CODEX GUIDELINES ON NUTRITION LABELLING

Nutrient:

Nutrient means any substance normally consumed as a constituent of food:

(a) which provides energy; or

(b) which is needed for growth, development and maintenance of life; or

(c) a deficit of which will cause characteristic bio-chemical or physiological changes to

occur.

What is Nutrition labelling?

Nutrition labelling is a description intended to inform the consumer of nutritional properties
of a food.
Types:

Nutrition labelling consists of two components:

(a)Nutrient declaration;
(b) Supplementary nutrition information.

Why it is needed?

 In providing the consumer with information about a food so that a wise choice of food
can be made;
 in providing a means for conveying information of the nutrient content of a food on
the label;
 in providing the opportunity to include supplementary nutrition information on the
label.

LISTING OF NUTRIENTS
Where nutrient declaration is applied, the declaration of the following should be mandatory:
 Energy value
 The amounts of protein, available carbohydrate (i.e., carbohydrate excluding dietary
fiber) and fat
 The amount of any other nutrient for which a nutrition claim is made.
 The amount of any other nutrient considered to be relevant for maintaining a good
nutritional status, as required by national legislation
 Where a claim is made regarding the amount and/or the type of carbohydrate, the
amount of total sugars should be listed.
 Where a claim is made regarding the amount and/or type of fatty acids, the amounts
of saturated fatty acids and of polyunsaturated fatty acids should be declared
 Vitamins and minerals: only those vitamins and minerals which are present in
significant amounts should be listed.
CALCULATION OF NUTRIENTS

3.3.1 Calculation of Energy

The amount of energy to be listed should be calculated by using the following conversion
factors:

Carbohydrates 4 kcal/g - 17 kJ
Protein 4 kcal/g - 17 kJ
Fat 9 kcal/g - 37 kJ
Alcohol (Ethanol) 7 kcal/g - 29 kJ
Organic acid 3 kcal/g - 13 kJ

3.3.2 Calculation of Protein

The amount of protein to be listed should be calculated using the formula:

Protein = Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen x 6.25

unless a different factor is given in a Codex standard or in the Codex method of
analysis for that food.

PRESENTATION OF NUTRIENT CONTENT

 The declaration of nutrient content should be numerical
 Information on energy value should be expressed in kJ and kcal per 100 g or per 100
ml.
 Information on the amounts of protein, carbohydrate and fat in the food should be
expressed in g per 100 g or per 100 ml
 Numerical information on vitamins and minerals should be expressed in metric units
and/or as a percentage of the Nutrient Reference Value per 100 g or per 100 ml.

What is food labelling?

A food label, the information presented on food product, is one of the most important and
direct means of communicating information to the consumer. The internationally accepted
definition of a food label is any tag, brand, mark, pictorial or other descriptive matter,
written, printed, marked, embossed or impressed on, or attached to, a container of
food or food product. This information, which includes items such as ingredients, quality
and nutritional value, displayed near the food to promote its sale.

Importance of food labelling:

Food labelling is one way in which consumers can get knowledge about the food they
consider buying. Correctly following the information provided on food labels (such as expiry
dates, handling instructions and allergy warnings) can help consumers prevent unnecessary
food-borne illness and allergic reactions

Things that should be included in food label:

1. Name of food
2. Net quantity of contents
3. Ingredients list
4. Colors added
5. Allergens labelling
6. Nutritional labelling
7. Name and address of manufacturer
8. Storage conditions,handling and preparation if needed.
9. Date marks : use by and best before.
Difference between use by and best before:
Best before” is used on foods with a longer shelf-life, like pasta, tinned foods, breakfast
cereal. Bacteria can't usually grow on these foods so food poisoning is not a concern.
The golden rule to remember is that use-by date is a DEADLINE but best before is a
GUIDELINE, for when to eat your food.
The best before date is about the quality of the food, while the use-by date is
about safety. You should not eat food past its use by date, but you can eat food past its
best before date if it looks, smells and tastes fine.

Food allergens:
What are food allergens?

Food allergies occur when the body's immune system reacts to certain
proteins in food.
An allergen is any normally harmless substance that causes an immediate allergic
reaction in a susceptible person. Food allergens are almost always proteins although
other food constituents, such as certain additives, are known to have allergenic (allergy-
causing) properties.

The major food allergens (there are 8) that contain gluten:

A. Milk
B. Egg
C. Fish 🐠
D. Crustacean shellfish                                                                                                                
E. Tree nuts
F. Wheat
G. Peanuts
H. Soybeans

FSSAI:
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under
Food Safety and Standards, 2006.
FSSAI has been created for laying down science-based standards for articles of food and to
regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of safe
and wholesome food for human consumption.
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative Ministry
for the implementation of FSSAI.
Functions of FSSAI:

 Framing of Regulations to lay down the Standards and guidelines in relation to

articles of food and specifying appropriate system of enforcing various standards
thus notified.
 Laying down mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies
engaged in certification of food safety management system for food businesses.
 Laying down procedure and guidelines for accreditation of laboratories and
notification of the accredited laboratories.
 To provide scientific advice and technical support to Central Government and State
Governments in the matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which have a
direct or indirect bearing of food safety and nutrition.
 Collect and collate data regarding food consumption, incidence and prevalence of
biological risk, contaminants in food, residues of various, contaminants in foods
products, identification of emerging risks and introduction of rapid alert system.
 Creating an information network across the country so that the public, consumers,
Panchayats etc. receive rapid, reliable and objective information about food safety
and issues of concern.
 Provide training programmes for persons who are involved or intend to get involved
in food businesses.
 Contribute to the development of international technical standards for food, sanitary
and Phyto-sanitary standards.
 Promote general awareness about food safety and food standards.
Codex Alimentarius:
The codex Alimentarius international food standards, guidelines and codes of practice
contribute to the safety, quality and fairness of this international food trade.
Consumers can trust the safety and quality of the food products they buy and importers can
trust that the food they ordered will be in accordance with their specifications.
Codex Alimentarius is about safe, good food for everyone - everywhere.
Role or function of Codex Alimentarius:
 C.A aims at protecting consumers health and ensuring fair practices in the food trade.
 Facilitate international trade.
 Codex Alimentarius developed standards for all the principal foods, whether
processed, semi processed or raw, for distribution to the consumer.
 C.A looks into food hygiene, food additives, residues of pesticides and veterinary
drugs, contaminants, labelling and presentation, methods of analysis and sampling,
and import and export inspection and certification.
Sample selection and sampling plans:
While analyzing food, a large quantity of food material come to the picture. Such as the
contents of a truck arriving at the factory, a days’ worth of production, or the products stored
in a warehouse. Ideally, the analyst would like to analyze every part of the material to obtain
an accurate measure of the property of interest, but in most cases, this is practically
impossible.
And here sample selection comes into the picture.
Why sample is important?
 Many analytical techniques destroy the food and so there would be nothing left to sell
if it were all analyzed.
 Many analytical techniques are time consuming, expensive or labor intensive and so it
is not economically feasible to analyze large amounts of material.

Therefore, a fraction of the whole material is selected for analysis, and to assume that
its properties are representative of the whole material.

Definitions:

  Population. The whole of the material whose properties we

are trying to obtain an estimate of is usually referred to as
the population.

     Sample. Only a fraction of the population is usually

selected for analysis, which is referred to as
the sample. The sample may be comprised of one or
 more sub-samples selected from different regions within
the population.

     Laboratory Sample. The sample may be too large to

conveniently analyze using a laboratory procedure and so
only a fraction of it is actually used in the final laboratory
analysis. This fraction is usually referred to as
the laboratory sample.

Objective os sample selection:

 To ensure that the properties of the laboratory sample are representative of the
properties of the population.
 Limited of number of sample analysis allows a reduction in time, expense and
personnel required to carry out the analytical procedure while still providing useful
information about the properties of the population.
Purpose of analysis:
 Official samples:  Samples may be selected for official or legal requirements by
government laboratories. These samples are analyzed to ensure that manufacturers are
supplying safe foods that meet legal and labeling requirements.
 Raw materials: Raw materials are often analyzed before acceptance by a factory, or
before use in a particular manufacturing process, to ensure that they are of an
appropriate quality.
 Process control samples: A food is often analyzed during processing to ensure that
the process is operating in an efficient manner.
 Finished products: Samples of the final product are usually selected and tested to
ensure that the food is safe, meets legal and labeling requirements, and is of a high
and consistent quality
  Research and Development:   Samples are analyzed by food scientists involved in
fundamental research or in product development.

Nature of population:
It is extremely important to clearly define the nature of the population from which samples
are to be selected when deciding which type of sampling plan to use.
 Finite or infinite: A finite population is one that has a definite size, e.g., a truckload
of apples, a tanker full of milk, or a vat full of oil. An infinite population is one that
has no definite size, e.g., a conveyor belt that operates continuously, from which
foods are selected periodically.
Analysis of a finite population usually provides information about the properties of
the population, whereas analysis of an infinite population usually provides
information about the properties of the process.
  Continuous or compartmentalized: A continuous population is one in which there is
no physical separation between the different parts of the sample, e.g., liquid milk or
oil stored in a tanker. A compartmentalized population is one that is split into a
number of separate sub-units, e.g.,  boxes of potato chips in a truck, or bottles of
tomato ketchup moving along a conveyor belt.
 Homogenous or heterogeneous: A homogeneous population is one in which the
properties of the individual samples are the same at every location within the material
(e.g., a tanker of well stirred liquid oil), whereas a heterogeneous population is one in
which the properties of the individual samples vary with location (e.g. a truck full of
potatoes, some of which are bad).

Sampling plans:
The various probability sampling methods are:
 Simple random sampling: This technique requires that each sample from the
population has an equal chance of selection. At first the size of the population is
defined and numbered, then randomly selects from the entire population. Here the
process is easy but the sample may not be representative of the whole.
  Stratified Random Sampling: In this technique, the population is first divided into
nonoverlapping sub-populations or groups called strata. And then from each group
simple random sampling is done.
It can lower the error associated with population by sampling separately within each
group and deriving estimates for the population from the individual groups.
 Cluster Sampling: In cluster sampling the subjects are selected in groups or clusters.
This approach allows the user to overcome the large costs and time associated with
sampling a dispersed population. Unlike stratified sampling, the clusters are thought
of as being typical of the population, rather than subsections.
 Systematic Sampling: With this technique, the user randomly chooses a starting
point within a sampling timeframe, and then takes samples at regular intervals. For
example, the start of a production run is sampled, and then samples are chosen at
some set interval, such as every tenth unit. This is more precise than simple random
sampling, as the samples are more evenly spread over the population.

Sample preparation:
 Once we have selected a sample that represents the properties of the whole population, we
must prepare it for analysis in the laboratory.
The steps of sample preparation:
1. Making sample homogenous:
The food material within the sample  selected from the population is usually
heterogeneous, i.e., its properties vary from one location to another. There can be
inter unit variation, e.g. a box of oranges, some of good quality and some of bad
quality; or intra unit variation, e.g. an individual orange, whose skin has different
properties than its flesh.  For this reason it is usually necessary to make
 samples homogeneous before they are analyzed, otherwise it would be difficult to
select a representative laboratory sample from the sample.
Homogenization can be achieved using :
 Mechanical devices (e.g.,  grinders, mixers, slicers, blenders),
 Enzymatic methods (e.g.,  proteases, cellulases, lipases) or
 Chemical methods (e.g., strong acids, strong bases, detergents).

2. Reducing Sample Size:

Once the sample has been made homogeneous, a small more manageable portion is
selected for analysis. This is usually referred to as a laboratory sample, and ideally it
will have properties which are representative of the population from which it was
originally selected.
3. Preventing Changes in Sample: Once we have selected our sample we have to
ensure that it does not undergo any significant changes in its properties from the
moment of sampling to the time when the actual analysis is carried
out, e.g., enzymatic, chemical, microbial or physical changes.
Problems with food samples (changes in its properties):
Changes that can occur to a sample before analysis:
 Enzymatic
 Chemical
 Microbial
 Physical changes
Dealing with the changes and preventing them:
 Enzymatic Inactivation:
Many foods contain active enzymes they can cause changes in the properties of the
food prior to analysis, e.g., proteases, cellulases, lipases, etc. If the action of one of
these enzymes alters the characteristics of the compound being analyzed then it will
lead to erroneous data and it should therefore be inactivated or eliminated. Freezing,
drying, heat treatment and chemical preservatives. Depending on the type of food
being analyzed and the purpose of the analysis, different methods are used.
  Lipid Protection: Unsaturated lipids may be altered by various oxidation reactions.
Exposure to light, elevated temperatures, oxygen or pro-oxidants can increase the rate
at which these reactions proceed. Consequently, it is usually necessary to store
samples that have high unsaturated lipid contents under nitrogen or some other inert
gas, in dark rooms or covered bottles and in refrigerated temperatures.
 Microbial Growth and Contamination: Microorganisms are present naturally in
many foods and if they are not controlled, they can alter the composition of the
sample to be analyzed. Freezing, drying, heat treatment and chemical preservatives
(or a combination) are often used to control the growth of microbes in foods.
   Physical Changes:  A number of physical changes may occur in a
sample, e.g., water may be lost due to evaporation or gained due to condensation; fat
or ice may melt or crystallize; structural properties may be disturbed. Physical
changes can be minimized by controlling the temperature of the sample, and the
forces that it experiences.
Calculations:
The most commonly used parameter for representing the overall properties of a number of
measurements is the mean.
Mean =

Here n is the total number of measurements, xi is the individually measured values

and  is the mean value.
Measure of Spread of Data(standard deviation)
The spread of the data is a measurement of how closely together repeated measurements are
to each other. The standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of the spread of
experimental measurements.

Measured values within the specified range:

� SD means 68% values within range (x - SD) to (x + SD)
� 2SD means 95% values within range (x - 2SD) to (x + 2SD)
� 3SD means >99% values within range (x - 3SD) to (x +
3SD)

Coefficient of variation (C.V): It provides an indication of the relative spread of the data
around the mean.

C.V= CV = [SD / ] *100%.

C.V value should be below 5%.

Moisture content:
Structure of water:

The structure of water varies considerably, depending on its physical state. 

In vapor phase:
Water in the gas phase consists of isolated molecules of H2O. Each molecule is bent with a
bond angle of 105 deg. The negative charge is concentrated around the oxygen atom. The
protons have a partial positive charge. The electron density map (above right) shows that the
electron density is approximately 10 times greater around oxygen than around the hydrogen
atoms.

In liquid phase:
In liquid phase hydrogen forms, as the hydrogen bond of one, molecule is attached towards
the oxygen atom of neighboring water molecule.
In a water molecule (H2O), the oxygen nucleus with +8 charges attracts electrons better than
the hydrogen nucleus with its +1 charge. Hence, the oxygen atom is partially negatively
charged and the hydrogen atom is partially positively charged. The hydrogen atoms are not
only covalently attached to their oxygen atoms but also attracted towards other nearby
oxygen atoms. This attraction is the basis of the 'hydrogen' bonds.

Two methods of drying:

1. Drying by evaporation
2. Drying by distillation method.
Difference between drying and distillation:
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Difference between evaporation and distillation from food analysis point of view:
In Drying by evaporation, the water cannot be collected as it gets evaporated. It takes
more time. Texture loss occurs.
Essential oils may be lost, also nutrient loss occurs.
All these can be reduced by using distillation method.

Types of drying by evaporation:

Convection drying: A flowing gas transfers the heat necessary for drying to the
material by convection. As well as delivering heat, the gas is also used to remove the
moisture given off by the material.
Contact drying: The material is placed on or is passed over heated surfaces. Heat is
predominantly transferred to the material by conduction.
Radiation drying: The material absorbs emitted electromagnetic radiation from
sources of radiation (e.g., infrared radiators). Heating and evaporation occur not only
at the surface of the material but also within it.
Freeze drying: The frozen material is placed in a vacuum below its triple point.
Moisture is removed from the material, by changing it directly from a solid to a
gaseous state.
High frequency drying: The material is exposed to high frequency electrical fields
between the electrodes of a plate capacitor. A part of field energy is absorbed by the
material resulting in internal heating and removal of moisture.

Types of apparatus used:

1. Convection oven:
A convection oven is an oven that has fans to circulate air around food to create
an evenly-heated environment. The increased air circulation causes oven to
remove the moisture faster than a conventional non-fan oven, which relies only on
natural convection to circulate the hot air.
2. Forced draft oven:
It consists of a heating system with motorized blower unit at bottom side of oven.
The blower blows fresh air through a heating platform and enables hot air draft in
the working chamber creating uniform temperature throughout the chamber. The
excess hot air with fumes and moisture flows out through an adjustable
ventilation. Forced air draft system is ideal for wet and moist materials. Used for
pre heating, drying, sterilizing, baking, aging, etc.
3. Vacuum oven:
Vacuum oven is generally used for drying of substances which are hygroscopic
and heat sensitive and is based on the principle of creating a vacuum to decrease
the chamber pressure below the vapor pressure of the water causing it to boil. It
can be filled with inert gases, especially for rapid drying of some compound
material. The low-pressure environment also minimizes oxidation during drying.
 The materials to be dried are kept on trays and pressure is reduced by means of
vacuum pump. Steam is passed through the space between trays and jacket, so that
heat transfer occurs by conduction. The oven door is locked airtight and connected
to vacuum pump to reduce the pressure. Microprocessor controller with digital
display ensures precise and homogenous temperature control. Dual layer tempered
glass door is provided for clear observation. Adjustable aluminum expansion
shelves ensure optimal heat transfer within oven chamber.

4. Microwave drier:
Microwaves penetrate to interior of the food causing water to get heated within
food. This results in a greatly increased vapor pressure differential between the
center and surface of the product, allowing fast transfer of moisture out of the
food. Hence microwave drying is rapid, more uniform and energy efficient
compared to conventional hot air drying.
Mechanism of Heating:
In microwave heating or drying, microwave-emitted radiation is confined within
the cavity and there is hardly heat loss by conduction or convection so that energy
is mainly absorbed by a wet material placed in the cavity. Furthermore, this
energy is principally absorbed by water in the material, causing temperature to
raise, some water to be evaporated and moisture level to be reduced.
5. Infrared moisture meter:
An infrared moisture analyzer is an instrument that substitutes a loss on drying
method used for many official analytical methods for moisture determination. The
equipment determines moisture of a sample by heating and drying it with infrared
irradiation and displays the moisture content measured from changes in mass due
to evaporation.
It depends on:
 Distance between lamp and sample
 Sample dimension
Advantages of infrared moisture meter:
1. Small size, light weight, simple structure.
2. No influence from environment and humidity, without auxiliary equipment.
3. Simple operation, without installation and commissioning training.
4. High efficiency, fast speed, overall operation is not more than 10 minutes.
5. High precision, electromagnetic force weighing sensor ensure the weighing
accuracy

Its not used for a legal purpose, but very useful in food industries.

Estimation of crude fat:

Crude fat is the term used to refer to the crude mixture of fat-soluble
material present in a sample.
It may include:
 Triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, free
fatty acids, fat soluble vitamins, carotene pigments, chlorophylls, etc.
The common approach for total crude fat determination is based on the
solubility of lipids in non-polar organic solvents such as
hexanes,
petroleum ether,
diethyl ether

The Babcock method and the Mojonnier method both are wet extraction
methods used for crude fat determinations in milk and milk products. 

Three factors that affect crude fat analysis are moisture content, sample
preparation, and extraction methodologies.

Why triglycerides are more hydrophobic?

Because all three substituents on the glycerol backbone are long

hydrocarbon chains, these compounds are nonpolar and not significantly
attracted to polar water molecules.

Triglycerides function as a long-term storage form of energy in the human

bods. Because of the long carbon chains, triglycerides are nearly nonpolar
molecules and thus do not dissolve readily in polar solvents such as water.

Why are triglycerides more hydrophobic than phospholipids?

Triglycerides are completely insoluble in water. However, due to the ionic
organic phosphate group, phospholipids demonstrate properties because the ionic
group is attracted to water. Phospholipids have both a polar, hydrophilic end, and a
nonpolar, hydrophobic end.