclid authored the book Elements containing axioms and
postulates in which some of it dissatisfies his followers. This led to numerous studies and
debates, but one of the most notable ones is Euclid's fifth postulate, or the Parallel Postulate
(Brown,1965).

Postulate 5: If a straight line meets two straight lines, so as to make the two interior angles on
the same side of it taken together less than two right angles, these straight lines, being
continuously produced, shall at length meet on the Alternative, but an equivalent version of the
Parallel Postulate Given a line l and a point P, not on l, there is only one line m containing P
such that l||m

One of the alternatives of this postulate that are questioned is that “the sum of the angles
in a triangle is 180°.” Non-Euclidean Geometry is the result of several Mathematicians'
attempts to disprove Euclid's Fifth postulate, also known as the Parallel Postulate. Some of
them are Ptolemy, Proelus, Naseraddin, Wallis, and Saccheri. However, during the process,
those who attempt to disprove this postulate refuse to publish their works because of the
possible backlash from their fellow Mathematicians and due to the fear of shame for being
marginalized. On the other hand, their study still paves the way for the emergence of
Hyperbolic Geometry and Elliptical Geometry, which are some examples of Non-Euclidean
Geometry (Patel, 2018). It is a type of Geometry that explores surfaces that is not flat and is
later proved by Beltrami that it is as logically consistent as Euclidean Geometry
(Weisstein,2021)
Hyperbolic Geometry

Hyperbolic Geometry, also identified as Lobachevskian Geometry, is a Non-Euclidean

Geometry that opposes the validity of Euclid's fifth postulate, the "parallel." In Hyperbolic
Geometry, at least two lines parallel to a given line pass through a point that is not on the given
line. However, the tenets of Hyperbolic Geometry accept the other four Euclidean postulates.
(Britannica, 2014)

History of Hyperbolic Geometry

Throughout the mid-nineteenth century, attempts were made to understand Euclid's

axiomatic basis for Geometry, which led to the development of Hyperbolic Geometry. Non-
Euclidean Geometry provided Einstein and Minkowski with a geometric foundation for
understanding physical time and space. Negatively curved geometries, of which Hyperbolic
Non-Euclidean Geometry is the paradigm, have become increasingly visible over time as the
generic forms of Geometry. They have wide-ranging applications in the study of complex
variables, the topology of two- and three-dimensional manifolds, the study of finitely presented
infinite groups, physics, and other branches of Mathematics. Workers in these fields are now
necessary to have a thorough understanding of Hyperbolic Geometry. (Cannon et al., 1997)

The curvature of the Hyperbolic Plane

In the hyperbolic plane, the curvature is always the same at all points, as shown in
Figure 5. Since Hyperbolic Geometry is homogeneous and its transformations preserve circles
and lengths (Hitchman, 2020). Curvature describes how an object is curved. A hyperbolic plane
(space) has a negative curvature. (Ito, 2007).

Figure 5: Hyperbolic plane

Moreover, the triangles on the surfaces like a saddle will have the property of an angle less
than 180°; thus, the surfaces are called a hyperbolic triangle (Illustrated in Figure 6).

Figure 6: Hyperbolic Triangle

Models of Hyperbolic Geometry

Poincare’s disk

One of the models in the hyperbolic plane to illustrate a hyperbolic triangle is the
Poincare disk. This disk has two types of models; the upper half-plane model and the disk
model. There are certain characteristics in modeling Poincare disk, the following as shown in
the figures. (Ito, 2007)

Figure 7: Poincare’s Disk

Characteristics 1: The sides of the triangle are circular arcs.

Figure 7.1: Hyperbolic Line

Characteristics 2: The hyperbolic line segments (sides) are also a segment of a circle that
passes perpendicularly to the circumference of the disk.

Figure 7.2: Hyperbolic Line Segment b

Characteristics 3: It shows that the hyperbolic line segment b is at the regular interval of
Hyperbolic length. The distance of the intervals will get shorter as it goes to the endpoint.

Example 1: Poincare’s Hyperbolic Triangle Model

 In Example 1, a triangle and another triangle smaller to it is given. However, drawing
1
a small black triangle inside the red triangle, namely, ∆𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′, where the former is 3 the size

of the latter in terms of sides. The interior angles of ∆𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ are bigger than those angles of the
original triangle. Thus, in a hyperbolic triangle, the smaller the triangle is, the closer the sum
of the interior angles to 180°.

Klein’s disk

Klein's disk is another model that will illustrate the triangle in the hyperbolic plane. Its
characteristics are shown in the figures.

Figure 9: Klein’s disk

Characteristics 1: In Klein disk, the Hyperbolic line is a straight line. Therefore, the sides or
the edges of the triangle are straight.

Figure 9.1: Line b

Characteristics 2: The side b is visible, the same as to the Poincare disk; when the hyperbolic
line segments get closer to the endpoint, the shorter the interval will be.
 Example 2: Klein’s Hyperbolic Triangle Model

Similarly, In Example 2 shows a triangle that has a smaller triangle drawn inside of the
bigger one. The triangles may look visually similar, but it is not. The angle on the Klein disk
must be calculated with the length of the sides.

Gauss-Bonnet Theorem

The theorem is named after Carl Friedrich Gauss and Pierre Ossian Bonnet, who
developed the formula for the area of a triangle in Hyperbolic Geometry. Accordingly, in
hyperbolic triangle, if the triangle has angle 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾, where the angles are measured in
radians, its sum is less than 𝜋 (Cannon et al., 1997). The researchers will not further elaborate
this theorem, for it can only make this investigation more complex and difficult to understand.

Area of a Hyperbolic Triangle

Using the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem, the formula will be:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆ = 𝜋 − ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.

𝑜𝑟

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆ = 𝜋 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 − 𝛾
 Example 3

B
A

In Example 3, the given are ∡𝛼 = 0.58, ∡𝛽 = 0.76, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∡𝛾 = 0.79

Applying the formula: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 ∆ = 𝜋 − ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)

Solution:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝜋 − ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝜋 − (0.58 + 0.76 + 0.79)

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝜋 − 2.13

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 1.011592654 < 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, 57.96° < 180°

Angular Defect

Angular defect (deficiency or deficit) means that the sum of angles strictly does not add
up to 180 °. In Hyperbolic Geometry, the difference of 180° and the sum of the angles at the
corners of the vertex is the defect of the triangle (Bennett, 2005).

By definition, the formula for the angle defect will be;

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (∠A° + ∠B°∠C°)

𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (∡A + ∡B + ∡C)
𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝜋 − (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)
 Example 4

B
A

In Example 4, the given angles are ∡𝐴 = 58°, ∡𝐵 = 33°, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∡𝐶 = 44°

Applying the formula: 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (∡A + ∡B + ∡C)

Solution:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (58° + 33° + 44°)

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − 135°

𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓°, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟒𝟓° < 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

The Relationship between the Angular Defect and the Area of Hyperbolic Triangle

The angular defect of the triangle is the difference of π and the sum of a triangle's
interior angles. However, the area of the triangle is equal to the angular defect. Lambert was
the first to demonstrate that the area of a hyperbolic triangle is equal to angle defect (Gray,
2007). So, the area of a hyperbolic triangle can be used to discover the area of a hyperbolic
polygon in the same way the angular defect of a triangle is used to find the angular defect of a
polygon. (Thorgeirsson, 2014).
 Figure 10: The triangle formed has an area of 2.83

Figure 10 shows that when the vertices are close to the boundary of the circle, the angles get
smaller, and the area gets closer to π.

Figure 11: The triangle formed has an area of 1.26

Figure 11 shows that when the triangle’s vertices are far from the boundary of the circle, it
makes the angles larger and the area smaller.

Deriving the Formula for Angle sum

A hyperbolic triangle with the angle 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 has an Area of 𝜋 − (∡ 𝛼 + ∡𝛽 + ∡𝛾),

which is equal to its angular defect. As such, the equation can be manipulated to derive the
formula for the triangle's angle sum. The following are illustrations that verify the formula for
area and angle defect, including the discussion on how to derive it.
The formula for getting the area of the hyperbolic triangle is proportional to the formula for the
angular defect. It can conclude that:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 ∆ = 𝜋 − ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾) ∝ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (∡A + ∡B + ∡C)

To verify that 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆ ≡ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 using the given and the result in Example 3,
the 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 1.011592654 < 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, 57.96° < 180°. Since the value
is in radian form, converting to a degree from it will have the following given shown in
Example 5.
Example 5

B
A

Note that to get the

exact result as
example 1, do not
round it up.

Using the angle defect formula:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (∡α + ∡β + ∡γ)𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

= 180° − (33.23155° + 43.54479° + 45.26367°)

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − 122.04001°

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 57.95999° or 57.96° <180°

Therefore, it was verified that the 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≡ 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕.

By manipulating the formula of the area of a hyperbolic triangle, to come up with the sum of
angles formula, it will be:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆ = 𝜋 − ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾)
𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 𝜋 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 ∆ , where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑚
∑ ∡ = 𝝅 − 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 ∆
By manipulating the formula of the angle defect to come up with the formula for angle sum, it
will be:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 180° − (∡A + ∡B + ∡C)

∡A + ∡B + ∡C = 180° − 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒∡A, ∡B, ∡C is the sum of the angles

∑ ∡ = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕

Therefore, the formula for the angle sum of a Hyperbolic Triangle will be:

∑ ∡ = 𝝅 − 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 ∆ 𝒐𝒓

∑ ∡ = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂∆ ≡ 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕

To verify that the sum of the angle in a Hyperbolic triangle is strictly less than 𝜋. Using the
same given in Example 3.

Basically, the area of the hyperbolic triangle will only approach π if and only if its
vertices will approach the boundary of the circle and the length of the edge approaches infinity.
It's impossible since the circle is not part of the geometry in a hyperbolic triangle, and its
vertices will never lie on the circumference. Therefore, the area of the hyperbolic triangle is
always less than π. (Valaas, 2006)

Spherical Geometry

Spherical Geometry, also known as Elliptical Geometry, or Riemannian Geometry,

named after a Mathematician who first fully realized the area, is a type of Non-Euclidean
Geometry that rejects the fifth postulate of Euclid (Britannica, 2008). It explores the surface of
a sphere, which led to a characteristic of a line as defined by Riemann as being unbounded in
extent, but finite in measure. Additionally, parallel lines do not exist, and any two lines drawn
in this field are always bound to intersect (Brown,1965). Furthermore, as it studies the
curvature of a spherical object, they found out that any triangles formed or drawn in its surface
will always result in a shape that has a sum of its interior angle greater than 180º (Patel, 2018).
In addition, it is widely used by both pilots and ship captains in navigating the globe, for it
utilizes the surface of a sphere in its study.
History of Spherical Geometry

About 1866, Bernard Riemann introduced the concept of two to three dimensions of
Geometry (Britannica, 2008). One of the key players in the unearthing of elliptical Geometry
is Gerolamo Saccheri. It is said that if he realized that he uncovers a new concept of Geometry
in one of his studies, the emergence of Non-Euclidean Geometry would be a century earlier.
However, that findings still became a great contribution to Geometry (Brown,1965).

Circle

A circle is a set of all points equidistant from the center. In any circle, there exists a line
connecting its center to exactly one point on a circle called the radius and commonly denoted
as r. Its diameter is twice the radius or the chord that passes through the center (Stewart, n.d.).
Moreover, the total angle of a circle is equal to 2𝝅 or 360º and 2πr for its circumference.

Sphere
A sphere is a three-dimensional spherical shape characterized by three axes, namely the
x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis. It does not have edges and vertices. A sphere is made up of points
equidistant from the center. Some examples of spherical objects are the globe, ball, marbles,
and planets. (byjus.com, n.d.). Also, a sphere’s surface area is equal to 4𝝅r2, where r denotes
the measurement of its radius.
Great Circle
In each sphere exist a great circle which divides it in half. It is the intersection on a
plane passing through the origin and is the biggest circle in a sphere (Champanerkar,n.d.).
Antipodal Point
An antipodal point, also known as antipode, is a point that is located at the diametrically
opposite of a specific geographic location or a sphere in the context of this study (Smith,2019).
Lunes
Two great circles intersecting at two antipodal points form a diangle or Lunes. The term
was derived from the word lunar, for its shape resembles a crescent moon. (Beardon,2012)

Lemma: The area of a lune on a circle with a unit radius is twice its angle; that is, if the angle
of the lune is A, then its area is 2A. Two great circles intersecting at antipodal points P and P′
divide the sphere into four lunes. The area of the surface of a unit sphere is 4π. (Beardon,2012)

The areas of the lunes are proportional to their angles at P, so the area of a lune with angle A
𝐴
is; ∗ 4π = 2A
2π
Spherical Excess

It is the sum of three angles of an elliptic triangle that exceeds 180º and is also known
as angle excess (Merriam,n.d.) It is the difference between the sum of the angles and pi radians
and is usually denoted with and E. (Weisstein,2021).

𝐸 = (∡𝐴 + ∡𝐵 + ∡𝐶) − 𝜋

The Elliptic Triangle

Similar to the definition of triangles in Euclidean Geometry, it is a shape that has three
vertices and three arcs of great circles, which are known as the sides. Elliptic Triangles are
triangles in which their surface is the part of a sphere that is enclosed by three arcs of great
circles. Notably, the sum of all the Elliptic Triangle’s angles is always more than 180º or 𝝅
(May,2012).

Girard’s Theorem

Girard's theorem plays a significant role in defining the property of most of the
geometrical constructs in elliptical Geometry. One of such is the Elliptic Triangle, where he
provided an equation for the sum of its angles from his theorem for Lunes (Champanerkar,n.d).

Girard’s Theorem:

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = + 𝜋
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

Additionally, Girard's theorem presented several consequences, such as similar triangles

having equal angle measures and unequal areas do not exist in Elliptical Geometry. Since the
area of an Elliptic Triangle is correlated to the sum of its exterior angles, any sphere having
two triangles that are similar in angle measure will become necessarily congruent. (May, 2012)

Elliptical Triangle’s Angle sum

In discussing an elliptic triangle’s sum, one cannot castaway its area. Since the area of
an elliptical triangle is equal to its angle excess, which is equal to the sum of angle sum and pi,
the formula for the sum of its angles can also be derived from its area. As such, below is proof
that an elliptical triangle has an angle sum not equal to 180º done by deriving the formula for
its area by connecting proven geometric concepts and is based on a study conducted by May
(2012).
Deriving Formula for Lune’s Area

A line that is produced in Spherical Geometry forms a great circle. Like a regular circle
on a plane, it also has a 360º angle or 2π radians.

Figure 12: Great Circle

Two great circles intersecting at two antipodal points create a lune.

In solving the formula for the lune's area on a sphere with radius r, let L be the area of the lune
and A for angle. The first step is to equate its Area to the surface area of the sphere.

𝐿(𝐴) = 4π𝑟 2

Since its area is proportional to its angle, both sides will be divided by their angle respectively,

Figure 13: Lune PP′

𝐿(𝐴) 4π𝑟 2
=
𝐴 2π

Thus turns the equation for a lunes' area to:

𝑳(𝑨) = 𝟐𝐀𝒓𝟐

This shows that the area of a lune is twice its angle, multiplied by the square of its radius.

Deriving Formula for Triangle's Area

 An elliptic triangle ABC is formed by three great circles forming three points of
intersection.

Figure 14: Spherical Triangle ∆ABC

Note that a pair of great circles forming a lune will also create another lune congruent to it at
the opposite side of the sphere. Hence, three great circles forming ∆ABC will also form another
triangle named ∆A′B′C′ at the opposite side of the sphere. It will also exhibit the exact
dimensions, angle sum, and Area, making both of these triangles congruent. Therefore, there
will be three lunes on one side of the sphere and three on the opposite side.

Consider an elliptic triangle ∆ABC with points A, B, and C and angles a, b, and c formed by
three great circles on a sphere with radius r. Notice that the great circles form three different
lunes, and the triangle's angles are equal to the angle of the lunes.

Figure 15: Lunes Formed by Three Great Circles

Since the area of a lune is the product of twice its angle and the square of radius;

Area1= 2𝑎𝑟 2 , Area 2 = 2𝑏𝑟 2 and Area 3= 2𝑐𝑟 2

Noticeably, as shown in Figure 15, the three lunes intersect at the area of the triangle; thus,
consequently, it creates two excess triangle areas. Since these shapes are mirrored at the
opposite side of the sphere, it creates four excess triangle areas, and as shown, these lunes
covered the entire sphere with radius r. To compute, let (T) be the area of a triangle;
 2(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎3) − 4𝑇 = 4π𝑟 2

2(2𝑎𝑟 2 + 2𝑏𝑟 2 + 2𝑐𝑟 2 ) − 4𝑇 = 4π𝑟 2

Transposing 4T to the right side and the surface area of a sphere to the left side, respectively:

2(2𝑎𝑟 2 + 2𝑏𝑟 2 + 2𝑐𝑟 2 ) − 4π𝑟 2 = 4𝑇

Factoring out its common multiple, the equation will be,

4𝑟 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − π) = 4𝑇

This will lead us to the formula for an elliptic triangle's area;

𝑻 = 𝒓𝟐 (𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 − 𝛑)

The equation shows that the area of a triangle is equal to the triangle Excess or the sum of the
angles subtracted by 𝝅.

Proving that the sum of an Elliptic triangle is greater than 180º

From the triangle area's formula, the formula for the angle sum can be derived through
the Transposition property of equality.

𝑟 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − π) = T

𝑇
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) − π =
𝑟2

𝑻
(𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄) = + 𝛑 , 𝒓 ≠ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 > 𝟎
𝒓𝟐

The derived equation is also known as Girard’s theorem and is also the proof that the
sum of an elliptic triangle’s angle is greater than 180º or 𝝅 for any positive number added to
pi, will always have a value greater than pi.

Verify:

Let T be the area of a triangle and S as the angle sum on a unit sphere. If T= 1, then find the
angle sum using the formula;

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
(𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎) = + 𝛑 , 𝒓 ≠ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 > 𝟎
𝒓𝟐

1
S= +π
12
 S= 1+π

𝑆 = 4.14 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

Converting radians to degrees;

𝑆 = 237.296°

Thus, S is greater than 180º.

Therefore, the interior angle sum of an elliptic triangle is not equal to 180º.
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

By summarizing and filtering information from various studies and literature, the
researchers acquire the data used in this chapter. Below is a table summarizing the significant
differences between the triangles, affecting their interior angle sum.

Table 1: Triangle Comparison

TRIANGLES
CATEGORIES
Euclidean triangle Hyperbolic triangle Elliptic Triangle
Plane Geometry Non-Euclidean Geometry
utilizes the plane or Hyperbolic Geometry Spherical Geometry
Type of flat surface that utilizes the surface of the uses the surface of a
Geometry extends into infinity Hyperbolic plane and has sphere and has a
and has a 0 curvature negative curvature (k), positive curvature (k),
(k), k=0. where k<0. k>1.
Founder Euclid Nikolai Lobachevsky Bernard Riemann
Year founded 300 B.C. 1829 1866
Euclidean triangle is The Hyperbolic triangle The elliptical triangle
formed by three has three vertices joined by is formed by three
intersecting lines Hyperbolic line segments. intersecting great
Characteristics which can The Hyperbolic sides are circles, which are
of lines be extended infinitely curved since the surface is infinite in extent but
forming the and have an infinite hyperbolic. finite in measure. Any
triangle. measure. line drawn at a sphere,
if extended
indefinitely, will
always meet.

Illustration

Illustrations on a flat surface

 The Area of a The Area of a Hyperbolic The Area of an
Euclidean triangle is triangle is computed using elliptical triangle is
computed using the the difference between π computed using the
formula A= ½(b×h). and the sum of all interior angle excess. On the
On the other hand, the angles. Also, the Area is other hand, the sum of
sum of the angles of equal to the angular defect the interior angle of
any Euclidean triangle of the triangle. Hence, the this triangle is also
Area and
would be equal sum of the interior angles is calculated through the
Angle sum
to180° regardless of computed through its Area value of Area as
correlation
the value of Area. or angular defect, where presented in Girard's
the Area is presented in the theorem. Thus, it
Gauss-Bonnet theorem. makes its area and
Thus, it makes its Area or angle sum dependent
angular defect and angle on the value of one
sum dependent on the another.
value of one another.
Similar triangles and Similar triangles do not Similar triangles do not
Congruent triangles exist in Hyperbolic exist in Spherical
exist in Plane triangles since the Area of Geometry since the
Geometry since the its triangle depends on the triangle's Area depends
Similar
sum of any triangles angle's sum. Thus, for it to on the angle sum.
triangles and
would always be be similar, the two triangles Thus, for it to be
Congruent
equal to 180°. must have equal angles. similar, the two
triangles
Therefore, these triangles triangles need to have
are not just similar but are equal angles.
congruent. Therefore, these
triangles are not just
 similar, but they are
congruent.
Angle Sum Theorem: In Radian Form: 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
< α + <β + <γ = 180° Σ(m∠αβγ) = π- Area of Δ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
=
The Formula 𝑟2
In Degree Form:
for Angle sum +π
Σ(m∠ A°B°C°)
, 𝑟 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 > 0
=180°- Angle Defect

Sum of Angles Equal to 180º or π Less than 180º or π Greater than 180º or π

Through the information gathered from several works of literature, which are then
simplified and linked by the researchers, they conclude that the statement “all triangles’ angle
is always equal to 180°” is false. As shown in the table, triangles in Euclidean Geometry will
always have an interior angle sum of 180°. Hence, if the question specified this type of
Geometry, the statement can be deemed true. However, the question at hand is referring to the
generality that stretches through different possibilities, and the existence of hyperbolic and
elliptical triangle that both has an angle sum not equating to 180° disproved the statement.
 CONCLUSION

In the process of challenging one of the generally accepted notions in Mathematics, the
researchers ventured through three different types of Geometry, two of which are not well
known. Proceeding with the investigation, many works of literature and studies containing
different geometrical concepts are gathered and linked to answer the research question.

Throughout the investigation and from the presented information, it can be inferred that
the question "Is the sum of all triangle's interior angle always equal to 180°?" can be deemed
false in general. However, if it is reconstructed in the sense that there will be a specific kind of
geometry, it can be true for Euclidean Geometry as presented. It is a vital part of Mathematics
to have proof because it is fundamental to a mathematical concept. Thus, answering this kind
of question should be proof-based. For example, in Euclidean Geometry, this statement is
always true, and theorems support it with proofs like the angle sum theorem. Another example,
this statement is false in Elliptical Geometry. In Girard's Theorem, the sum of the triangle's
angle is greater than 180° same goes for the Hyperbolic Geometry with the Gauss-Bonnet
Theorem, where the sum of the triangle's angle is less than 180°.

Triangles have always been playing a significant role in Mathematics and Geometry in
specific. As such, it even has its subject called Trigonometry. On the other hand, due to the
large number of concepts to be understood by the learners, some possibilities are being ruled
out. This investigation would help introduce other triangle concepts in the simplest manner.
This research aims to resurface information that has long been proven and catch the attention
of students, teachers, and future researchers.

Since this situation isn't familiar to every student, it might affect their knowledge about
the concept of a triangle or the wholeness of Geometry. Thus, it is evident that the curriculum
doesn't progress from the old one, which only focuses on solving equations, calculating
numbers, etc. This suggests that people are being outmoded by the way they think about
Geometry. It only focused on the surface information of Geometry that limits information and
might confound students later if they encounter another kind of Geometry that is different from
what they already believe in.

Furthermore, there should be a reason why Hyperbolic Geometry and Spherical

Geometry aren't emphasized from grade school to high school curriculum. Aside from it is not
part of the prerequisites, it might prolong the curriculum and consume time if ever it will be
included. The complexity of this kind of Geometry might not be appropriate to the student's
level of learning. Hence, this Geometry is encountered at a graduate school level, other fields
of study relating to global navigation, etc. This is applied Mathematics and is used in
Differential Geometry.

Additionally, since the researchers strictly focused on proving the angle sum of each
triangle, it is suggested to investigate the behavior of each angle if one decides to study this
topic further. Also, this branch of Geometry offers different perspectives in which one can view
another geometrical pattern. It is of best interest not to force students in the lower year to study
the entirety of these kinds of Geometry since it requires a deep understanding of the basics and
complexities of Mathematics. However, it is also essential to consider how an individual in
Mathematics answers such questions, for it can make up the entirety of how they perceive these
concepts. It is of great significance to not rule out possibilities even if it just means to give a
glimpse of it as a response to their curiosity which can escalate as their passion.
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