Republic of the Philippines

City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Unit 2 – Biological Development

A. Biological Beginnings

 Genetic Foundations

“All children have a set of genetic instructions that influence their characteristics at birth and
emerging physical features as the grow.” Some characteristics awaken during sensitive periods
which are age ranges in which environmental experiences are necessary for the child’s
development. Other characteristics are controlled by genetics, this is known as canalization. Skills
that are canalized include motor skills such as crawling and sitting. Skills that are not canalized are
those that children are taught in school such as reading and writing. The environment continues to
play a huge role in the genetic expression at different times throughout development. Nature and
nurture are powerful and they are concepts that not only teachers, but also parents need to be
aware of. Being the adults in a child’s life. Genetic predispositions may be altered by environmental
factors such as schooling, social interactions, and physical experiences.

 Prenatal Development

There are three phases of prenatal development: development of the zygote, development of the
embryo, and development of the fetus.

 A zygote is a one-celled being. It divided over and over until it becomes a ball of cells that
attaches itself to the uterus wall. Then the zygote splits into two parts, one will become and
embryo and the other one will become the placenta. The zygote then releases hormones for
menstruation to stop and further development has begun.
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

 An embryo is between the period from 2 to 8 weeks where major body parts begin to
develop. The embryo develops from top to bottom and from the outside in.
 The fetus is then from 9 weeks until birth. At this stage, the baby finalizes the development
of the limbs and the internal organs. Expectant mothers must care for themselves to
increase the chances of bringing a healthy baby into the world.

 Birth of the Baby

This is the stage of pregnancy where the mother and the family become the most anxious. Preparing for
birth is highly recommended and important. Parents-to be should take classes to learn the most recent
way of doing infant CPR, feeding, bathing, changing and other things that they will be doing every day
with their baby. Preparing the suitcase for the hospital about 1 or 2 months in advance is necessary
since babies sometimes come sooner than expected. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques to
use through the birthing process come in handy. The health and medical needs a baby needs all depends
on the birth weight and size, and any genetic vulnerabilities. Family educators can support infants
directly by teaching the caregivers how to watch and care for the baby’s needs.

B. Physical and Motor Development

Physical development is the most readily visible of the child development domains. Parents notice
height and weight as well as the development of both fine motor and gross (large) motor skills. It's
important to remember that what we can see physically corresponds to what we can't see which is brain
development.

In all developmental domains, the brain is promoting exploration and movement but when exploration
and movement occur it also stimulates brain development including both neurogenesis (growth of new
brain cells) and synaptogenesis (forming new connections between brain cells). In fact at various times
during the first few years of life, a baby's brain produces so many connections that they end up with
more than in an adult brain. Later through a process called pruning, synaptic connections that are not
used by the child are eliminated.

 Fine Motor Skills - Fine motor skills refer to the coordination between your child's small
muscles, like those in their hands, wrists, and fingers in coordination with their eyes. Fine motor
skills involve the small muscles of the body that enable such functions as writing, grasping small
objects or toys, and fastening clothing. They also involve strength, fine motor control, and
dexterity.

 Gross Motor Skills - Gross motor skills are actions that utilize the body's gross, or large, muscles,
such as those in the arms, legs, and core. As a result, sometimes gross motor skills are referred
to as large motor skills. Children who are about a year old can already perform a variety of gross
motor skills, including crawling, pulling themselves up to stand, traversing furniture, or walking
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

and waving.While even small children can execute such tasks, coordination between the upper
and lower body is not very developed at this point.

C. Neuroscience and Brain development

The Neuroscience of Early Childhood Development

Neuroscience is the study of how the human nervous system develops and functions. The subcategories
of computational, cognitive, cultural, linguistic and developmental neuroscience focus on different
pathways in learning. We can derive a greater understanding of how our minds develop, what influences
higher education functions, and how to better retain information from the science behind learning from
neuroscience.

Neuroscience should be used as a way to understand key issues in early childhood development and
education. I am not saying that it should be the main way to accomplish this, but it adds another
approach to an essential field of study.

D. Factors Affecting Biological/ Physical Development

7 Factors Affecting Growth and Development of Your Child

 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

1. Genetics: Genetics/Hereditary, also known as inheritance or biological inheritance is the

transmission of physical characteristics from you to your children through your genes (the basic
physical and functional unit of inheritance). Genes have an effect on most of the physical
characteristics of your child such as height, weight, body structure, the colour of their eye, the
texture of their hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes.
2. Sex (gender): The sex of your child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and
development of your child. Boys tend to be taller and physically stronger than girls. On the
contrary, most girls mature faster during adolescence, while boys take a longer period of time to
mature. An adolescent is anyone who is between the age of 10 to 19 years and adolescence is
the transition phase of your child from childhood to adulthood.
3. Hormones: The endocrine system is composed of many glands which include the hypothalamus,
pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, and pancreas. Hormones are produced
and secreted by these glands, that regulate the growth and development, metabolism, tissue
function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, mood, etc., of your child's body.
4. Environment: Environmental factors refer to the external conditions (sum total of physical and
psychological situations) that affect your child’s growth and development. Some of the
environmental factors influencing early childhood development involve the physical
surroundings and geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well his/her social
environment and relationships with family and peers.
5. Nutrition: Child’s body needs the right amounts of nutrition to build and repair itself.
Malnutrition (lack of sufficient nutrients in the body) can cause deficiency diseases that can
adversely affect the growth and development of your child. Make sure your child eats a
balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. These are
required for the development of the brain and the body.
6. Exercises: Exercises or physical activities are very important for the growth and development of
your child. Exercise primarily refers to normal playtime and sports activities that help the body
gain muscular strength and bone mass.
7. Socio-economic Factors: The socio-economic status of your family determines the quality of
opportunities that your child gets. Children from financially well-off families have access to
better nutrition and formal education. Poorer families may not have access to educational
resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential.

E. Theories

1. Developmental Milestones (Gesell)

Gesell’s theory is known as a maturational-developmental theory. It is the foundation of nearly

every other theory of human development after Gesell. Early in the 20th century, Dr. Gesell
observed and documented patterns in the way children develop, showing that all children go
through similar and predictable sequences, though each child moves through these sequences at his
or her own rate or pace.
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

This process is comprised of both internal and external factors. The intrinsic factors include
genetics, temperament, personality, learning styles, as well as physical and mental growth.
Simultaneously, development is also influenced by factors such as environment, family background,
parenting styles, cultural influences, health conditions, and early experiences with peers and adults.
Gesell was the first theorist to systematically study the stages of development, and the first
researcher to demonstrate that a child’s developmental age (or stage of development) may be
different from his or her chronological age.

Gesell’s research established normative trends for four areas of growth and development, namely
(1) Motor, (2) Adaptive (Cognitive), (3) Language, and (4) Personal-Social behavior. Originally
published as the Gesell Developmental Schedules in 1925, these developmental schedules, most
recently updated in 2010, continue to serve and guide pediatricians and psychologists throughout
the world today.

2. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child development as a complex system of

relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate settings
of family and school to broad cultural values, laws, and customs.

To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well. Bronfenbrenner divided
the person's environment into five different systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystemm.

The microsystem is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory. This is the most
immediate environmental settings containing the developing child, such as family and school.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory has implications for educational practice.

Unit 2.1 – Biological Development

1. Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theories

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge,
but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:
 Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists
as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the
world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt
previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

1st: The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years) - During this earliest stage of cognitive
development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating
objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes,
senses, and motor responses.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Know the world through movements and sensations

 Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

2nd: The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years) - The foundations of language development may have
been laid during the previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects
 Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others
 Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms

3rd: The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) - While children are still very concrete and
literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic. The
egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how
other people might view a situation.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Begin to think logically about concrete events

 Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup
is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

4th: The Formal Operational Stage ( 12 years and Up) - The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an
increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this
point, adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems
and think more scientifically about the world around them.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

 Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

 Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

Schemas

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four
legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new
information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

2. Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive
development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as sociocultural
theory.

Vygotsky's Ideas

 Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in

which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through
collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky's theory is
comprised of concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the Zone of Proximal
Development.
 Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of
cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the
process of "making meaning."
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:

SCAFFOLDING

Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to child by a More Knowledgeable Other that enables
the child to perform a task until such time that child can perform this task independently.

More Knowledgeable Other

The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a
better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process,
or concept.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case.
Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or
experience.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the more knowledgeable other is integrally related to the second important principle of
Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.

This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
 Republic of the Philippines
City of Olongapo
GORDON COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Olongapo City Sports Complex, Donor St., East Tapinac, Olongapo City 2200
Telefax No.: (047) 602-7175 loc 322
www.gordoncollege.edu.ph

Vygotsky consequently focuses much more closely on social interaction as an aid to learning; arguing
that, left alone, children will develop - but not to their full potential. He refers to the gap between actual
and potential learning as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - and argues that it is only through
collaboration with adults and other learners that this gap can be bridged.

B. Intelligence and Individual Differences

1. Concept of Intelligence (Binet)

Alfred Binet and the First IQ Test

Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who played an important role in the development of
experimental psychology. Although he originally pursued a career in law, Binet become increasingly
interested in Galton's attempts to measure mental processes—so much so that he abandoned his law
career and set out to do the same.

2. General Intelligence (Spearman)

3. Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone)

4. Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

5. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg)

6. Cognitive Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

C. Factors Affecting Cognitive Development

D. Language Development

E. Factors Affecting Cognitive and Language Development