Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis

January 3, 2019

1 Steady State Response

1. The response of a circuit/system that is measured a long time after the application of an excitation or stimulus to
the circuit/system is known as steady state response
2. If a stimulus is applied at t = 0, the response of the system as t ⇒ ∞ is known as steady state response

3. Please note that the stimulus that is being applied can be time varying.
4. The steady state response response refers to the condition that is reached after the transient or natural response
has died out.
5. If the stimulus that is applied is sinusoidal in nature, then the response is known as sinusoidal steady state response.

2 Properties of Sinusoids- Leading and lagging

1. Let us look at an voltage function
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θ) (1)

2. In the above equation Vm is the amplitude of the sinusoid, ω is the angular frequency of the sinusioid and θ is the
phase of the sinusoid

3. Let us compare two sinusoids v1 (t) = Vm sin(ωt) and v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θ). Both are time varying functions.
At t = 0, the magnitude of v1 = 0, however, the magnitude of v2 = sin(θ) is non zero and depends on the value of
θ. We can say the function v1 is lagging v2 by θ. We can also say that v2 us leading v1 by θ
4. Please remember the following identitites

sin(ωt ± 180◦ ) = − sin(ωt) (2)

cos(ωt ± 180◦ ) = − cos(ωt) (3)

sin(ωt ± 90◦ ) = ± cos(ωt) (4)

cos(ωt ± 90◦ ) = ∓ sin(ωt) (5)

3 The complicated problem - Dealing with energy storage elements

1. Before understanding phasor notation, let us try to understand the complexity involved in dealing with storage
elements such as inductors and capacitors.
2. For DC excitations, under steady state conditions, capacitor acts as an open circuit and inductor acts as a short
circuit

3. For time varying excitations (stimulus or input), the current through the capacitor and voltage across inductor are
functions of time.
4. Any time varying periodic signals can be represented using sinusoids. Let us try to understand how the inductors
or capacitors behave for a sinusoidal input.

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 R

Vm cos(ωt) L

3.1 steady state sinusoidal response for a simple RL circuit

1. Let us take a simple RL circuit as shown below
2. The current through the RL circuit can be obtained by solving the following differential equation

di
Ri + L = Vm cos(ωt) (6)
dt

3. The solution for this equation is not straight forward

4. At an instant where the derivative of the current is equal to zero, the current is proportional to cos(ωt) and at an
instant where current is zero, the derivative of the current is proportional to cos(ωt) which implies that the current
should be proportional to sin(ωt). In such case, without loss of generality, let us assume that the current is of the
general form
i(t) = I1 cos(ωt) + I2 sin(ωt) (7)

5. I1 and I2 are real constants which depend on the values of Vm , R, L and ω

6. Substituting the solution form in eqn.6, we have,

R(I1 cos(ωt) + I2 sin(ωt)) + L(−ωI1 sin(ωt) + ωI2 cos(ωt)) = Vm cos(ωt) (8)

cos(ωt)(RI1 + ωLI2 − Vm ) + sin(ωt)(RI2 − ωLI1 ) = 0 (9)

7. This solution is valid for all values of t. Since cos(ωt) and sin(ωt) are non zero for all values of t, it implies that,
for all values of t
RI1 + LI2 − Vm = 0 (10)

RI2 − ωLI1 = 0 (11)

8. Forom the above two equations, we have

RVm
I1 = (12)
(R2 + ω 2 L2 )

ωLVm
I2 = (13)
(R2 + ω 2 L2 )

9. The current I(t) is given by

RVm ωLVm
i(t) = cos(ωt) + sin(ωt) (14)
(R2 2 2
+ ω L ) (R + ω 2 L2 )
2

10. This expression is tricky to evaluate and difficult to solve. Let us simplify it further.
11. Let us assume that solution i(t) is of the form

i(t) = Im cos(ωt − θ) (15)

12. Using trigonometric identities, we can expand the above equation as

i(t) = Im (cos(ωt)cos(θ) + sin(ωt)sin(θ)) (16)

13. Comparing eqn.14 and 16, we have

Vm
Im = p (17)
(R2 + ω 2 L2 )
 
−1 ωL
θ = T an (18)
R

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 14. The current i(t) can be written as
  
Vm −1 ωL
i(t) = p cos ωt − T an (19)
(R2 + ω 2 L2 ) R

15. From the analysis above the following inferences can be drawn

• Though analysis of circuits having passive energy storage elements ( inductors and capacitors) is possible, it
is cumbersome and not straightforward.
• The analysis involves finding out solution to linear differential equations and it is the prime cause for making
the analysis cumbersome
• Specifically from eqn.19, we can infer the following
• Given a circuit having passive energy storage elements, there is a relationship between the magnitude of voltage
(Vm ) and magnitude of current (Im ).
 
• There is a finite phase difference between voltage (0◦ ) and current (θ = T an−1 ωL R ).

• The current and voltage have same frequency (ω)

• In general if a voltage function V = Vm cos(ωt + θ) is applied to a linear circuit having passive
energy storage elements, we can expect that current is of the form I = Im cos(ωt + φ)

4 The simplified process

1. Consider a linear circuit/system having passive energy storage elements and resistance
2. If the system is excited by a voltage function V1 = Vm cos(ωt + θ), the current is of the form I1 = Im cos(ωt + φ)
3. If the system is excited by a voltage function V2 = Vm sin(ωt + θ), the current is of the form I2 = Im sin(ωt + φ)

4. Let us multiply the voltage function V2 by imaginary number j. When a voltage jV2 is applied, the current is going
to be jI2 . This is due to homogenity.
5. If the system is excited by V1 + jV2 , the current is going to be I1 + jI2 .

Vm cos(ωt + θ) + jVm sin(ωt + θ)) ⇒ I = Im cos(ωt + φ) + jIm sin(ωt + φ) (20)

6.
Vm ej(ωt + θ)
⇒ I = Im ej(ωt + φ)
(21)

7. Try to understand this, Instead of applying real excitation V = Vm cos(ωt + θ), let us apply the complex mathe-
matical excitation Vm ej(ωt + θ) . This complex excitation has two parts the real part (V1 = Vm cos(ωt + θ)) and
the imaginary part (V2 = jVm sin(ωt + θ)).
8. Application of such complex excitation results in a complex response Im ej(ωt + φ) . This complex response also has
two components, the real component (Im cos(ωt + φ)) and the imaginary component (jIm sin(ωt + φ))

9. Consider only the real parts of excitation and real part of response after the analysis is done. Ignore
imaginary components. They are just mathematical quantities added to simplify the analysis

4.1 Analysis of RL circuit

1. Let us revisit the simple RL circuit. Instead of applying V = Vm cos(ωt), let us apply V = Vm e(jωt)
2. Eqn.6 becomes
di
Ri + L = Vm e(jωt) (22)
dt

3. The solution i(t) for this equation is of the form i(t) = Im ej(ωt + φ) . substituting this in the above equation, we
have
d
RIm ej(ωt + φ) + L Im ej(ωt + φ) = Vm e(jωt) (23)
dt

RIm ej(ωt) ejφ + jωLej(ωt) ejφ = Vm e(jωt) (24)

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 4. Removing e(jωt) from both sides we have

(R + jωL)Im ejφ = Vm (25)

5. Simplify further
Vm
Im ejφ = (26)
(R + jωL)

Vm
Im = p (27)
(R2 + ω 2 L2 )
 
ωL
θ = T an−1 (28)
R

6. Eqn.22 is a differential equation and Eqn.25 is a linear algebraic equation !!!. This is the simplicity.

7. The solution obtained by using the complex excitation is exactly same as the solution obtained using cosine exci-
tation. The analysis has become simple

4.2 Phasor Notation

1. In phasor notation, the information amount the frequency of the excitation and response are implicit.
2. The phasor notation has two components, the amplitude and the phase

Vm ∠θ ≡ Vm cos(ωt + θ) ≡ Re[Vm e(jωt + θ)

] (29)

3. Similarly
Im ∠φ ≡ Im cos(ωt + φ) ≡ Re[Im e(jωt + φ)
] (30)

4. The phasor V captures both the amplitude and the phase information of voltage

V = Vm ∠θ (31)

5. The phasor I captures both the amplitude and the phase information of voltage

I = Im ∠φ (32)

6. The ratio of the voltage phasor and current phasor is known as impedance.

V
Z= (33)
I

7. Since there is an linear relationship between the voltage phasor and current phasor, all the theorems/laws that are
applicable for simple resistive circuits are valid for impedance circuits. The extra step here is to represent each and
every element in phasor notation.

8. Kindly note that since e(jωt) is removed from the analysis and the equations are no more time dependent. Instead
they are frequency dependent. Thus, phasor notation is an implicit transformation from time domain to frequency
domain.

4.3 Transforming from Time domain to a Phasor or frequency domain

4.4 Resistor
1. The time domain relationship between the voltage v(t) and the current i(t) is given by

v(t) = Ri(t) (34)

2. Applying an input current Im cos(ωt + φ), we get

v(t) = RIm cos(ωt + φ) (35)

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 3. Applying an input current Re[Im e(jωt + φ)
], we get

V = R . Re[Im e(jωt + φ)
] (36)

4. Applying an input current Im ∠φ, we get

V = R . Im ∠φ (37)

V = R.I (38)

5. Putting in impedance for

V
Z= = R (39)
I

6. In the impedance domain, the resistor remains unaltered.

4.5 Inductor
1. The time domain relationship between the voltage v(t) and the current i(t) is given by

d
v(t) = L i(t) (40)
dt

2. Applying an input current Im cos(ωt + φ), we get

v(t) = − ωLIm sin(ωt + φ) (41)

3. Applying an input current Re[Im e(jωt + φ)

], we get

V = jωL . Re[Im e(jωt + φ)

] (42)

4. Applying an input current Im ∠φ, we get

V = jωL . Im ∠φ (43)

V = jωL . I (44)

5. Putting in impedance for

V
Z= = jωL (45)
I

6. In the impedance domain, the inductor is replaced by an impedance of the value jωL,

7. Some more points about the impedance of inductor

• The impedance of an pure inductor is imaginary
• Imaginary impedances are known as reactances.
• The term jω indicates that for time varying signals, inductors oppose a change in current.
• The magnitude of the impedance of an inductor that is fed with a signal of frequency ω is given by ωL. The
phase angle of the impedance is 90◦ .
•
V = j.ω.LI (46)

• Representing each and every phasor in terms of magnitude and phase ( please keep in mind that j = 1∠90◦

Vm ∠θ = 1∠90◦ . ωLIm ∠φ = ωLIm ∠(φ + 90◦ ) (47)

θ = (φ + 90◦ ) (48)

• Voltage and current are out of phase in an inductor

• Voltage leads current by 90◦

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4.6 Capacitor
1. The time domain relationship between the voltage v(t) and the current i(t) is given by

d
i(t) = c v(t) (49)
dt

2. Applying an input voltage Vm cos(ωt + θ), we get

i(t) = − ωCVm sin(ωt + θ) (50)

3. Applying an input voltage Re[Vm e(jωt + θ)

], we get

I = jωC . Re[Vm e(jωt + θ)

] (51)

4. Applying an input voltage Im ∠θ, we get

I = jωC . Im ∠θ (52)

I = jωC . V (53)

5. Putting in impedance for

V 1 −j
Z= = = (54)
I jωC ωC

−j
6. In the impedance domain, the capacitor is replaced by an impedance of the value ωC ,

7. Some more points about the impedance of capacitor

• The impedance of an pure capacitor is imaginary
• Imaginary impedances are known as reactances.
• The term jω indicates that for time varying signals, capacitors oppose a change in voltage.
• The magnitude of the impedance of an inductor that is fed with a signal of frequency ω is given by 1
ωC . The
phase angle of the impedance is −90◦ .
•
I = j.ω.CV (55)

• Representing each and every phasor in terms of magnitude and phase ( please keep in mind that j = 1∠90◦

Im ∠φ = 1∠90◦ . ωCVm ∠θ = ωCVm ∠(θ + 90◦ ) (56)

φ = (θ + 90◦ ) (57)

• Voltage and current are out of phase in a capacitor

• Voltage lags current by 90◦ in a capacitor. In other words, current leads voltage by 90◦

4.7 Impedances in series and parallel

1. If impedances Z1 and Z2 are in series then the total impedance is

Z = Z1 + Z2 (58)

2. If an inductor and resistor are in series, then the total impedance is

Z = R + jωL (59)

3. The magnitude of the impedance is

p
|Z| = R2 + ω 2 L2 (60)

4. The phase of impedance is

 
−1 ωL
∠Z = T an (61)
R

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5. If impedances Z1 and Z2 are in parallel then the total impedance is

Z = Z1 || Z2 (62)

6. The inverse of impedance is known as admittance and is denoted by the symbol Y

7. The admittance of a resistor in parallel with a capacitor is given by

Y = G + jωC (63)

8. KCL, KVL and all theorems are valid for impedances and admittances