CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that treats various

phenomena of energy and related properties of matter, especially of the laws of
transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice versa. As a fundamental
of a more complex studies related to energy forms and conversions,
thermodynamics intent to illustrate the basic theories and methodology for the
analysis of energy related problems. Moreover, this chapter also provides the
students the basic knowledge in dealing with the essentials of Thermodynamics and
how it can be applied in real life situation.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Define the basic terminologies and system of units in thermodynamics
2. Classify the basic principles used in thermodynamic calculations
3. Determine the essentials of unit analysis and use of constants.

1. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

To cope with the proceeding discussions, presented herein are the
terminologies that we may encounter frequently.
 Surroundings
Surrounding is defined as all matter and space outside to a
thermodynamic system. In consideration with the thermodynamic
system, “surroundings” may or may not affect a certain system. For these
reason, necessary conditions from the surrounding that would affect the
calculation in a certain thermodynamic system shall be considered.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

 Working Substance

Is a substance to which heat can be stored and from which

heat can be extracted. Example, heating a pot of water for hot
water consumption, heat is being stored in water by using a
heating element. And since heat can be stored in water, it can be
classified as a working substance. Operationally, since heat can be
stored and extracted in a working substance, using a
thermodynamic system, a heat to mechanical work or vice versa
can be achieve. Working substance can be classified as a “Pure
substance” or “Ideal gas”.

 Pure Substance
Is a working substance whose chemical composition remains the
same even if there is a change of phase. Example: water, Ammonia,
etc.
 Ideal gas
Is a working substance whose chemical composition remains but
‘assumed’ that there is no change of phase all throughout the
working process of such substance. There is no concrete example
of an ideal gas but in the proceeding topics, all gaseous substances
(example: air, oxygen etc.) may be ‘assumed’ as an ideal gas.
 Thermodynamic system
Is a system where the interaction of heat and work being happened.
Such system may be an “open” or “close” depending on the method of
interaction between its working substance and the environment.
 Open System
Is a system that has a direct interaction with its surroundings.
Meaning, it has a frequent exchange of element contained in the
system with the surroundings. One usual example is the “running
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

engine of a fuel type vehicle” such that it requires air from its
surroundings and discharge gases as byproduct of its operation
 Close System
Is a system that has no physical or direct interaction with its
surroundings. Therefore, its working substance is contained only
in the thermodynamic system and is not permitted to be
exchanged with the surroundings. Conversely, only heat or useful
work are exchanged in the surroundings in a “non-isolated
system” and neither of the two in an “isolated system”.
 Control Volume
Is the focused volume in space from which the substance flows. In the
analysis of a thermodynamic system, sometimes, it would be necessary to
consider the flow of a substance in only a certain part of the system. To
do so, we may eliminate the consideration of the other system to give way
in the analysis of the certain part. Thus, only analyzing a certain control
volume. Example of control volume: pumps, compressors, turbine etc.
 Control Surface
Is a surface that surrounds the control volume. Surface consideration
is frequently denoted by a measure of area. Example: Heat exchange
surface of the Condenser, Area of the wall etc.
 Two types of thermodynamic properties
Thermodynamic properties are subdivided as “Intensive property”
and “Extensive property”
 Intensive property
Is a property which does not depend the mass of the substance.
Example: density, pressure, temperature, velocity, stress etc. Thus,
these properties may not be subject to change in a change of the
mass of the substance.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

 Extensive property
Is a property which depends on the mass of the substance.
Example: energy, momentum, volume etc. Subject to a change
of a homogeneous mass of the substance, these properties will also
change.
2. SYSTEM OF UNITS
From the very popular equation of Isaac Newton as 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, Newton’s
law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional
to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass”.
𝑭
𝒂= 𝒌
𝒎
where “k” is a proportionality constant used in the conversion method.

Case 1: If there is a fundamental unit of mass where the force is being applied,
system of units here states that k is unity but not dimensionless:
𝑔−𝑐𝑚
cgs system: 1dyne of force accelerates 1g mass at 1 cm/s2 (𝑘 = 1 )
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
mks system: 1newton force accelerates 1kg mass at 1 m/s2 (𝑘 = 1 𝑁− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑓𝑡
fps system: 1lb force accelerates 1slug mass at 1 ft/s2 (𝑘 = 1 𝑙𝑏− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )

Case 2: If the same word is used for both mass and force (force of a mass in a
gravitational field) in given system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless.
𝑔−𝑐𝑚
cgs system: 1g force accelerates 1g mass at 980.66cm/s2 (𝑘 = 980.66 )
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
mks system: 1kg force accelerates 1kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2 (𝑘 = 9.8066 )
𝑁− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑓𝑡
fps system: 1lb force accelerates 1lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2 (𝑘 = 32.174 )
𝑙𝑏− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

3. BASIC PRINCIPLES

Frequently, engineers may encounter calculations which involve the

basic principles to come up with the complex calculations which involve the
determination of power, heat, energy etc. But to do so, one should be
familiarized first with the following:

 Mass, Weight, Force and Acceleration

‘Mass’ may be defined as a property of matter that constitutes one of
the fundamental physical measurement or the amount of matter a body
contains. Units of mass are often denoted by lbm, slugs, kgm or in kg.
On the other hand ‘weight’ is defined as the force acted by a body in a
gravitational field or is equal to the product of mass of the body and the
gravitational acceleration existing in the field. Units of weight are often
denoted by lbf, kgf, N or in kN.
As defined, ‘acceleration’ is the rate at which velocity changes. And by
the Newton’s law of motion, the product of mass and acceleration can be
defined as force. By fundamental unit analysis, we have:
F = ma
F = equivalent force acting on the body
m = mass content of the body
a = acceleration of the body
 Volume
Is defined as the amount of space occupied by, or contained in the
body and is measured by the number of cubes a body contains. Units of
volume are often denoted by ft3, gallons, liters, cm3, m3 etc.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

1. You confirmed that you are 54kg here at Earth using a weighing scale. With the
same scale, you are brought to the surface of the moon to perform the same
measurement. Is the measurement the same? Why or Why not?

2. Supposed that you are weighing 54kg, what is your weight provided that you are
in the surface of the moon? You are in the surface of the earth? Hint: gearth = 9.81m/s2
and gmoon = 1/6 of gearth

3. Determine the weight of a mass of 10 kg at a location where the acceleration of

gravity is 9.77 m/s2.

4. The weight of a 10-lb mass is measured at a location where g = 32.1 ft/sec2 on

a spring scale originally calibrated in a region where g = 32.3 ft/sec2. What will be
the reading?

5. The acceleration of gravity is given as a function of elevation above sea level by

the relation g = 9.81 - 3.32 X 10-6 h (m/s2) with ‘h’ measured in meters. What is the
weight of an airplane at 10 km elevation when its weight at sea level is 40 kN?

6. Determine the deceleration of (a) a 2200-kg car and (b) a 1100-kg car, if the
brakes are suddenly applied so that all four tires slide. The coefficient of friction
η=0.6 on the dry asphalt. (η = F/N where N is the normal force and F is the
frictional force).

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

7. What is the mass in grams of a 34 oz salt? Local gravity is 9.65 m/s2?

8. When a body is accelerated under water, some of the water is also accelerated.
This makes the body appear to have a larger mass than it actually has. For a sphere
at rest this added mass is equal to the mass of one half of the displaced water.
Calculate the force necessary to accelerate a 10-kg, 300-mm-diameter sphere which
is at rest under water at the rate of 10 m/s2 in the horizontal direction. Use density
of H2O = 1000kg/m3.

9. How can you measure ‘exactly’ the volume of your body? Cite at least one
possible method.

10. You have 24 US gallons of water in a basin and you decided to put it in the 220ml
bottles. How many bottle you will need? Hint: 1 US gallon = 3.7854liters

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

 Pressure
Is defined as a force per unit ‘area’. Units of pressure are often denoted
by
unit psi, kg/cm2, kN/m2 or kPa. Important terminologies relating to
pressure are as follows:
 Gauge Pressure, Pg
Is the pressure actually measured by using a pressure gauge or
some sort of formula* in determining it. Measurements always
neglect the effect of the atmospheric pressure. It can be well
defined using the formula below:
Pg = ρgh
ρ = density of the medium
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height of the column under analysis

 Atmospheric Pressure, Patm

Is the pressure measured using a barometer. Resulting
measurement always indicates an existing barometric pressure in
a certain area.

 Absolute Pressure, Pabs

Is defined as the sum of ‘gauge’ and ‘barometric’ pressure. It
indicates a ‘total pressure’ acting on a body. Conversely, all value
of pressure reading in reference with the ‘absolute zero pressure’
is called ‘absolute pressure’. It is well defined using the formula
below:
Pabs = Patm ± Pg

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

 Vacuum Pressure, Pvac

Is the pressure lower than atmospheric pressure or a pressure

reading below ‘zero’ gauge pressure. In such case, vacuum
pressure will take a ‘negative’ sign convention when involving
such pressure in every computation

 Absolute zero Pressure

Is the pressure lower than atmospheric pressure and is often
termed as a perfect vacuum.

Illustrative diagram in reading pressure:

Note: Use ‘+’ for positive gauge pressure

Use ‘-’ for negative gauge pressure (vacuum pressure)

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

 Measuring Pressure
 By using manometers
A. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure

p = absolute pressure

po = atmospheric pressure

pg = gage pressure, the pressure due to the liquid

column hg

p = p0 + pg

B. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure

p = p0 - pg

The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the vacuum

 By using pressure gages

A schematic of a Bourdon Gauge

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

A pressure gage is a device for measuring gage pressure. This picture

shows the movement in one type of pressure gage known as the single
tube gage. The fluid enters the tube trough the threaded connection. As
the pressure increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to
straighten, the end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The
linkage causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small pinion
gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The whole
mechanism is of course enclosed in a case, and a graduated dial, from
which the pressure is read, and is placed under the index hand.

 Temperature
Is the degree of ‘hotness’ or ‘coldness’ of a substance. Often measured
using a ‘thermometer’ in a relatively ‘low temperature’ and using a
‘pyrometer’ in a relatively ‘high temperature’.

Temperature table and comparison using std. water as a medium

Scale Freezing Point Boiling Point ΔT

Celsius 0°C 100°C 100

Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F 180

Kelvin 273.15K 373.15K 100

Rankine 492R 672R 180

 Temperature Relation

Fahrenheit → Celsius
𝟗
℉= ℃ + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓
Celsius → Fahrenheit
𝟓
℃= (℉ − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

 Absolute Temperature Relation

Kelvin → Degree Celsius

𝐊 = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

Rankine → Degree Fahrenheit

𝐑 = ℉ + 𝟒𝟔𝟎

Note: At ‘zero’ (0) Kelvin and ‘zero’ Rankine, it is assumed that the working
substance in all thermodynamic processes is perfectly crystallize. Thus its
molecules stop moving.

 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are

in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. It may seem silly that such an obvious
fact is called one of the basic laws of thermodynamics. However, it
cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics, and it
serves as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement. By
replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

1. Compute the absolute pressure in kPa underneath the surface of the seawater
which is 200m below the surface assuming that the density of seawater is 1200kg/m3.
Let Patm = 101.325kPa

2. Estimate the vacuum pressure that should be created by a suction pump in order
to lift a ground water which is 10m below the level ground. Neglect the effect of
pipe friction.

3. Supposed that air (std.) has a uniform density of 1.2kg/m3, estimate how high
(meters) above the sea level where there exists a zero pressure. Assume that in the
given condition, barometric pressure at sea level is 101.325 kPa.

4. The manometer shown in figure below is used to measure the pressure in the

water pipe. Determine the water pressure if the manometer reading is 0.6 m.
Mercury is 13.6.

5. A manometer tube which contains mercury shown in figure below is used to

measure the pressure PA in the air pipe. Determine the gage pressure PA. Specific
gravity of Hg= 13.6 times the specific gravity of H2O.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

6. Determine the pressure difference between the water pipe and the oil pipe shown
in the figure below.

7. Convert 567K to Rankine.

8. At what temperature does Degree Celsius and Degree Fahrenheit have the same
and equal reading?

9. The temperature of a body is 50°F. Find its temperature in °C, K, and R.

10. Show the derivation of temperature conversion using the linear interpolation
method.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

4. UNIT ANALYSIS, CONVERSIONS AND CONSTANTS

One of the most important tools in solving related thermodynamics
problems is the knowledge of unit analysis, conversions and constant.
Engineers may wish to show a cancellation of unit to validate his/her
solution in the given situation. Also, a clear understanding of the units used
in every engineering calculation may lead oneself in a less error work.
Alternate
Quantity Symbol SI Units English Unit
English Unit
Length L m ft in
Mass m kg lbm slug
Time t s s s
Area A m2 ft2 in2
Volume V m3 ft3 in3
Velocity υ m/s ft/s mi/hr
Acceleration a m/s2 ft/s2 ft/s2
Angular
ω rad/s rad/s rad/s
Velocity
Angular
α rad/s2 rad/s2 rad/s2
Acceleration
Force, Weight F, W N lbf poundal
Density ρ kg/m3 lb/ft3 lb/in3
Specific
γ kN/m3 lb/ft3 lb/in3
weight
Pressure, N/m2, Pa,
P, σ lb/in2 (psi) ksi
Stress kg/m2
Work, Energy W, E, U kJ ft-lb ft-lb
Heat transfer Q kJ Btu Btu
Power kW ft-lb/s hp
Mass Flux kg/s lbm/s lbm/s
Flowate m3/s ft3/s gal/s
Specific Heat c kJ/kg·K ft-lb/lb-R Btu/lb-R
Specific
h kJ/kg·K ft-lb/lb-R Btu/lb-R
Enthalpy
Specific
s kJ/kg·K ft-lb/lb-R Btu/lb-R
Entropy
Specific
ν m3/kg ft3/lb ft3/lb
Volume

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

Conversion of units

Linear 1 US Barrel = 42US Gallons

1 cavan = 25 gantas
1 meter = 100cm
1 Ganta = 3 liters
= 3.28ft
= 8 chupas
= 1.093 yard
1 liter = 1000cm3
1ft = 12 inches
1 fluid oz = 29.5737cm3
1 in = 25.4 mm
1 UK Gallon = 277.42 in3
1 yard = 3ft
1 rod = 5.5 yards
Angle
= 16.5 ft
360 degrees = 2π radians
1 furlong = 40 rods
= 400 grads
= 220 yards
= 6400 mils
Statute mile = 5280ft
= 1 rev
Naut. mile = 6080ft
1 deg = 60mins
1 league = 3 Naut. Miles
1 min = 60 sec
= 18,240 ft
Work and Energy
Cable length = 720ft
1Btu = 778ft-lb
1 Fathom = 6 ft
= 252cal
1 Span = 9 inches
= 1.055 kJ
1 Vara = 33.33 inches
1cal = 4.187 J
1 Mil = 0.001 in
1 Joule = 1N-m
Area
1 erg = 1 Dyne-cm
1 hectare = 10,000m2
= 10-7 Joule
1 acre = 43, 560yd2
Power
Volume
1hp = 550 ft-lb/s
1 US Gallon = 3.7854li
= 2545 Btu/hr
= 4 quarts

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

= 0.746 kW Pressure
= 1.014 Mhp Fluids
1 Mhp = 0.736 kW 1 poise = 1dyne-s/cm2
1 Bo. hp = 35, 322 kJ/hr = 0.10 Pa-s
1 atm = 101.325kPa 1stoke = 1cm2/s
= 14.7psi 1lb-sec/ft2 = 478.7 poises
= 760mmHg
= 29.92inHg
= 1.033kg/cm2
1 bar = 100kPa
Mass and Weight
1 Ton = 2000 lbs
1 Long Ton = 2240 lbs
1 Metric Ton = 1000kg
= 2205lbs
1kgf = 9.81 N
1 kg = 2.205lbs
1lb = 16ounces
Frequently used Thermodynamic Constants
g (acceleration of free fall) = 9.81m/s2
= 32.2 ft/s2
Stefan- Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.6697x10-8m-2K-4
Speed of light = 2.998x108 m/s
Universal Gas Constant (R) = 8.3145 kJ/kmol-K
Properties of Air
Cp = 1.0062 kJ/kg-K
Cv = 0.716 kJ/kg-K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

= 53.3 ft-lb/lb-R
k = 1.4 (cold air)
= 1.3 (hot air)
Properties of Water
Cp (water) = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
= 1.0 Btu/lb – R
Cp (ice) = 2.093 kJ/kg-K
Lf (@ std. atm) = 335 kJ/kg
= 144 Btu/lb
Lv (@ std. atm) = 2257 kJ/kg
Numerical Prefixes Equivalent Factor
Exa 1018
Peta 1015
Tera 1012
Giga 109
Mega 106
Kilo 103
Hecto 102
Deca 101
-
Deci 10-1
Centi 10-2
Milli 10-3
Micro 10-6
Nano 10-9
Pico 10-12
Femto 10-15
Atto 10-18

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

CHAPTER PROBLEMS:

1. A man weighs 150N in Planet A and 50N in planet B. The local acceleration due
to gravity in Planet A is 3.5m/s2 higher as in Planet B. Determine the local
acceleration due to gravity in Planet A.

2. A vacuum gauge reads 7.45psi in the area where the barometric pressure in
15psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the gauge.

3. Determine the pressure exerted on the surface of submarine cruising 175ft below
the free surface of the sea. Assume that the atmospheric pressure in the area is
101.3kPa and the specific gravity of sea water is 1.03.

4. Refer to the figure below. Determine the absolute pressure inside the gas tank
connected in a U-tube manometer.

5. The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 14.7psi at the beginning of a hiking trip
and 13.8psi at the end. Neglecting the effect of altitude on local gravitational
acceleration, determine the vertical distance climbed. Assume an average air
density of 1.20 kg/m3

6. At 45° latitudes, the gravitational acceleration as a function of elevation ‘z’ above

sea level is given g = a - bz, where a = 9.807 m/s2 and b = 3.32 x 10-6 s-2. Determine

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

the height above sea level in meters where the weight of an object will decrease by
0.3 percent.

7. Refer to the figure below. The lower half of a 6-m-high cylindrical container is
filled with water (ρ = 1050 kg/m3) and the upper half with oil that has a specific
gravity of 0.87. Determine the pressure difference between the top and bottom of
the cylinder.

8. A 3-kg rock is thrown upward with a force of 200 N at a location where the local
gravitational acceleration is 9.79 m/s2. Determine the acceleration of the rock in
m/s2.

9. A 65-kg woman wishes to walk on the muddy soil in able to cross her way but
the mud cannot withstand pressure greater than 0.45kPa. Determine the minimum
area of shoe needed so that she can walk safely above the mud.

10. A 200kg box is laid down to a rough flat surface whose coefficient of friction is
0.29. Determine the horizontal force needed to accelerate the box at the surface at
the rate of 2m/s2.

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