FBAMPs
FBAMPs
1.1 Introduction:
Feedback Concept:
Feedback:
A portion of the output signal is taken from the output of the amplifier and is combined
with the input signal is called feedback.
Need for Feedback:
• Distortion should be avoided as far as possible.
• Gain must be independent of external factors.
Concept of Feedback:
Block diagram of feedback amplifier consist of a basic amplifier, a mixer (or) comparator,
a sampler, and a feedback network.
Xi=Xs+Xf
Af = = =
Af=
Here
Loop Gain: The product of open loop gain and the feedback factor is called loop gain.
Loop Gain = Aβ
If then Af =∞
Hence the gain of the amplifier with positive feedback is infinite and the amplifier gives
output signal without any input signal. Thus the positive feedback amplifier is called Oscillator.
Disadvantage of Positive Feedback:
• Increase the instability.
• Reduces bandwidth.
• Increase the distortion and noise.
1.2.2 Negative Feedback:
If the feedback signal is out of phase with the input signal, then the net effect of
feedback will decrease the input signal given to the amplifier and correspondingly the
output signal is decreased. This type of feedback is said to be negative or degenerative
feedback.
Xi = X s - X f
Af = = =
Af=
Here
Advantages of Negative Feedback:
• Increase the bandwidth.
• It helps to modify the input and output impedance.
• Decrease the distortion and noise.
Disadvantage of Negative Feedback:
• Reduces the voltage gain.
1.3 Effects of Negative Feedback:
• Stabilization of Gain
• Increase of Bandwidth
• Decreased Distortion
• Decreased Noise
• Increase in Input Impedance
• Decrease in Output Impedance
1.3.1 Stabilization of Gain:
An important advantage of negative voltage feedback is that the resultant gain of the
amplifier can be made independent of transistor parameters or the supply voltage
variations.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with feedback to
percentage change in voltage gain without feedback.
Sensitivity = =
Af mid =
Af low =
Af high=
Alow =
Lower cutoff frequency with feedback is less than the lower cutoff frequency without
feedback by a factor . Due to negative feedback low frequency response is
improved.
Upper Cutoff Frequency:
The relation between gain at high frequency and gain at mid frequency is
Ahigh =
Af high = =
Dividing numerator and denominator by
Upper cutoff frequency with feedback is greater than the upper cutoff frequency without
feedback by a factor . Due to negative feedback high frequency response is
improved.
Df =
1.3.4 Decreased Noise:
An amplifier with open loop voltage gain and several noises N. introducing negative
feedback will reduce the distortion to
Nf =
1.3.5 Increase in Input Impedance:
The negative voltage feedback increases the input impedance and decreases the output
impedance of amplifier. Such a change is profitable in practice as the amplifier can then
serve the purpose of impedance matching. An amplifier should have high input
impedance.
The input impedance with feedback is
Zif = Zi (
The input impedance with feedback is increased by a factor This is an
advantage, since the amplifier will now present less of a load to its source circuit.
1.3.6 Decrease in Output Impedance:
An amplifier should have low output impedance.
The output impedance with feedback is
Zof =
• The shunt or parallel connection at the output reduces the output resistance Ro.
• The series connection at the input increases the output resistance Ri.
This amplifier is called voltage amplifier.
Rof =
Due to feedback input voltage Vf reduces the output voltage AVi which opposes V.
I= =
I=
Rif =
Rof =
Due to feedback input voltage Vf reduces the output voltage AVi which opposes V.
I= =
I=
Rif =
GMV i + I =
Sub Vi = -β Io
GM( -β Io)+ I =
I= +GM β Io
= - GM β I
I +GM β I =
I (1 +GM β) =
= (1 +GM β)
Rif =
Rof =
Due to feedback input voltage Vf reduces the output voltage AVi which opposes V.
I= –βA I=
I =
I =
I =
Rif =
Apply KVL to input loop,
Is = Ii + If
= Ii + βIo
Io = A Ii
Is = Ii + β A Ii
= Ii (1+ β A)
Rif = =
Aβ =
Aβ =
Aβ =
Vr =
Aβ = =
The system poles are roots of the denominator of H(s). The system zeros are roots of
the numerator of H(s).
1.6 Method of identifying feedback:
For analyzing feedback amplifier it is necessary to go through the following steps:
Step 1: Identify the topology(Type of feedback)
(a) To find type of sampling network:
(i) By shorting the output if feedback signal become zero, then it is called voltage
sampling.
(ii) By opening the output loop if feedback signal become zero, then it is called
current sampling.
(b) To find type of mixing network:
(i) If the feedback is subtracted from the external applied signal as a voltage it is
called series mixing.
(ii) If the feedback is subtracted from the external applied signal as a voltage it is
called series mixing.
Step 2: To find the input network:
(i) For voltage sampling, output voltage is made zero by shorting the output.
(ii) For current sampling, output current is made zero by shorting the output.
Step 3: To find the output network:
(i) For series mixing, input current is made zero by opening the input loop.
(ii) For shunt mixing, input voltage is made zero by shorting input loop.
Ensure the feedback is reduced to zero without altering the loading on the basic
amplifier.
Step 4: Optional.
Replace the each active device with its h parameter model at low frequency.
Step 5: Find gain without feedback or open loop gain A.
Setp 6: Find the feedback factor β = Xf / Xo
Step 7: From A and β, find D, Af, Rif, Rof and Rof’.
1.10 Problems:
1.An amplifier has open loop gain of 1000 and a feedback ratio of 0.04, if the open loop
gain changes by 10% due to temperature; find the percentage change in gain of the
amplifier with feedback.
A=1000, β=0.04, dA/A = 10%
dAf/ dA = dA/A
= = 0.25%
2.An amplifier has voltage gain with feedback of 100. If the gain without feedback
changes by 20% and the gain with feedback should not vary more than 2%. Determine
the values of open loop gain A and feedback ratio β
Af=100, dA/A = 20% , dAf /A = 2%
dAf/ dA = dA/A
2=2
=10
Af= =100
=100
A=1000
=10
=10
= 0.009
3.An amplifier has midband voltage gain of 1000 with fL =50Hz, fH =50KHz, if 5% of
feedback is applied then calculate gain, fL ,fH with feedback.
Af= = =19.6
fLf= = =0.98Hz
Af= = =20.83
BWf= BW
1 X 106 = 250 X 103 X (
β = 0.024 = 2.4%
5.An amplifier has voltage gain of 400 with fL =50Hz, fH =200KHz, and a distortion of
10% without feedback. Determine voltage gain, f1f , f2f and Df when negative feedback is
applied with feedback ratio of 0.01.
Af= = = 80
f1f = = = 10Hz
f2f = = = 1MHz
Df= = = 2%
6.Negative feedback amplifier has an open loop gain of 60000 and a closed loop gain
of 300. If the open loop upper cutoff frequency is 15KHz. Estimate the closed loop upper
cutoff frequency. Also calculate the total harmonic distortion with feedback if there is
10% harmonic distortion without feedback.
A =60000, Af = 300, fH =15KHz, D =10%
Af=
300 =
=200
= 199
β = 0.0033
fHf= fH = 15 X 103( = 3.015 MHz
Df= = = 0.05%
fp1= = 318.3KHz
fD=
fp1=
200 KHz =
R1=7.598 KΩ
fp2=
1 MHz =
Ro=15.915 KΩ
Determine Cx with dominant pole compensation
fD=
10 =
Cx =2 pF
Determine Cx with miller compensation
fD=
10 =
Cx =500 pF
2.1 OSCILLATOR:
Oscillator is a circuit which is used to generate a periodic voltage without an A.C input
signal. To generate the periodic voltage, the circuit is supplied with energy from a d.c
source. An oscillator is an amplifier which uses positive feedback that generates an
output frequency without the use of an input signal.
1. According to waveform
• Sinusoidal Oscillator
• Relaxation Oscillator
2. According to mechanism
• Feedback Oscillator
• Negative Resistance Oscillator
3. According to frequency generated
• AFO(Audio Frequency Oscillator) – upto 20KHz
• RFO(Radio Frequency Oscillator) – 20KHz to 30MHz
• VHFO(Very High Frequency Oscillator) – 30MHz to 300MHz
• UHFO(Ultra High Frequency Oscillator) – 300MHz to 3GHz
• MFO(Microwave Frequency Oscillator) – Above 3GHz
4. According to type of circuit used
• LC Oscillator
• RC Oscillator
• Crystal Oscillator
2.2 Condition for Oscillation:(Barkhausen Criterian)
When the total phase shift around the closed loop is 00 or 3600 and then the
output oscillates but the oscillations are growing type. The amplitude of oscillations goes
on increasing called over damping.
Case 2:
When the total phase shift around the closed loop is 00 or 3600 and then the
oscillations are with constant amplitude and desired frequency. This condition is
calledsustained oscillation.
Case 3:
When the total phase shift around the closed loop is 00 or 3600 and then the
output oscillates but the oscillations are decaying type. The amplitude of oscillations
decreases exponentially. This circuit work as an amplifier instead of oscillator called
under damping.
The active devices vacuum tube, transistor, FET and operational amplifier may be used
in the amplifier section. Z1, Z2, Z3 are reactive elements constituting the feedback tank
circuit.
Load Impedance ZL:
f=
Where:
In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and
thebase of the transistor amplifier.
The feedback of the tuned tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the inductor coil
oreven two separate coils in series which are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as
shown.
Z1 =jωL1+ jωM
Z2 =jωL2+ jωM
Z3 =1/jωC
Frequency of Oscillation:
Sub ω=2πf
Sustained Oscillation:
If no mutual inductance,
The Colpitts Oscillator, named after its inventor Edwin Colpitts is another type of LC
oscillator design. Colpitts oscillator is the exact opposite of the Hartley Oscillator. The
two capacitors, C1 and C2 are placed across a common inductor, L as shown so that
C1, C2and L forms the tuned tank circuit the same as for the Hartley oscillator circuit.
The advantage of this type of tank circuit configuration is that with less self and mutual
inductance in the tank circuit, frequency stability is improved along with a more simple
design.
Z1 =
Z2 =
Z3 =jωL
Substitute the above values in general for of LC oscillator equation,
Frequency of Oscillation:
Sub ω=2πf
Sustained Oscillation:
Application:
• It is widely used in commercial signal generators for frequencies between 1MHz and
500MHz.
• It is also used as a local oscillator in super heterodyne receiver.
Analysis:
Equ (1)
Equ (2)
Equ (3)
Apply S=jω
Divide numerator and denominator by
Replace
Sub
To get the condition for oscillation equate the real part to zero.
Sub α2=6
To have oscillation
Advantages:
One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which use a RC network is the Wien Bridge
Oscillator.
• The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-
selective form of the Whetstone bridge circuit.
• The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good
stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a
popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator.
• The output of the amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier.
• One part of the feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative
feedback) via the resistor divider network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers
voltage gain to be adjusted within narrow limits.
• The output of the amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier. One part of the
feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback) via the
resistor divider network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be
adjusted within narrow limits.
• The other part is fed back to the non-inverting input terminal (positive feedback) via the
RC Wien Bridge network. The RC network is connected in the positive feedback path of
the amplifier and has zero phase shift a just one frequency.
• Also the voltage gain of the amplifier circuit MUST be equal to three "Gain =3" for
oscillations to start.
Analysis:
Z1 =
Z2 =
Substituting S=jω
Sub ω=2πf
Sub ω value in β equation
The gain of the Wein bridge oscillator is at least equal to 3 for oscillation to occur.
Advantages:
1. Provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide range of frequency.
2. The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance boxes.
3. The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied by varying capacitances C1 and
C2simultaneously. The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
Disadvantages:
1. The circuit needs two transistors and a large number of other components.
2. The maximum frequency output is limited because of amplitude and the phase-shift
characteristics of amplifier.
2.13 Crystal Oscillator:
One of the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability, or in other
words its ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Some
of the factors that affect the frequency stability of an oscillator include: temperature,
variations in the load and changes in the DC power supply.
• Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the proper selection of the
components used for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a
limit to the stability that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits.
• This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by which an electrical charge
produces a mechanical force by changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a
mechanical force applied to the crystal produces an electrical charge.
Figure 2.16 Crystal oscillator
• When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of quartz crystal, it begins to
change shape producing a characteristic known as the Piezo-electric effect. Examples
for crystals are Quartz, tourmaline, and Rochelle salt.
2.13.1 Quartz Crystal Oscillator:
• To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystalis generally used as the
frequency determining device to produce other types of oscillator circuit known generally
as a Quartz Crystal Oscillator, (XO).
• The quartz crystal used in a Quartz Crystal Oscillator is a very small, thin piece or wafer
of cut quartz with the two parallel surfaces metalized to make the required electrical
connections. The physical size and thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly
controlled since it affects the final frequency of oscillations and is called the crystals
"characteristic frequency". Then once cut and shaped, the crystal cannot be used at any
other frequency. In other words, its size and shape determines its frequency.
jX =
Figure 2.19 Resonance curve
• The slope of the reactance against frequency above, shows that the series reactance at
frequency ƒs is inversely proportional to Cs because below ƒs and above ƒp the crystal
appears capacitive, i.e.dX/dƒ, where X is the reactance.
• the reactance is inductive, otherwise the reactance is capacitive.
• A quartz crystal has a resonant frequency similar to that of a electrically tuned tank
circuit but with a much higher Q factor due to its low resistance, with typical frequencies
ranging from 4kHz to10MHz.
The design of a Crystal Oscillator is very similar to the design of the Colpitts Oscillator
we looked at in the previous tutorial, except that the LC tank circuit has been replaced by
a quartz crystal as shown below.
Figure 2.20 Colpitts Crystal Oscillator
• These types of Crystal Oscillators are designed around the common emitter amplifier
stage of a Colpitts Oscillator. The input signal to the base of the transistor is inverted at
the transistors output. The output signal at the collector is then taken through
a180ophase shifting network which includes the crystal operating in a series resonant
mode. The output is also fed back to the input which is "in-phase" with the input
providing the necessary positive feedback.
• Resistors, R1 and R2 bias the resistor in a Class A type operation while resistor Re is
chosen so that the loop gain is slightly greater than unity.
• Capacitors, C1 and C2 are made as large as possible in order that the frequency of
oscillations can approximate to the series resonant mode of the crystal and is not
dependent upon the values of these capacitors.
• The circuit diagram above of the Colpitts Crystal Oscillator circuit shows that capacitors,
C1 andC2 shunt the output of the transistor which reduces the feedback signal.
Therefore, the gain of the transistor limits the maximum values of C1 and C2.
• The output amplitude should be kept low in order to avoid excessive power dissipation in
the crystal otherwise could destroy itself by excessive vibration.
In miller crystal oscillator, the crystal has two resonant frequencies. In between the
Series and parallel resonance frequency the reactance is inductive and the crystal act as
inductor. One of the inductor is replaced by a crystal, it behave as miller oscillator. The
inter electrode capacitance of the transistor act as a capacitor to generate oscillator.
The Pierce oscillator is a crystal oscillator that uses the crystal as part of its feedback
path and therefore has no resonant tank circuit.
• In this simple circuit, the crystal determines the frequency of oscillations and operates on
its series resonant frequency giving a low impedance path between output and input.
• There is a 180° phase shift at resonance, making the feedback positive. The amplitude
of the output sine wave is limited to the maximum voltage range at the Drain terminal.
• Resistor, R1 controls the amount of feedback and crystal drive while the voltage across
the radio frequency chokes RFC reverses during each cycle. Most digital clocks,
watches and timers use a Pierce Oscillator in some form or other as it can be
implemented using the minimum of components.
1. Operating point
The operating point of the active device i.e. bipolar transistor is selected in such a way
that its operation is nonlinear region, changes the values of device parameters which, in
turn affects the frequency stability of the oscillator.
2. Circuit Components
The values of circuit components (i.e. resistor, inductors and capacitors) change with the
variation in temperature. Since such changes take place slowly, they also cause a drift in
oscillator frequency.
3. Supply Voltage
The changes in DC supply voltage applied to the active device, shift the oscillator
frequency. This problem can be avoided by using a highly regulated power supply
4. Output Load
A change in the output load may cause a change in the Q factor of the tank circuit,
hereby causing a change in oscillator output frequency.
5. Inter element Capacitances
6. Stray Capacitances
The stray capacitances also affect the frequent stability of an oscillator. The effect of
changes in inter element capacitances can be neutralized by putting an additional
capacitor across the corresponding elements. However, it is difficult to avoid the effect of
stray capacitances.
7. The effective resistance of the tank circuit is changed when the load is connected.
SW, T =
A frequency stability of one part in 104 can be achieved with LC circuits. For crystal
oscillators on the order of 105 can be achieved.
2.15 Problems: