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! L- '-: l\r l'33

Jnpter>aL-aE,s> :

Ae- galb traferenbbbo

flot*"qr.dgearcb (?* afJ,otob o x)
,Prrit
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t"k+zr, 3a_.
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3
el e
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leFk ^?a_-t eri
//&r* $t hstf
= fra+, I teor.:, ad tetp
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rek42r, -l i
en

ull>ret, @sE ai2,rgsfs

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t-@EL
D

Agg-r,'le- n t3 bfe. p@r

+ e)
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-rtwn TW
-e, +T(o/a)
ww

= 9r + P tT {,"/a,z'a)
= &,t * &+ e., + _r b/a" 3)
._..
= 1*e + r{oys^?)

NoL k=tq a dhd T})=e,

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g TCn) = etq,o t% = "(AgrD

Sdrd, % rnoe dS*
So 8,a"4
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t.35

Search stratergies

l.lnformed search (heu ristic search)

An informed search technique apply general search principles

if you have information available, allorv ir to guide you

in selecting the next state to expand

.in
expand the most promising states first

. Hillclimbing
o

ng
Best first search -greedy search, A,(OR graph)
. Problem reduction system_AO.(AND OR graph)

eri
2. Uninformed search

An uninformed (blind , brute-force search algorithm

) generates the search tree without
e
using any domain specific knorvledge. The nvo basic
approaches differ as to whether you
gin
check for a goal when a node is generated or when
it is expanded-
. Breadth First search
. Unifornr cost search
. Depth first search
en

. Depth limired search

' Iterative deepening search
.
arn

Bidirectional-search
Le

An informed search technique apply general

search principles

if you have information available, allow it

w.

to guide you in selecting the next state to expand

expand the most promising states first

ww

' Hill climbing- simpre, steepest ascent and

simulated annearing
. Best firsr search - greedy search. A.(OR
graph)
. Problem reduction sysrem- AO,[,\ND_OR graphJ

a)Hill climbing-Refer notes

b) aJBest firsr search:
. Search will start ai the root node

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3 Thenodetoexpandednextisselectedonthebasisofevaluationfunctionf(n)
first
of funetion f[n) is selected
a The node having the rowest value
the node'
a Lorvest value of f[n] indicates
that the goal is nearest from
a ttisimplementedusingpriorityqueue,highestpriorityisgiventothenodewhich
have lorv f[n) value

.in
ng
9nt

e eri @\
gin
en

S)ABC)A
BCDE)C
arn

BDEH)B
DEFGH)H
DEFGII)l
Algorithm:
Le

Step f , Use two ordered list open

and close
and put it on the ordered list open
Step 2: Start with the initial node S
Step 3: Create a close list which is
initially empty
w.

Step 4: If open list is empty exit

with failure
Step5:selectfirstnodeaSopen,removeandputitoncloselist'callthisnoden
ww

Step6:Ifnisgoalnode,exit.Solutionisobtainedbybackrrackingthepath
a successor
Step 7: Expand node n this willgenerate 4
the heuristic function and go back to step
Step 8: Record open list according to

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,.3e

{ii)A* Search algorithm

A' Search algorithm is one of the best and popular technique used in path=finding and
graph traversals.
Heuristic function that estimates the merits of node and enables to find more promising
path
f=g*h'

.in
g)measure of cost of getting from initial node to current node.itis not
estimate,it is exact-
h')estimate of additional cost of gerting from current node to goal node

ng
f has to be minimum
f=g+h
g(path))path cost

s@r eh,,ee yI'-?N2X::'ffif W'

e eri
h[path)) Estimated distance to goal
it'linimizing g keep path short

]oe?ot kE
gin
For a node n in the search tree.
W-
ter l(n) = s(n) * nifl.
en

rvhereg[nJ = the cost of getting to n from the initial state.

and h(n) is as before.

arn

to a goal through n.

eq4'. ktecL au- *"d*, fqee4 6 goa) stuE

Le

Sqe, EnA- sl\@g 9oao95* ndcs

w.

B, crD
frna v\fi-*o f,2ib trn>rr2
ww

C, -fftp- .fucaytotr

A-+q
Atg)E->6 __to
A->c)q _-,1+
A -> b-t rtq v/ o"+4
=$ 7lL
A-ro-)Q _tl

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Ii)GreedY algorithm

at that moment
r Always makes the choice that looks best
. It works on following Properry
a local
can be arrived at by selecting
1. Greedy choice property-A global optimum
opdmum
solution to a sub problem
zAoptimat solution to a problem contains an optimal

.in
For a node n in the search tree, .

ng
Step1:Leth(n)=anestimateofthecostofthecheapestpathfromntoagoalstataThisis
h(n,) is 0 when n is a goal state.)
the [heuristic) evaluation function. (Note that

node to expand based upon the function h'until

it
Step 2: Greedy search selects the next
reaches the goal.

Greedy search can rvork quite well' but it

eri
does have problems:
e
gin
. There can be false starts'

Thatis,ifh(n)greatlyunderestimatesthedistanceofcertainnodestothe
goal,thealgorithmcanbegintofollorvpathsthatdonotleadtothegoal'
en

" lt doesn't look at the overall picture'

arn

FQ I: eh*e ,9horW Vth foo A

@rvsaa@
Le

q
w.
ww

Nga,obck
h$:

q
O. &td +O
g &rt oot ro.f
Sfrpab-sL P"fi is
O-ro --z t--a@

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I 1.3.1

faFto-6R g'.?h agso. olpD

?r?e artva*qe-a.t9 6
"*cqn4e d S@U. 1r>la or5 c^dflpraDV ,O&t>
c)Problem reducrion system- A0*IAND-OR graph) dre $dafrAeDt oF acb o'r]vtJ
(iilAO' algorithm

I t is usefulfor representing the solution of probtem can

be solved by decomposingthem
into a set of smaller problems,ail of them can be solved

AND-Decomposition or reduction generates arc

.in
It point to any number of successor nodes

OR-several arc may be emerge from a single node

ng
Used for solving problem represented in
ryclic graph

Gqt: @.8r.1.r9t
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en

FIQ: AND- oR qyaf-,

Ffi: r4lo-o< A.a-Pl-
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@cb gLda gznorafea- orl-d- adrl-

9eroI
' €na

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Z.Uninformed search

g"n"-t"t the search tree without

An uninformed [blind , brute.force ) search algorithm
differ as to whether you
,";- r* oorn.in specific knorvledge- The two basic approaches
a goal rvhen a node is generated or
when it is expanded'
check for
. Breadth Firstsearch
e Uniforrn cost search

.in
o Depth firstsearch
. Dqpth limited search

" IterativedeePeningsearch

ng
o Bidirectional search

eri
a)Breadth First search
Definition and algorithm refer notes
le'r,c,l o
e
gin
laet t !

luel 2.
en

levet 3
arn

luzzl +
:
Le

.i:
:.:
a,

Complete level bY level:

w.

F,D,I,B,E,G,K,A,C,I,H

b)Depth first search

ww

Definition and algorithm refer notes

Three popular DFS strategies:
Pre order: root) left) right
In order left)root) right
Post order left-) right) root

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t'3e

ftz otdq: roor -le{L- {rAhL

.in
ng
Complete level by level:

r E, J, E rTt il,
eri
F, D,Bl Ar C K

c) Uniformcostsearch
oe
e
*?td>rD cc,t ,fuxr> a- a\ainto Tdo64 b
ta -%lrc{> BFS.
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Expanded node irlodes Iist

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i st")
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q,abl rD,St',
o/t,q(,o),
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d) ni-aireaiilil:ill"rr.n is an arternare searching

from rhe srarr stare roward
the goal

the staru
and from the goat state tolvard

.in
ng
e eri
gin

Stop rvhen the frontiers intersect-

start and goal states'
lVorks rvell only when there are unique
en

-predecessor" states-
Requires the ability to generate
a solution more quickly'
Can (sonretirrres) leacl to nnait'g
complexity: O[barzl-
Time complexity: O(barz1' Space
arn

ltc,ratirt: Bidirc,;tional
l-lnif,irm- Dcpth- [L.pb-
nr.-rdrh-
Cntcn,:n Lunind Dccpning ri{ apflltatt4
Firit fast Fir*
Le

pt ii!
b' bd
/f {r- ,d!
Trnr .- M o
il hin bt
w.

Spacc Yrs
Nt' Yes
t)ptimrl? t:s \rs Nt
Ycs
I:S li) No Yts.i{ I } ii Ycs
Cornplcti':'
ww

b - branching factor d - dePth of oPtimal solution

rn - maximum dePth I - depth limit

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4 oepT fo?aa @qreb - t+a

jL ",s a- 4g- €,st %tcrt '&tg
u' ?nPoa-
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etns

level o

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level L

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luet Z
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arn

godl ab-w.
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ww

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)in"fu" bff'7
rha- alp.gAa
u,rf,sU * i4w$uo tdqLb first €arcr*s
ufftn o- wnflrtx:m dapil: 6d. a,rxrursnS & acb ?br"U*
llafir,x.r, dr#, aL tty @?rzR7 ?s L

k'rel o

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wrel t

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e eri lael s
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&.er$q t'. L
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Itercrtln e: 71 2,2
SbraP'oo Z'. ti.tu,r*,5t 3rq+
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.1rz<r;Sor> t: t, *1418 t I ,Srto,tt, \bt+

Le
w.
ww

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AI PROBLEMS: t-40
1.Tic-Tac-Toe

Board position : = {1,2,3,4,5,6,i,8,9}

An elemem contains the vahe ffi the corresponding square is

blank; 1, if ir is filled wirh "O" and?,if it is filled with .X.-

Hence starting state is t0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0)

The goal state or winning combination will be board position

.in
having 'O- or -X- separately in the combination of [{1,2J},
{4,5,6},
{7,8,91,{1,4,7},{2,r,8}, {3,6,9}, {l.5g}, I 3 S,t}) element ualu es. H ence
two goal states can be {2,A,1,11,A,fr,0,2} and {212,AJ,0,1,0,0}. These

ng
values correspond to the goal states shown in the figura

The start and goal state are shown in Fig.

e eri
gin

(a) Srart State [b) Goal State-1 [c) GoalState-2

en

Fig: Srart and goalsrares of TIC-TAC-TOE

arn

Any board position satisffing this condition would be declared as win

for corresponding player- The valid transitions of this problem are
simply putting 'l' or'2' in any of the element position containing 0-

In practice, all the valid moves are defined and stored. while
Le

selecting a move it is taken from this store- In this game, valid

transition table will be a vector fhaving 39 entries), having 9 elements
in each.
w.
ww

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2.9-Purzle Problem

TheB-puzzleproblembelongstothecategoryof.sliding-block
puzzle' types of problems- lt is described as follows:

"lt hos set of btock spaces out of

a 3x3 board having 9
which, B btocks ore having tiles beoring number ftom
7 to
8- One space is left blank The tile odjocent to blank
space
con move into it We have to arrange the tiles in o
sequence'

The start state is any stuation of tiles, and goal state

is tiles
arranged in a specific sequence- Solution of this problem

.in
goal state.
isreporting of 'movement of tiles' in order to reach the
thstransilon function or legal move is any one tile movement by
one space in any direction (Le- towards left or right or up or
down)

ng
if that space is blank It is shown in following Fig:

o
1

5
e4

8
eri 1

4
2

5
3

b
gin
2 3 7 7 B
en

(a) Start state [b) Goalstate

Fig: Start and Goal states of I puzzle problem

arn

Here the data structure to represent the states can be 9-element

vector indicating the tiles in each board position. Hence, a starting
Le

state corresponding to above configuration will be {1, blank, 4' 6'

!..

5,8,?,3, 7) (there can be various different start positions)' The

goal state is {1, 2, 3,4,5, Q,7,8, blank}- Here, the possible
movement outcomes after applying a move can be many' They are
w.

represented as tree. This rree is called state space tree. The depth
of tfre tree will depend upon the number of steps in the solution-
The part of state space tree of B-puzzle is shown in Fig'
ww

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l'+t

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.--cc o (E
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Stepl: If DEEp-plIQH piiffin..-, oepth),then

rerurn the structure
(posi tion, ptayer)
lalle=Ffaluro"l- Tj
Path=Nit=-.-
This indicates that tlere is no path frorn this node and that its rralue is found by
eyaluation function
!

step2: otherwisg generate one more search

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.in
MOVE-GEN (Position, Player) and setting
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step 3: If successors is empty, tlren there are

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DEEP-ENOUGH

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best

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en

Step 3-Backtrack, propagating

be made by the opponent:

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arn

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rr'o*-.i"lo*o*
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made by the computer:

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parent *r,n *,, ,ri'r,rr. ,r," path
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propagate Alpha and Beta up
the..";;l;;:;;;i;
node'
the path siored at the top
Step4.Whent}researchiscomp}ete,theAlphava}ueatthetopnodegivestheminimum
,*
score that the player is guarante"*
'*"'#using
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UNIT 4

PLANNING AND MACHINE LEARNING

4.1 Planning With State Space Search

The agent first generates a goal to achieve and then constructs a plan to achieve it from
the Current state.

Problem Solving To Planning

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Representation Using Problem Solving Approach

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 Forward search

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 Backward search

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 Heuristic search

Representation Using Planning Approach

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 STRIPS-standard research institute problem solver.
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 Representation for states and goals

 Representation for plans

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 Situation space and plan space

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 Solutions

Why Planning?
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Intelligent agents must operate in the world. They are not simply passive reasons (Knowledge
Representation, reasoning under uncertainty) or problem solvers (Search), they must also act on
the world.
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We want intelligent agents to act in “intelligent ways”. Taking purposeful actions, predicting the
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expected effect of such actions, composing actions together to achieve complex goals. E.g. if we
have a robot we want robot to decide what to do; how to act to achieve our goals.

Planning Problem

How to change the world to suit our needs

Critical issue: we need to reason about what the world will be like after doing a few actions, not
just what it is like now
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GOAL: Craig has coffee

CURRENTLY: robot in mailroom, has no coffee, coffee not made, Craig in office etc.

TO DO: goto lounge, make coffee

Partial Order Plan

 A partially ordered collection of steps

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o Start step has the initial state description and its effect

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o Finish step has the goal description as its precondition

o Causal links from outcome of one step to precondition of another step

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o Temporal ordering between pairs of steps

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 An open condition is a precondition of a step not yet causally linked

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 A plan is complete if every precondition is achieved
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 A precondition is achieved if it is the effect of an earlier step and no possibly intervening
step undoes it
Start
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Right Sock
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Right Shoe
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Left Sock
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Left Shoe

Finish

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Partial Order Plan Algorithm

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4.2 Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver (STRIPS)

STRIPS is a classical planning language, representing plan components as states, goals, and
actions, allowing algorithms to parse the logical structure of the planning problem to provide a
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solution.
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In STRIPS, state is represented as a conjunction of positive literals. Positive literals may be a

propositional literal (e.g., Big ^ Tall) or a first-order literal (e.g., At(Billy, Desk)). The positive
literals must be grounded – may not contain a variable (e.g., At(x, Desk)) – and must be
function-free – may not invoke a function to calculate a value (e.g., At(Father(Billy), Desk)).
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Any state conditions that are not mentioned are assumed false.

The goal is also represented as a conjunction of positive, ground literals. A state satisfies a goal
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if the state contains all of the conjuncted literals in the goal; e.g., Stacked ^ Ordered ^ Purchased
satisfies Ordered ^ Stacked.
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Actions (or operators) are defined by action schemas, each consisting of three parts:

 The action name and any parameters.

 Preconditions which must hold before the action can be executed. Preconditions are
represented as a conjunction of function-free, positive literals. Any variables in a
precondition must appear in the action‟s parameter list.
 Effects which describe how the state of the environment changes when the action is
executed. Effects are represented as a conjunction of function-free literals. Any

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variables in a precondition must appear in the action‟s parameter list. Any world state
not explicitly impacted by the action schema‟s effect is assumed to remain unchanged.

The following, simple action schema describes the action of moving a box from location x to
location y:

Action: MoveBox(x, y)
Precond: BoxAt(x)
Effect: BoxAt(y), ¬ BoxAt(x)

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If an action is applied, but the current state of the system does not meet the necessary

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preconditions, then the action has no effect. But if an action is successfully applied, then any
positive literals, in the effect, are added to the current state of the world; correspondingly, any
negative literals, in the effect, result in the removal of the corresponding positive literals from the

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state of the world.

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For example, in the action schema above, the effect would result in the proposition BoxAt(y)
being added to the known state of the world, while BoxAt(x) would be removed from the known
state of the world. (Recall that state only includes positive literals, so a negation effect results in
e
the removal of positive literals.) Note also that positive effects can not get duplicated in state;
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likewise, a negative of a proposition that is not currently in state is simply ignored. For example,
if Open(x) was not previously part of the state, ¬ Open(x) would have no effect.

A STRIPS problem includes the complete (but relevant) initial state of the world, the goal
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state(s), and action schemas. A STRIPS algorithm should then be able to accept such a problem,
returning a solution. The solution is simply an action sequence that, when applied to the initial
state, results in a state which satisfies the goal.
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4.2.1 STRIPS Planning Algorithm

As previously referenced, STRIPS began as an automated planning algorithm and has double-
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meaning to describe the language (described above) used to provide input to that algorithm.
While the algorithm does not scale well to real-world problems, it, like the language, serves as a
foundational starting point to developing and understanding more powerful automated planning
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algorithms. The STRIPS algorithm [3] is found below, followed by a brief commentary:

STRIPS(A, s, g)
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p = empty plan
loop…
if s satisfies g then return p
a = [an applicable action in A, relevant for g]
if a = null, then return failure
p’ = STRIPS(A, s, precond(a))
if p’ = failure, then return failure
s = apply p’ to s

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s = apply a to s
p = p + p’ + a

In the above STRIPS algorithm, A represents all of the possible, grounded actions (i.e., action
schemas with variables replaced with values), while s is the current state, and g is the goal state.

Critically important to note is that this algorithm is a backward-search algorithm. In other

words, the goal state of the planning problem is fed into the algorithm as s, while the initial state
of the planning problem is provided as g. The returned solution, if any, simply needs to be
reversed to provide the solution to the planning problem. Simply put, it works backwards from

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the goal to figure out a logical path to get there.

g.i
4.3 Explanation

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Most expert systems have explanation facilities that allow the user to ask questions- why and
how it reached some conclusion

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The questions are answered by referring to the system goals, the rules being used, and existing
problem solving. The rules typically reflect empirical or “compiled” knowledge. They are codes
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of an expert‟s rule of thumb, not the expert‟s deeper understanding.
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Example:

Dialog with an expert system designed to give advice on car problems.

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System Does the car start?

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User No.

System Does the engine turn over?

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User yes

System Do you smell gas?

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User yes

System Recommendation-wait 5 minutes and try again.

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User Why?

System I used the rule:

If not start, and engine_turn_over, and smell_gas

Then recommendation is „wait 5 minutes and try again‟

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User

Note: The rule gives the correct advice for a flooded car. And knows the questions to be ask to
determine if the car is flooded, but it does not contain the knowledge of what a flooded car is and
why waiting will help.

Types of Explanation

There are four types of explanations commonly used in expert systems.

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 Rule trace reports on the progress of a consultation;

g.i
 Explanation of how the system reached to the give conclusion;

 Explanation of why the system did not give any conclusion.

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 Explanation of why the system is asking a question;

4.4 Learning e eri

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Machine Learning

 Like human learning from past experiences,a computer does not have “experiences”.
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 A computer system learns from data, which represent some “past experiences” of an
application domain.
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 Objective of machine learning : learn a target function that can be used to predict the
values of a discrete class attribute, e.g., approve or not-approved, and high-risk or low
risk.
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 The task is commonly called: Supervised learning, classification, or inductive learning

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Supervised Learning

Supervised learning is a machine learning technique for learning a function from training data.
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The training data consist of pairs of input objects (typically vectors), and desired outputs. The
output of the function can be a continuous value (called regression), or can predict a class label
of the input object (called classification). The task of the supervised learner is to predict the
value of the function for any valid input object after having seen a number of training examples
(i.e. pairs of input and target output). To achieve this, the learner has to generalize from the
presented data to unseen situations in a "reasonable" way.

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Another term for supervised learning is classification. Classifier performance depend greatly on
the characteristics of the data to be classified. There is no single classifier that works best on all
given problems. Determining a suitable classifier for a given problem is however still more an art
than a science. The most widely used classifiers are the Neural Network (Multi-layer
Perceptron), Support Vector Machines, k-Nearest Neighbors, Gaussian Mixture Model,
Gaussian, Naive Bayes, Decision Tree and RBF classifiers.

Supervised learning process: two steps

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 Learning (training): Learn a model using the training data
 Testing: Test the model using unseen test data to assess the model accuracy

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Number of correct classifica tions
Accuracy  ,
Total number of test cases

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Supervised vs. unsupervised Learning

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 Supervised learning:

classification is seen as supervised learning from examples.

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 Supervision: The data (observations, measurements, etc.) are labeled with pre-
defined classes. It is like that a “teacher” gives the classes (supervision).

 Test data are classified into these classes too.

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 Unsupervised learning (clustering)

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 Class labels of the data are unknown

 Given a set of data, the task is to establish the existence of classes or clusters in
the data

Decision Tree

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 A decision tree takes as input an object or situation described by a set of attributes and
returns a “decision” – the predicted output value for the input.

 A decision tree reaches its decision by performing a sequence of tests.

Example : “HOW TO” manuals (for car repair)

A decision tree reaches its decision by performing a sequence of tests. Each internal node in the
tree corresponds to a test of the value of one of the properties, and the branches from the node
are labeled with the possible values of the test. Each leaf node in the tree specifies the value to be

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returned if that leaf is reached. The decision tree representation seems to be very natural for

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humans; indeed, many "How To" manuals (e.g., for car repair) are written entirely as a single
decision tree stretching over hundreds of pages.

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A somewhat simpler example is provided by the problem of whether to wait for a table at a

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restaurant. The aim here is to learn a definition for the goal predicate Will Wait. In setting this up
as a learning problem, we first have to state what attributes are available to describe examples in
the domain. we will see how to automate this task; for now, let's suppose we decide on the
following list of attributes: e
gin
1. Alternate: whether there is a suitable alternative restaurant nearby.

2. Bar: whether the restaurant has a comfortable bar area to wait in.
en

3. Fri/Sat: true on Fridays and Saturdays.

arn

4. Hungry: whether we are hungry.

5. Patrons: how many people are in the restaurant (values are None, Some, and Full).

6. Price: the restaurant's price range ($, $$, $$$).

Le

7. Raining: whether it is raining outside.

w.

8. Reservation: whether we made a reservation.

9. Type: the kind of restaurant (French, Italian, Thai, or burger).

ww

10. Wait Estimate: the wait estimated by the host (0-10 minutes, 10-30, 30-60, >60).

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Decision tree induction from examples

eri
An example for a Boolean decision tree consists of a vector of' input attributes, X, and a single
Boolean output value y. A set of examples (X1,Y1) . . . , (X2, y2) is shown in Figure. The
positive examples are the ones in which the goal Will Wait is true (XI, X3, . . .); the negative
e
examples are the ones in which it is false (X2, X5, . . .). The complete set of examples is called
gin
the training set.
en
arn
Le
w.
ww

Decision Tree Algorithm

The basic idea behind the Decision-Tree-Learning-Algorithm is to test the most important
attribute first. By "most important," we mean the one that makes the most difference to the
classification of an example. That way, we hope to get to the correct classification with a small
number of tests, meaning that all paths in the tree will be short and the tree as a whole will be
small.

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n
ng.i
eri
Reinforcement Learning

 Learning what to do to maximize reward

e
gin
 Learner is not given training

 Only feedback is in terms of reward

en

 Try things out and see what the reward is

 Different from Supervised Learning

arn

 Teacher gives training examples

Examples
Le

 Robotics: Quadruped Gait Control, Ball Acquisition (Robocup)

 Control: Helicopters
w.

 Operations Research: Pricing, Routing, Scheduling

ww

 Game Playing: Backgammon, Solitaire, Chess, Checkers

 Human Computer Interaction: Spoken Dialogue Systems

 Economics/Finance: Trading

Markov decision process VS Reinforcement Learning

 Markov decision process

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 Set of state S, set of actions A

 Transition probabilities to next states T(s, a, a‟)

 Reward functions R(s)

 RL is based on MDPs, but

 Transition model is not known

n
 Reward model is not known

g.i
 MDP computes an optimal policy

 RL learns an optimal policy

n
eri
Types of Reinforcement Learning

 Passive Vs Active
e
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 Passive: Agent executes a fixed policy and evaluates it

 Active: Agents updates policy as it learns

en

 Model based Vs Model free

 Model-based: Learn transition and reward model, use it to get optimal policy
arn

 Model free: Derive optimal policy without learning the model

Passive Learning
Le
w.
ww

 Evaluate how good a policy π is

 Learn the utility Uπ(s) of each state

 Same as policy evaluation for known transition & reward models

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Agent executes a sequence of trials:

n
(1, 1) → (1, 2) → (1, 3) → (1, 2) → (1, 3) → (2, 3) → (3, 3) → (4, 3)+1

g.i
(1, 1) → (1, 2) → (1, 3) → (2, 3) → (3, 3) → (3, 2) → (3, 3) → (4, 3)+1
(1, 1) → (2, 1) → (3, 1) → (3, 2) → (4, 2)−1

n
eri
Goal is to learn the expected utility Uπ(s)

e
gin
Direct Utility Estimation
en

 Reduction to inductive learning

 Compute the empirical value of each state

arn

 Each trial gives a sample value

 Estimate the utility based on the sample values

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 Example: First trial gives

 State (1,1): A sample of reward 0.72

w.

 State (1,2): Two samples of reward 0.76 and 0.84

ww

 State (1,3): Two samples of reward 0.80 and 0.88

 Estimate can be a running average of sample values

 Example: U(1, 1) = 0.72,U(1, 2) = 0.80,U(1, 3) = 0.84, . . .

 Ignores a very important source of information

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 The utility of states satisfy the Bellman equations

 Search is in a hypothesis space for U much larger than needed

 Convergence is very slow

 Make use of Bellman equations to get Uπ(s)

n
 Need to estimate T(s, π(s), s‟) and R(s) from trials

g.i
 Plug-in learnt transition and reward in the Bellman equations

n
 Solving for Uπ: System of n linear equations

eri
 Estimates of T and R keep changing

 Make use of modified policy iteration idea

e
gin
 Run few rounds of value iteration

 Initialize value iteration from previous utilities

 Converges fast since T and R changes are small

en

 ADP is a standard baseline to test „smarter‟ ideas

arn

 ADP is inefficient if state space is large

 Has to solve a linear system in the size of the state space

Le

 Backgammon: 1050 linear equations in 1050 unknowns

Temporal Difference Learning

w.

 Best of both worlds

ww

 Only update states that are directly affected

 Approximately satisfy the Bellman equations

 Example:

(1, 1) → (1, 2) → (1, 3) → (1, 2) → (1, 3) → (2, 3) → (3, 3) → (4, 3)+1

(1, 1) → (1, 2) → (1, 3) → (2, 3) → (3, 3) → (3, 2) → (3, 3) → (4, 3)+1

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(1, 1) → (2, 1) → (3, 1) → (3, 2) → (4, 2)−1

 After the first trial, U(1, 3) = 0.84,U(2, 3) = 0.92

 Consider the transition (1, 3) → (2, 3) in the second trial

 If deterministic, then U(1, 3) = −0.04 + U(2, 3)

 How to account for probabilistic transitions (without a model)

n
 TD chooses a middle ground

n g.i
 Temporal difference (TD) equation, α is the learning rate

eri
 The TD equation

e
gin
 TD applies a correction to approach the Bellman equations

 The update for s‟ will occur T(s, π(s), s‟) fraction of the time
en

 The correction happens proportional to the probabilities

 Over trials, the correction is same as the expectation

arn

 Learning rate α determines convergence to true utility

 Decrease αs proportional to the number of state visits

Le

 Convergence is guaranteed if
w.

 Decay αs (m) = 1/m satisfies the condition

ww

 TD is model free

TD Vs ADP

 TD is mode free as opposed to ADP which is model based

 TD updates observed successor rather than all successors

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 The difference disappears with large number of trials

 TD is slower in convergence, but much simpler computation per observation

Active Learning

 Agent updates policy as it learns

 Goal is to learn the optimal policy

n
 Learning using the passive ADP agent

g.i
 Estimate the model R(s),T(s, a, s‟) from observations

 The optimal utility and action satisfies

n
eri
 Solve using value iteration or policy iteration
e
gin
 Agent has “optimal” action

 Simply execute the “optimal” action

en

Exploitation vs Exploration
arn

 The passive approach gives a greedy agent

 Exactly executes the recipe for solving MDPs

Le

 Rarely converges to the optimal utility and policy

 The learned model is different from the true environment

w.

 Trade-off

 Exploitation: Maximize rewards using current estimates

ww

 Agent stops learning and starts executing policy

 Exploration: Maximize long term rewards

 Agent keeps learning by trying out new things

 Pure Exploitation

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 Mostly gets stuck in bad policies

 Pure Exploration

 Gets better models by learning

 Small rewards due to exploration

 The multi-armed bandit setting

n
 A slot machine has one lever, a one-armed bandit

g.i
 n-armed bandit has n levers

 Which arm to pull?

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 Exploit: The one with the best pay-off so far

eri
 Explore: The one that has not been tried

e
gin
Exploration
en

 Greedy in the limit of infinite exploration (GLIE)

 Reasonable schemes for trade off

arn

 Revisiting the greedy ADP approach

 Agent must try each action infinitely often

Le

 Rules out chance of missing a good action

w.

 Eventually must become greedy to get rewards

 Simple GLIE
ww

 Choose random action 1/t fraction of the time

 Use greedy policy otherwise

 Converges to the optimal policy

 Convergence is very slow

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Exploration Function

 A smarter GLIE

 Give higher weights to actions not tried very often

 Give lower weights to low utility actions

 Alter Bellman equations using optimistic utilities U+(s)

n
g.i
 The exploration function f (u, n)

n
 Should increase with expected utility u

eri
 Should decrease with number of tries n

 A simple exploration function

e
gin
en

 Actions towards unexplored regions are encouraged

 Fast convergence to almost optimal policy in practice

arn

Q-Learning

 Exploration function gives a active ADP agent

Le

 A corresponding TD agent can be constructed

 Surprisingly, the TD update can remain the same

w.

 Converges to the optimal policy as active ADP

ww

 Slower than ADP in practice

 Q-learning learns an action-value function Q(a; s)

 Utility values U(s) = maxa Q(a; s)

 A model-free TD method

 No model for learning or action selection

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 Constraint equations for Q-values at equilibrium

 Can be updated using a model for T(s; a; s‟)

 The TD Q-learning does not require a model

n
g.i
 Calculated whenever a in s leads to s‟

 The next action anext = argmaxa‟ f (Q(a‟; s‟);N(s‟; a‟))

n
eri
 Q-learning is slower than ADP

 Trade-o: Model-free vs knowledge-based methods

e
gin
en

PART- A
arn

1. What are the components of planning system?

2. What is planning?
Le

3. What is nonlinear plan?

4. List out the 3 types of machine learning?

w.

5. What is Reinforcement Learning?

6. What do you mean by goal stack planning?

ww

7. Define machine learning.

8. What are the types of Reinforcement Learning.

PART B

1. Briefly explain the advanced plan generation systems.

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2. Explain Machine Learning.

3. Explain STRIPS.

4. Explain Reinforcement Learning.

5. Briefly explain Partial Order Plan.

6. Explain in detail about various Machine learning methods.

n
n g.i
e eri
gin
en
arn
Le
w.
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UNIT 5

CHAPTER 1

5.1 EXPERT SYSTEMS

An expert system is a computer program that represents and reasons with knowledge of some
specialist subject with a view to solving problems or giving advice.

To solve expert-level problems, expert systems will need efficient access to a substantial domain

n
knowledge base, and a reasoning mechanism to apply the knowledge to the problems they are

g.i
given. Usually they will also need to be able to explain, to the users who rely on them, how they
have reached their decisions.

n
They will generally build upon the ideas of knowledge representation, production rules, search,
and so on, that we have already covered.

eri
Often we use an expert system shell which is an existing knowledge independent framework into
which domain knowledge can be inserted to produce a working expert system. We can thus
e
avoid having to program each new system from scratch.
gin
5.2 Typical Tasks for Expert Systems

There are no fundamental limits on what problem domains an expert system can be built to deal
en

with. Some typical existing expert system tasks include:

1. The interpretation of data

arn

Such as sonar data or geophysical measurements

2. Diagnosis of malfunctions
Le

Such as equipment faults or human diseases

w.

3. Structural analysis or configuration of complex objects

Such as chemical compounds or computer systems

ww

4. Planning sequences of actions

Such as might be performed by robots

5. Predicting the future

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Such as weather, share prices, exchange rates

However, these days, “conventional” computer systems can also do some of these things

5.3 Characteristics of Expert Systems

Expert systems can be distinguished from conventional computer systems in that:

n
1. They simulate human reasoning about the problem domain, rather than simulating the domain
itself.

g.i
2. They perform reasoning over representations of human knowledge, in addition to doing
numerical calculations or data retrieval. They have corresponding distinct modules referred to as

n
the inference engine and the knowledge base.

eri
3. Problems tend to be solved using heuristics (rules of thumb) or approximate methods or
probabilistic methods which, unlike algorithmic solutions, are not guaranteed to result in a
correct or optimal solution.
e
gin
4. They usually have to provide explanations and justifications of their solutions or
recommendations in order to convince the user that their reasoning is correct.
en

Note that the term Intelligent Knowledge Based System (IKBS) is sometimes used as a synonym
for Expert System.
arn

5.3 The Architecture of Expert Systems

The process of building expert systems is often called knowledge engineering. The knowledge
engineer is involved with all components of an expert system:
Le
w.
ww

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Building expert systems is generally an iterative process. The components and their interaction
will be refined over the course of numerous meetings of the knowledge engineer with the experts
and users. We shall look in turn at the various components.

n
5.3.1 Knowledge Acquisition

g.i
The knowledge acquisition component allows the expert to enter their knowledge or expertise
into the expert system, and to refine it later as and when required.

n
Historically, the knowledge engineer played a major role in this process, but automated systems

eri
that allow the expert to interact directly with the system are becoming increasingly common.

The knowledge acquisition process is usually comprised of three principal stages:

e
1. Knowledge elicitation is the interaction between the expert and the knowledge
gin
engineer/program to elicit the expert knowledge in some systematic way.

2. The knowledge thus obtained is usually stored in some form of human friendly intermediate
en

representation.

3. The intermediate representation of the knowledge is then compiled into an executable form
arn

(e.g. production rules) that the inference engine can process.

In practice, much iteration through these three stages is usually required!

Le

5.3.2 Knowledge Elicitation

The knowledge elicitation process itself usually consists of several stages:

w.

1. Find as much as possible about the problem and domain from books, manuals, etc. In
particular, become familiar with any specialist terminology and jargon.
ww

2. Try to characterize the types of reasoning and problem solving tasks that the system will be
required to perform.

3. Find an expert (or set of experts) that is willing to collaborate on the project. Sometimes
experts are frightened of being replaced by a computer system!

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4. Interview the expert (usually many times during the course of building the system). Find out
how they solve the problems your system will be expected to solve. Have them check and refine
your intermediate knowledge representation.

This is a time intensive process, and automated knowledge elicitation and machine learning
techniques are increasingly common modern alternatives.

n
g.i
5.3.3 Stages of Knowledge Acquisition

n
The iterative nature of the knowledge acquisition process can be represented in the following

eri
diagram.

e
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en
arn
Le
w.

5.3.4 Levels of Knowledge Analysis

ww

Knowledge identification: Use in depth interviews in which the knowledge engineer encourages
the expert to talk about how they do what they do. The knowledge engineer should understand
the domain well enough to know which objects and facts need talking about.

Knowledge conceptualization: Find the primitive concepts and conceptual relations of the
problem domain.
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Epistemological analysis: Uncover the structural properties of the conceptual knowledge, such
as taxonomic relations (classifications).

Logical analysis: Decide how to perform reasoning in the problem domain. This kind of
knowledge can be particularly hard to acquire.

Implementation analysis: Work out systematic procedures for implementing and testing the
system.

n
g.i
Capturing Tacit/Implicit Knowledge

n
One problem that knowledge engineers often encounter is that the human experts use

eri
tacit/implicit knowledge (e.g. procedural knowledge) that is difficult to capture.

There are several useful techniques for acquiring this knowledge:

e
1. Protocol analysis: Tape-record the expert thinking aloud while performing their role and later
gin
analyze this. Break down their protocol/account into the smallest atomic units of thought, and let
these become operators.
en

2. Participant observation: The knowledge engineer acquires tacit knowledge through practical
domain experience with the expert.
arn

3. Machine induction: This is useful when the experts are able to supply examples of the results
of their decision making, even if they are unable to articulate the underlying knowledge or
reasoning process.
Le

Which is/are best to use will generally depend on the problem domain and the expert.

5.3.5 Representing the Knowledge

w.

We have already looked at various types of knowledge representation. In general, the knowledge
acquired from our expert will be formulated in two ways:
ww

1. Intermediate representation – a structured knowledge representation that the knowledge

engineer and expert can both work with efficiently.

2. Production system – a formulation that the expert system’s inference engine can process
efficiently.

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It is important to distinguish between:

1. Domain knowledge – the expert’s knowledge which might be expressed in the form of rules,
general/default values, and so on.

2. Case knowledge – specific facts/knowledge about particular cases, including any derived
knowledge about the particular cases.

The system will have the domain knowledge built in, and will have to integrate this with the
different case knowledge that will become available each time the system is used.

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CHAPTER -2

eri
5.4 Meta Knowledge

Knowledge about knowledge

e
gin
 Meta knowledge can be simply defined as knowledge about knowledge.

 Meta knowledge is knowledge about the use and control of domain knowledge in an
expert system.
en

5.5 Roles in Expert System Development

arn

Three fundamental roles in building expert systems are:

1. Expert - Successful ES systems depend on the experience and application of knowledge that
the people can bring to it during its development. Large systems generally require multiple
Le

experts.

2. Knowledge engineer - The knowledge engineer has a dual task. This person should be able to
w.

elicit knowledge from the expert, gradually gaining an understanding of an area of expertise.
Intelligence, tact, empathy, and proficiency in specific techniques of knowledge acquisition are
ww

all required of a knowledge engineer. Knowledge-acquisition techniques include conducting

interviews with varying degrees of structure, protocol analysis, observation of experts at work,
and analysis of cases.

On the other hand, the knowledge engineer must also select a tool appropriate for the project and
use it to represent the knowledge with the application of the knowledge acquisition facility.

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3. User - A system developed by an end user with a simple shell, is built rather quickly an
inexpensively. Larger systems are built in an organized development effort. A prototype-oriented
iterative development strategy is commonly used. ESs lends themselves particularly well to
prototyping.

5.6 Typical Expert System

1. A problem-domain-specific knowledge base that stores the encoded knowledge to support one
problem domain such as diagnosing why a car won't start. In a rule-based expert system, the

n
knowledge base includes the if-then rules and additional specifications that control the course of
the interview.

n g.i
e eri
2. An inference engine a set of rules for making deductions from the data and that implements
gin
the reasoning mechanism and controls the interview process. The inference engine might be
generalized so that the same software is able to process many different knowledge bases.
en

3. The user interface requests information from the user and outputs intermediate and final
results. In some expert systems, input is acquired from additional sources such as data bases and
sensors.
arn

An expert system shell consists of a generalized inference engine and user interface designed to
work with a knowledge base provided in a specified format. A shell often includes tools that help
Le

with the design, development and testing of the knowledge base. With the shell approach, expert
systems representing many different problem domains may be developed and delivered with the
same software environment. .
w.

There are special high level languages used to program expert systems egg PROLOG

The user interacts with the system through a user interface which may use menus, natural
ww

language or any other style of interaction). Then an inference engine is used to reason with both
the expert knowledge (extracted from our friendly expert) and data specific to the particular
problem being solved. The expert knowledge will typically be in the form of a set of IF-THEN
rules. The case specific data includes both data provided by the user and partial conclusions

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(along with certainty measures) based on this data. In a simple forward chaining rule-based
system the case specific data will be the elements in working memory.

How an expert system works Car engine diagnosis

1. IF engine_getting_petrol

AND engine_turns_over

THEN problem_with_spark_plugs

n
2. IF NOT engine_turns_over

g.i
AND NOT lights_come_on

n
THEN problem_with_battery

eri
3. IF NOT engine_turns_over
e
gin
AND lights_come_on

THEN problem_with_starter
en

4. IF petrol_in_fuel_tank

THEN engine_getting_petrol
arn

There are three possible problems with the car:

 problem_with_spark_plugs,
Le

 problem_with_battery,

 problem_with_starter.
w.

The system will ask the user:

ww

 Is it true that there's petrol in the fuel tank?

Let's say that the answer is yes. This answer would be recorded, so that the user doesn't get
asked the same question again. Anyway, the system now has proved that the engine is getting
petrol, so now wants to find out if the engine turns over. As the system doesn't yet know
whether this is the case, and as there are no rules which conclude this, the user will be asked:

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 Is it true that the engine turns over?

Lets say this time the answer is no. There are no other rules which can be used to prove
``problem_with_spark_plugs'' so the system will conclude that this is not the solution to the
problem, and will consider the next hypothesis: problem_with_battery. It is true that the
engine does not turn over (the user has just said that), so all it has to prove is that the lights
don't come one. It will ask the user

 Is it true that the lights come on?

n
Suppose the answer is no. It has now proved that the problem is with the battery. Some

g.i
systems might stop there, but usually there might be more than one solution, (e.g., more than
one fault with the car), or it will be uncertain which of various solutions is the right one. So
usually all hypotheses are considered. It will try to prove ``problem_with_starter'', but given

n
the existing data (the lights come on) the proof will fail, so the system will conclude that the

eri
problem is with the battery. A complete interaction with our very simple system might be:

 System: Is it true that there's petrol in the fuel tank?

e
gin
User: Yes.

System: Is it true that the engine turns over?

en

User: No.
arn

System Is it true that the lights come on?

User: No.
Le

System: I conclude that there is a problem with battery.

Note that in general, solving problems using backward chaining involves searching through all
w.

the possible ways of proving the hypothesis, systematically checking each of them.

Questions
ww

1. ``Briefly describe the basic architecture of a typical expert system, mentioning the
function of each of the main components.''

2. ``A travel agent asks you to design an expert system to help people choose where to go
on holiday. Design a set of decisions to help you give advice on which holiday to take.

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Expert System Use

Expert systems are used in a variety of areas, and are still the most popular developmental
approach in the artificial intelligence world.

The table below depicts the percentage of expert systems being developed in particular areas:

n
n g.i
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• Medical screening for cancer and brain tumours

• Matching people to jobs e

gin
• Training on oil rigs

• Diagnosing faults in car engines

en

• Legal advisory systems

arn

• Mineral prospecting

5.6.1 MYCIN
Le

Tasks and Domain

► Disease DIAGNOSIS and Therapy SELECTION

w.

► Advice for non-expert physicians with time considerations and incomplete evidence on:


ww

Bacterial infections of the blood

 Expanded to meningitis and other ailments

System Goals

► Utility

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 Be useful, to attract assistance of experts

 Demonstrate competence

 Fulfill domain need (i.e. penicillin)

► Flexibility

 Domain is complex, variety of knowledge types

n
 Medical knowledge rapidly evolves, must be easy to maintain K.B.

g.i
► Interactive Dialogue

 Provide coherent explanations (symbolic reasoning paradigm)

n
 Allow for real-time K.B. updates by experts

eri
► Fast and Easy


e
Meet time constraints of the medical field
gin
en
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Architecture
Le
w.
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Consultation System

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► Performs Diagnosis and Therapy Selection

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► Control Structure reads Static DB (rules) and read/writes to Dynamic DB (patient,
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context)

► Linked to Explanations

► Terminal interface to Physician

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► User-Friendly Features:

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 Users can request rephrasing of questions

 Synonym dictionary allows latitude of user responses

 User typos are automatically fixed

► Questions are asked when more data is needed

 If data cannot be provided, system ignores relevant rules

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► Goal-directed Backward-chaining Depth-first Tree Search

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► High-level Algorithm:

 Determine if Patient has significant infection

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 Determine likely identity of significant organisms

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 Decide which drugs are potentially useful


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Select best drug or coverage of drugs
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Static Database

► Rules
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► Meta-Rules

► Templates
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► Rule Properties

► Context Properties
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► Fed from Knowledge Acquisition System

w.
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Production Rules

► Represent Domain-specific Knowledge

► Over 450 rules in MYCIN e

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► Premise-Action (If-Then) Form:

<predicate function><object><attrib><value>
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► Each rule is completely modular, all relevant context is contained in the rule with
explicitly stated premises
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MYCIN P.R. Assumptions

► Not every domain can be represented, requires formalization (EMYCIN)

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► Only small number of simultaneous factors (more than 6 was thought to be unwieldy)
w.

► IF-THEN formalism is suitable for Expert Knowledge Acquisition and Explanation sub-
systems
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Judgmental Knowledge

► Inexact Reasoning with Certainty Factors (CF)

► CF are not Probability!

► Truth of a Hypothesis is measured by a sum of the CFs

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 Premises and Rules added together

 Positive sum is confirming evidence

 Negative sum is disconfirming evidence

Sub-goals

► At any given time MYCIN is establishing the value of some parameter by sub-goaling

n
► Unity Paths: a method to bypass sub-goals by following a path whose certainty is known
(CF==1) to make a definite conclusion

g.i
► Won’t search a sub-goal if it can be obtained from a user first (i.e. lab data)

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Preview Mechanism

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► Interpreter reads rules before invoking them

► Avoids unnecessary deductive work if the sub-goal has already been tested/determined
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► Ensures self-referencing sub-goals do not enter recursive infinite loops
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Meta-Rules

► Alternative to exhaustive invocation of all rules

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► Strategy rules to suggest an approach for a given sub-goal

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 Ordering rules to try first, effectively pruning the search tree

► Creates a search-space with embedded information on which branch is best to take

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► High-order Meta-Rules (i.e. Meta-Rules for Meta-Rules)

 Powerful, but used limitedly in practice

w.

► Impact to the Explanation System:

ww

 (+) Encode Knowledge formerly in the Control Structure

 (-) Sometimes create “murky” explanations

Templates
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► The Production Rules are all based on Template structures

► This aids Knowledge-base expansion, because the system can “understand” its own
representations

► Templates are updated by the system when a new rule is entered

Dynamic Database

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► Patient Data

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► Laboratory Data

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► Context Tree

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► Built by Consultation System

► Used by Explanation System

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gin
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Context Tree

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Therapy Selection
e eri
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► Plan-Generate-and-Test Process

► Therapy List Creation

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 Set of specific rules recommend treatments based on the probability (not CF) of
organism sensitivity
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 Probabilities based on laboratory data

 One therapy rule for every organism

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► Assigning Item Numbers

 Only hypothesis with organisms deemed “significantly likely” (CF) are

w.

considered

 Then the most likely (CF) identity of the organisms themselves are determined
ww

and assigned an Item Number

 Each item is assigned a probability of likelihood and probability of sensitivity to

drug

► Final Selection based on:

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 Sensitivity

 Contraindication Screening

 Using the minimal number of drugs and maximizing the coverage of organisms

► Experts can ask for alternate treatments

 Therapy selection is repeated with previously recommended drugs removed from

the list

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Explanation System

g.i
► Provides reasoning why a conclusion has been made, or why a question is being asked

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► Q-A Module

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► Reasoning Status Checker

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► Uses a trace of the Production Rules for a basis, and the Context Tree, to provide context

 Ignores Definitional Rules (CF == 1)

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► Two Modules

 Q-A Module

 Reasoning Status Checker

Q-A Module

► Symbolic Production Rules are readable

n
► Each <predicate function> has an associated translation pattern:

g.i
GRID (THE (2) ASSOCIATED WITH (1) IS KNOWN)

VAL (((2 1)))

n
PORTAL (THE PORTAL OF ENTRY OF *)

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PATH-FLORA (LIST OF LIKELY PATHOGENS)

e
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i.e. (GRID (VAL CNTXT PORTAL) PATH-FLORA) becomes:
en

“The list of likely pathogens associated with the portal of entry of the organism is
known.”
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Reasoning Status Checker

► Explanation is a tree traversal of the traced rules:

Le

 WHY – moves up the tree

 HOW – moves down (possibly to untried areas)

w.

► Question is rephrased, and the rule being applied is explained with the translation patterns
ww

Knowledge Acquisition System

► Extends Static DB via Dialogue with Experts

► Dialogue Driven by System

► Requires minimal training for Experts

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► Allows for Incremental Competence, NOT an All-or-Nothing model

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► IF-THEN Symbolic logic was found to be easy for experts to learn, and required little
training by the MYCIN team
e
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► When faced with a rule, the expert must either except it or be forced to update it using the
education process
en

Education Process
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1. Bug is uncovered, usually by Explanation process

2. Add/Modify rules using subset of English by experts

Le

3. Integrating new knowledge into KB

 Found to be difficult in practice, requires detection of contradictions, and complex

w.

concepts become difficult to express

Results
ww

► Never implemented for routine clinical use

► Shown to be competent by panels of experts, even in cases where experts themselves

disagreed on conclusions

► Key Contributions:

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 Reuse of Production Rules (explanation, knowledge acquisition models)

 Meta-Level Knowledge Use

5.6.2 DART

The Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool, commonly abbreviated to DART, is an artificial
intelligence program used by the U.S. military to optimize and schedule the transportation of
supplies or personnel and solve other logistical problems.

n
DART uses intelligent agents to aid decision support systems located at the U.S. Transportation

g.i
and European Commands. It integrates a set of intelligent data processing agents and database
management systems to give planners the ability to rapidly evaluate plans for logistical
feasibility. By automating evaluation of these processes DART decreases the cost and time

n
required to implement decisions.

eri
DART achieved logistical solutions that surprised many military planners. Introduced in 1991,
DART had by 1995 offset the monetary equivalent of all funds DARPA had channeled into AI

e
research for the previous 30 years combined
gin
Development and introduction

DARPA funded the MITRE Corporation and Carnegie Mellon University to analyze the
feasibility of several intelligent planning systems. In November 1989, a demonstration named
en

The Proud Eagle Exercise indicated many inadequacies and bottlenecks within military support
systems. In July, DART was previewed to the military by BBN Systems and Technologies and
arn

the ISX Corporation (now part of Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Laboratories) in
conjunction with the United States Air Force Rome Laboratory. It was proposed in November
1990, with the military immediately demanding that a prototype be developed for testing. Eight
Le

weeks later, a hasty but working prototype was introduced in 1991 to the USTRANSCOM at the
beginning of Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War.

Impact
w.

Directly following its launch, DART solved several logistical nightmares, saving the military
ww

millions of dollars. Military planners were aware of the tremendous obstacles facing moving
military assets from bases in Europe to prepared bases in Saudi Arabia, in preparation for Desert
Storm. DART quickly proved its value by improving upon existing plans of the U.S. military.
What surprised many observers were DART's ability to adapt plans rapidly in a crisis
environment.

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DART's success led to the development of other military planning agents such as:

 RDA - Resource Description and Access system

 DRPI - Knowledge-Based Planning and Scheduling Initiative, a successor of DART

5.7 Expert Systems shells

Initially each expert system is build from scratch (LISP). Systems are constructed as a set of
declarative representations (mostly rules) combined with an interpreter for those representations.

n
It helps to separate the interpreter from domain-specific knowledge and to create a system that

g.i
could be used construct new expert system by adding new knowledge corresponding to the new
problem domain. The resulting interpreters are called shells. Example of shells is EMYCIN (for
Empty MYCIN derived from MYCIN).

n
Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides the

eri
developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and explanation facility.
For example, few shells are given below −

e
 Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for creating an
gin
expert system.

 Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology, Mumbai in
1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.
en

Shells provide greater flexibility in representing knowledge and in reasoning than

arn

MYCIN. They support rules, frames, truth maintenance systems and a variety of other reasoning
mechanisms.
Le

Early expert system shells provide mechanisms for knowledge representation, reasoning
and explanation. Later these tools provide knowledge acquisition. Still expert system shells need
w.

to integrate with other programs easily. Expert systems cannot operate in a vacuum. The shells
must provide an easy-to-use interface between an expert system written with the shell and
programming environment.
ww

PART-A

1. What are the phases in Expert system development?

2. Explain identification phase.

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3. Explain conceptualization phase.

4. Explain formalization phase.

5. Explain implementation and testing phases.

6. Describe demonstration prototype.

7. Describe research prototype.

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8. Describe field prototype.

g.i
9. What is meant by production prototype?

10. What is meant by commercial system?

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11. When is Expert System Development Possible?

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12. When is Expert System Development justified?

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13. When is Expert System Development appropriate?
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14. What are the questions to ask when selecting an Expert system tool?

15. What are the limitations of expert systems?

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16. What are the problems the company faces when trying to apply expert system?

17. What are the common pitfalls in planning an expert system?

arn

18. What are the pitfalls in dealing with the domain expert?

19. What are the pitfalls during the development process?

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20. Where is expert system work being done?

w.

21. What is meant by a commercial expert system?

22. Name any two expert system used in research?

ww

23. Name any two expert system used in business?

24. Explain XCON?

25. Name any three universities and mention the expert system tools developed there?

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26. Name any three research organization and mention the expert system tools developed there?

27. What are expert systems?

28. What are the most important aspects of expert system?

29. What are the characteristics of expert system?

30. Sketch the general features of expert system?

n
31. Who are all involved in the expert system building?

g.i
32. Explain the role of domain expert?

33. Explain the role of knowledge engineer?

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34. What is the use of expert system building tool?

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35. Give the structure of an expert system?

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36. Explain the knowledge acquisition process?
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37. Define MYCIN.

38. Define DART.

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PART-B
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1. Explain the tasks involved in building expert system?

2. Explain the various stages of expert system development?

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3. Explain the difficulties involved in developing an expert system?

w.

4. What are common pitfalls in planning an expert system?

5. Explain the pitfalls in dealing with the domain expert?

ww

6. Explain the pitfalls during the development process?

7. Explain expert system work at universities and research organizations?

8. Explain expert system work at knowledge engineering companies?

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9. What is meant by high performance expert system? How is it used in research and in business?

10. In detail Explain XCON?

11. Draw the schematic of expert system and explain.

12. Explain the following in detail.. a. MYCIN b. EMYCIN

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