CONTEXTUALIZATION AND CHURCH PLANTING

__________________

A Paper

Presented to

Dr. J. D. Payne

The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

__________________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for 88500

__________________

by

Richard Brent Waldrep

March 12, 2007

1
 2

CONTEXTUALIZATION AND CHURCH PLANTING

Introduction
When Jesus commissioned his followers to make disciples of all nations (Matt 28:19-

20), he sent them on a trans-cultural disciple-making mission.1 Ever since Jesus declared that his

church would cross cultural boundaries and spread throughout the world (Acts 1:8), his followers

have faced cross-cultural ministry challenges. Faithful disciples of all generations have struggled

to present the message of salvation and then form new believers into local churches in ways that

make sense to people of different cultures. Because both the gospel and the church are trans-

cultural and at the same time embedded in a local culture, a certain amount of tension is inherent

in cross-cultural gospel proclamation and church planting.2

Some attempts at cross-cultural disciple making have gone well while others have

been miserable failures. Missions literature is full of missionaries, church planters and nationals

venting their frustration that consideration of cultural differences has been noticeably absent in

much ministry strategy. For example, missionary to India John V. Taylor lamented the lack of

cultural identification he found among Indian disciples in the late 1960s: “And the Christ who is

for all men is dishonored by his Indian disciples so long as they present him to their fellow men
as an alien . . . . Moreover, those disciples themselves will not really know him until they learn to

be totally Indian in his presence.”3

1
?
Not every instance of disciple-making is cross-cultural in nature, but with the Great Commission Jesus
set the trajectory of the church to spread throughout the cultures of the world. The Great Commission is a cross-
cultural, global mandate.

A. Scott Moreau, “Contextualization: From an Adapted Message to an Adapted Life,” in The

2

Changing Face of World Missions, ed. Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen and Douglas McConnell (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 2005), 321.
3
John V. Taylor, “India,” CMS Newsletter 327 (1969), 3.
 3

The term “contextualization” appeared in missions literature in 1972. Although the

term first appeared in ecumenical circles, conservative evangelicals adopted the word and within

the last thirty years it has come to be the accepted overarching term that considers cross-cultural

gospel proclamation and church planting issues. This essay presents an overview of

contextualization by asking and answering five foundational questions concerning the concept.

What is Contextualization?

The word “contextualization” is derived from the Latin word contextus,

conveying the idea of “weaving together.”4 When an ideology from one culture is weaved

seamlessly into another culture, contextualization has taken place. Southern Baptist missions

professor Daniel Sanchez defines the general concept of contextualization as “making

concepts and methods relevant to a historical situation.”5 Drawing on the work of Charles R.

Taber, Sanchez further defines missiological contextualization as “enabling the message of

God’s redeeming love in Jesus Christ to become alive as it addresses the vital issues of a

sociological context and transforms its worldview, its values, and its goals.”6

Missionaries, church planters, and pastors contextualize as they articulate and

incarnate the gospel message and the Christian faith in a manner that is understandable in a

particular historical, geographical, and cultural setting. Understanding is the ultimate goal of
contextualization.7

The gospel message and the Christian faith are transcultural, not bound to one

culture. Yet many cross-cultural ministers communicate a gospel and teach a Christian faith

that is so enmeshed in the communicator’s culture that the receptors cannot gain a true
4
?
Daniel R. Sanchez, “Contextualization and the Missionary Endeavor,” in Missiology: An
Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategy of World Missions, ed. John Mark Terry, Ebbie
Smith, and Justice Anderson (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998), 318.
5
Ibid., 318.
6
Ibid., 318.
7
Moreau, “Contextualization,” 323.
 4

understanding of the gospel and the Christian life. Contextualization, then, is an attempt to

communicate and “weave together” the gospel in another culture so that the message is

understood without distortion.8 A message that is communicated with foreign thought

patterns, foreign forms, and foreign illustrations will always be considered a “foreign

message” by listeners, even if it is spoken in the listeners’ language. A church that meets in

an odd looking building, plays odd sounding music, and never concerns itself with the needs

of the surrounding peoples, will always be odd and culturally irrelevant.

It is not the job of the Christian missionary, church planter, or pastor to make the

gospel of Jesus Christ relevant. The gospel is relevant. The cross-cultural minister is

responsible, however, to communicate the gospel and the Christian faith in such a way that

the transcultural, relevant gospel is understood in a different context and not considered by

listeners to be irrelevant because it is presented as one component of a foreign culture.

Charles Kraft offers the analogy of a tree and a seed to explain the

contextualization of the gospel.9 Contextualization is not like taking a grown tree from one

context and transplanting it into another. A tree grown and nourished in one context with

leaves, branches, and fruit characteristic of that area will appear foreign and out of place if

transplanted in another context. Instead, contextualization happens when a seed, in this case

the gospel, is planted in the new context and is allowed to grow. As this seed grows, it

absorbs the nutrients from the soil and the rain of the new region. The resulting tree may look

different than one in the original region, but it is the same species of tree. Most importantly,

it fits in the culture in which it has grown.10

8
?
The term contextualization is closely related to other missiological terms with similar meanings:
accommodation, adaptation, indigenization, incarnation, enculturation, and transformation. Contextualization
has become an “umbrella word” in missions literature that encompasses all the meanings of these antecedent
terms. For an overview of these related terms see Moreau, “Contextualization,” 325-29.

Charles Kraft, “Culture, Worldview and Contextualization,” in Perspectives on the World

9

Christian Movement, ed. Ralph Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey, 1999), 389.
10
 5

Is Contextualization Biblical?
Although the term “contextualization” only recently appeared in missions literature

(1972), the practice of contextualization can be traced back to the New Testament church as it

began the task of missions. The earliest examples of gospel contextualization are found in the

New Testament. A. Scott Moreau maintains that “the New Testament itself is a contextualized

document.”11 Throughout the New Testament one finds the biblical writers producing

contextualized documents as they communicate the unchanging message of the gospel to the

various sociocultural contexts of their day. From the four Gospels to the letters of Paul to various

sayings of Jesus, contextualization is the New Testament standard.12

The Gospel Writers Contextualize

The historical events that take place in the Gospels have specific cultural settings and

those settings are critical components of the Gospels. The gospel story is a story with a specific

context. The gospel writers communicate the historical events that took place in one context to

audiences in different cultural contexts.13

In other words, the four Gospels address different “target audiences.” Matthew writes

for a Jewish audience, Luke addresses both the Gospel and Acts to a Gentile named Theophilus,

and John writes for a Greek audience. The writers of the four Gospels contextualize the gospel

?
Kraft’s analogy is helpful to the extent it describes the universal nature of biblical truth. Christian
truth is not culturally bound, but may be expressed in the multitude of cultures in the world. The analogy,
however, should not be taken to extremes. For example, does Kraft mean to imply that as the gospel takes root
in a new culture the embryonic church should have no contact with other cultures? Should a new church be
isolated from the global Christian community and 2000 years of church history for fear that it might become
less indigenous?
11
Moreau, “Contextualization,” 333.

For a comprehensive treatment of contextualization in the New Testament, see Dean Flemming,
12

Contextualization in the New Testament: Patterns for Theology and Mission (Downers Grove: InterVarsity,
2005).

David Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, NY:
13

Orbis), 15-170. Bosch argues that the New Testament is a missionary document and that the writers of the
Gospels and Paul modeled contextualization as they addressed specific missional situations.
 6

message to clearly communicate with their respective audiences. John, for example, uses the

Greek concept of “Logos,” which literally means “world-soul,” and infuses this word with a

Christian meaning to point to a personal God in terms Greeks could easily understand.14

Sometimes it is easy to overlook the two different contexts one finds in each of the

Gospels. For example, one may think that the events that take place in Matthew and the “target

audience” to whom Matthew is writing (his first readers) represent the same context. But this is

not correct. While there may be some cultural similarities, Matthew communicates events that

happened in one context to people living in a different context. This is the case for all the gospel
writers.15

Paul Contextualizes
The Pauline epistles are “occasional” letters, each written to a specific audience in a

specific cultural context struggling to live out the Christian faith. Paul’s epistles are

contextualized documents. Conceivably, Paul could have sent a generic document entitled “How

to Be a Christian” to all the churches to whom he related. This generic document could have

contained Christian principles without reference to a specific context. Instead, Paul addresses

issues the early believers dealt with in their respective contexts. Paul never divorces the Christian

life from the context in which it is lived.16

In addition to his epistles, Paul contextualizes the gospel he preaches. As Paul

addresses a Jewish audience in the synagogue in Antioch (Acts 13) he speaks about patriarchs,

prophets, and prophecies of old fulfilled. His Jewish audience readily identifies with these

themes. However, when Paul preaches the same gospel in Athens (Acts 17) he changes his

language in order to relate to intellectual Gentiles. He speaks to them about an “unknown God”

14

?
Flemming, Contextualization in the New Testament, 234-65.
15
Bosch, Transforming Mission, 56-83.

For a thorough examination of Paul’s approach to contextualization see Flemming, Contextualization

16

in the New Testament, 89-181.

 7

(v. 23), a concept already present in their culture. Paul even quotes from one of their poets (v.

27-28) as he calls them to repentance (v. 30) and warns them of the coming judgment (v. 30).17

Paul never compromises the gospel, but he always communicates his message in a

way that considers the cultural and religious background of his hearers. He spells out his

principle of contextualization in 1 Cor 9:22b: “I have become all things to all men, so that I may

by all means save some.”18

Jesus Contextualizes
Perhaps the greatest example of contextualization is the incarnation of Jesus Christ.

Jesus physically enters the context of mankind. Although the cross-cultural minister cannot enter

another culture in the same way Jesus did, the incarnation does illustrate the high priority Jesus

places on contact with the receptor culture for the purpose of ministry.19

In addition to the incarnation, Jesus frequently contextualizes his spoken message of

redemption. Don Richardson calls this type of contextualization a “redemptive analogy.”20 For

example, Jesus uses a redemptive analogy when he speaks to Nicodemus. To the Jewish teacher

Nicodemus, obviously familiar with the story of Moses erecting a brass serpent so Israelites

dying of snakebite could look at it and live (Num 21:1-9), Jesus says: “as Moses lifted up the

serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up, so that whoever believes in

17

?
Norman R. Ericson, “Implications from the New Testament for Contextualization,” in Theology
and Mission: Papers Given at the Trinity Consultation No. 1, ed. David J. Hesselgrave (Baker: Grand Rapids,
1978), 71-85.
18

?
All Scripture references are from the NASB. Sanchez identifies 1 Cor 9:22b as Paul’s principle of
contextualization in “Contextualization,” 319.
19
For a comprehensive treatment of the implications of the incarnation for the ministry of the church,
see Andreas Kostenberger, The Mission of Jesus and the Disciples According to the Fourth Gospel: With
Implications for the Fourth Gospel’s Purpose and the Mission of the Contemporary Church (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1998). Also, see David J. Hesselgrave, Paradigms in Conflict: 10 Key Questions in Christian Missions
Today (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2005), 141-65. Hesselgrave argues that the church should embrace the representative
model of Paul instead of the incarnational model of Jesus.

Don Richardson, “Redemptive Analogy,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed.
20

Ralph Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey, 1999), 397-403.
 8

Him will have eternal life (John 3:13-14).” In this case, Nicodemus’ Jewish culture helps him

understand Jesus as Redeemer. Richardson says that redemptive analogies “facilitate human

understanding of redemption” as they “precondition the mind in a culturally significant way to

recognize Jesus as the Messiah.”21

Is Contextualization Always Biblical?

Today, not every practice done in the name of contextualization follows the biblical

pattern. Contextualization is necessarily concerned with two elements: Scripture and setting.

These two elements, however, do not have equal authority in the contextualization process.

Those involved in contextualization choose to give primacy either to Scripture or to the setting as

they decide which element will set the agenda for the contextualization process.22

Conservative evangelicals begin with Scripture and acknowledge that the Bible has

ultimate authority in the contextualization process. In mission and church planting literature this

approach is referred to as a “translation model.”23 The role of the contextualizer is to

communicate the unchanging message of the Bible in such a way that it makes sense to those in a

different cultural setting. The contextualizer must possess a profound understanding of the new

setting to facilitate effective communication. The setting, however, never becomes more

foundational than the biblical message.

21

Richardson, “Redemptive Analogy,” 397. For a contemporary use of redemptive analogy see
?

Richardson, Peace Child, 4th ed. (Ventura, CA: Regal, 2005).

22
The articles by Daniel Von Allmen and D. A. Carson are essential for understanding the
discussion concerning setting or Scripture as the driving force behind contextualization. See Von Allmen, “The
Birth of Theology: Contextualization as the Dynamic Element in the Formation of New Testament Theology,”
International Review of Mission 64 (1975), 37-52. Also, see Carson’s responses in, “Church and Mission:
Reflections on the Third Horizon,” in The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study, ed. D.A.
Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 213-57 and “Reflections on Contextualization: A Critical Appraisal of
Daniel Von Allmen’s ‘Birth of Theology,’” East Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 3:1 (1984), 16-59.
23
Moreau, “Contextualization,” 335.
 9

Another option is to elevate the context above Scripture. This approach is referred to

as an “existential model” and is generally expressed in one of the following two ways.24 Some

contextualizers begin with the context and look for ways that God is already working in the

culture and then demonstrate how the biblical message is already present in the setting. In other

words, a biblical message from outside the setting is not communicated to those within, instead

the message is found to exist within the setting and then is revealed.25

Others begin with context and look for ways God is bringing liberation to the

oppressed people of a specific setting. This route leads to any one of the many expressions of
liberation theology.26 Convinced the Bible teaches that God’s priority for mankind is freedom

from oppressive social structures, the contextualizer strives to empower the marginalized to

achieve this freedom. Liberation theologians apply liberation passages of Scripture, such as the

exodus, to the marginalized peoples in their specific social context.

Paul Hiebert’s Critical Contextualization

Either the setting or Scripture will drive contextualization. Among evangelicals who

view Scripture as authoritative in contextualization, the most prominent approach to

contextualization is Paul Hiebert’s “critical contextualization.”27 The critical contextualization

process leads a community of believers to scrutinize cultural practices in light of biblical truth.

The first step is an exegesis of the culture. While the believers study various aspects of a local

24
?
Ibid., 335-36.
25
Often this approach leads to syncretism as part of the biblical message is mixed with elements from
other religious beliefs already present in the culture. Kraft, in “Culture, Worldview and Contextualization,” defines
syncretism as “the mixing of Christian assumptions with those worldview assumptions that are incompatible with
Christianity so that the result is not biblical Christianity” 390. Syncretism is also a concern for those who view the
Bible as the ultimate authority in the contextualization process. As one contextualizes, he must constantly guard
against worldview assumptions and expressions of those assumptions that are contrary to biblical truth.

For a helpful overview of the various expressions of liberation theology, see Pricilla Pope-
26

Levison and John R. Levison, Jesus in Global Contexts (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1992).

Paul Hiebert, Anthropological Reflections on Missiological Issues (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994),
27

75-92. Chapter Four of this text is entitled “Critical Contextualization.”

 10

culture, they temporarily suspend judgment concerning questions of truth. The believers

uncritically analyze the culture’s traditional beliefs and societal customs for the sole purpose of

understanding. Second, the community exegetes Scripture and engages in cross-cultural

hermeneutics. Specific issues from the study of culture are subjected to the authority of

Scripture. A leader guides the community of believers to compare specific cultural practices and

beliefs with biblical truth. The third step in Hiebert’s critical contextualization is the

community’s response to their cultural tradition or practice in light of Scripture. A decision must

be made. They may keep the old practice because it does not conflict with biblical truth, reject
the old practice because it directly conflicts with biblical truth, or modify the old practice to

infuse it with Christian meaning. As they choose to infuse old practices with new meaning, the

community enters the fourth step and develops new contextualized practices.28

Dynamic and Literal Approaches to Scripture

Although Hiebert’s model seems straightforward enough, evangelicals differ on how

to apply contextualization principles. These differences stem directly from alternative viewpoints

concerning the nature of Scripture itself. The two most popular approaches to Scripture in the

contextualization process are the dynamic and literal approaches.

Charles Kraft is perhaps the leading missiologist who advocates a dynamic approach

to Scripture. He argues that the Bible is “God’s inspired casebook.”29 God’s revelation to

mankind is “receptor oriented” and therefore may be described as “subjective and continuing.”30

The most important aspect of God’s revelation is the meaning and not the form of the revelation.

28

?
Hiebert’s model emphasizes community contextualization. Contextualization done in community is
often more effective in guarding against syncretism. When possible “the contextualizer” and “cross-cultural
minister” (terms the writer uses in this paper) should be a community of Christians.
29

Charles Kraft, Christianity in Culture: A Study in Dynamic Biblical Theologizing in Cross-Cultural

?

Perspective (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1979), 194.

30
Ibid., 184.
 11

The words themselves are not critical, but the revelation’s impact on the readers comprises the

essence of the revelation.

David Hesselgrave disagrees with Kraft’s understanding of revelation. Hesselgrave

maintains that only contextualization based on a literal view of Scripture, instead of a dynamic

view, does not distort Scripture. Hesselgrave identifies his literal approach to Scripture as the

“verbal-plenary” view of inspiration. He argues that the human authors of the Bible “were

inspired by the Holy Spirit of God in such a way that every word they wrote expressed literally

and propositionally the precise thought that God intended to communicate.”31 In Hesselgrave’s
view not only the meaning and ideas communicated in Scripture, but also the very words, are

inspired revelation.

The view of Scriptural inspiration one adopts impacts contextualization in concrete

ways. For example, workers involved with the Jesus film in North Africa decided to use the title

“Messiah of God” in reference to Jesus instead of “Son of God.” While the latter is the literal

biblical phrase, Western workers opted for “Messiah of God” because it is less confrontational.

In the name of contextualization, they gave up the literal biblical form. An Iranian Christian

leader observes, “When it comes to Islam, the issue of contextualization is sometimes taken too

far . . . . In the beginning we fought with them [Muslims], then we ignored them, and now there

is a tendency to appease them.”32

How Can a Church Planter Know His Context?

31
?
Hesselgrave, Paradigms in Conflict, 248. In response to Kraft’s insistence upon a culturally
relevant Scripture, Hesselgrave argues “when it comes to the biblical text, accurate translation and interpretation
will, by definition, be culturally relevant” 263.
32
David Greenlee, “Ancient Springs and Sweet Fruit: Missiological Contributions from the Middle
East,” in Global Missiology for the 21st Century: The Iguassu Dialogue (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000), 343.
 12

If a church planter is convinced that contextualization is the biblical pattern and that

he must take great care in the contextualization process in order to remain faithful to biblical

authority, the question then becomes “where does one begin?” Following Hiebert’s model of

critical contextualization, one must begin with an exegesis of the context.

Two important characteristics of contextualization must be kept in mind while

gathering information about a context. First, good contextualization is interdisciplinary. The

Bible is always the one source of authority in the contextualization process, but in addition to the

Bible insights may be drawn from academic disciplines such as history, anthropology, sociology,
communication studies, psychology, economics and politics.33 These disciplines may provide

understanding into specific facets of a context.

Second, good contextualization considers the fluid nature of the context. The context

is always changing; not static. Globalization connects societies and cultures to an historically

unprecedented extent.34 This contact fosters rapid social change. Therefore, contextualization is

never a finished process.

Brian Galloway argues that the culture of any context has two components:

observable culture and unobservable culture.35 He likens culture to an iceberg. There is a section

of the iceberg that is observable above the water and there is a section of the iceberg, typically

much larger, that is submerged. To know a context, one must understand both the observable and

the unobservable features of culture.36

33
?
Moreau, “Contextualization,” 324.
34
It is imperative that the cross-cultural minister have a good understanding of globalization. For a
popular treatment of globalization, see Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding
Globalization, (New York: Anchor, 1999) and The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty First Century (New
York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2005). For an examination of the impact of globalization on missions and church
planting, see Michael Pocock, “Globalization: New York’s in New Delhi, Manila’s in Los Angeles,” in The
Changing Face of World Missions, ed. Michael Pocock, Gailyn Rheenen and Douglas McConnell (Grand Rapids:
Baker, 2005), 21-44 and Alex Araujo, “Globalization and World Evangelism,” in Global Missiology for the 21st
Century, ed. William D. Taylor (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000), 57-70.
35
Bryan Galloway, Traveling Down Their Road: A Workbook for Discovering a People’s Worldview
(Thailand: self-published, 2006), 53.
36
 13

Know the Observable Features of the Cultural Context

Understanding a specific context begins with the observable facets of social structure.

Social structure includes three elements: identifiable cultural characteristics, society typology,

and demographics. The cross-cultural minister must understand each element of the social

structure in order to understand the cultural context.37 The following three steps provide a

sequential order for understanding the social structure of a given context.

First, the contextualizer must identify the observable distinctives of the people in the

culture. These are the things normally associated with culture. What kind of food do the people

of this culture eat? What kind of music do they enjoy? How do they greet one another? Do they

look each other in the eye? Also, one must identify types of art, modes of transportation,

monetary unit, language, housing, and economic transactions.38 While some of these distinctives

may not make sense at first, the observer will eventually understand why the people do what they

do as he or she considers worldview issues.

Second, the contextualizer must identify the general type of society in which he is

working. Tribal societies, rural societies, peasant societies and urban societies each have

distinguishing characteristics. Societal typology indicates how people in the group relate to each

other and how they make decisions.39

Rick Warren in The Purpose Driven Church (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 161-69, says that
?

churches should understand the people of a context demographically, culturally, geographically, and spiritually.
Galloway’s model of culture depicted as an iceberg composed of both observable and unobservable characteristics
encompasses Warren’s four categories.
37
?
The writer uses the terms “cross-cultural minister” and “the contextualizer” to identify that person or
group of persons involved in the contextualization process. These terms could refer to pastors, professors, church
planters, missionaries, volunteer teams, a church, members of a church, or church planting teams.
38
See chapter 3 “Culture and Cultural Values” in Galloway, Traveling Down Their Road, 51-69
and Carol V. McKinney, Globe-Trotting in Sandals: A Field Guide to Cultural Research (Dallas: SIL
International, 2000), 141-48. These two resources are useful guides to completing all the cultural research
discussed in this section of the paper, “How Can A Church Planter Know His Context?”
39
?
Anthropologists offer various models of societal typologies. See Paul Hiebert, “Social Structure
and Church Growth,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C.
Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey, 1999), 422-28 and Eugene A. Nida, “Communication and Social
Structure,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne
 14

For example, members of a tribal society find identity exclusively within the kinship

bonds of the tribe and decision making is a group process. In rural and peasant societies, kinship

ties are weaker than in tribal societies and the people derive identity from membership in a caste

or class. The dominant groups of society generally make decisions for subordinate groups. In the

urban context, individualism is typically a dominant characteristic and the people derive identity

from voluntary associations and social networks.40

Once the contextualizer has identified the society’s type and some of the general

ways people relate, the third step is demographic research. Carol V. McKinney defines
demography as the “science of populations” whose goal is to “understand significant aspects of

the composition and dynamics of the populations studied.”41 Demographic indicators measure

societal characteristics such as total population, population density, migration patterns, marriage

patterns, rates of illness and death, educational level, literacy rates, learning styles, population

growth or decline and the presence of major and minor religions.42

Missiologist Douglas McConnell admonishes ministers to embrace the study of

demographics and formulate ministry strategy based on the changing demographics of the world.

In the twentieth century the population of the world soared from 1.2 billion to 6.2 billion with the

majority of the growth occurring in less developed regions. Demographic factors such as

population growth, migration, the HIV/AIDS crisis, children at risk, and the economic disparity

accelerated by globalization reshape the world on a daily basis.43 Each context is different and is

(Pasadena: William Carey, 1999), 429-37.

40
?
Hiebert, “Social Structure and Church Growth,” 422-28.
41
McKinney, Globe-Trotting in Sandals, 125.
42
For an explanation of demographic indicators and a guide to demographic research, see Pertti
Alasuutari, Researching Culture: Qualitative Methods and Cultural Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, 1995).
43
?
Douglas McConnell, “Changing Demographics: The Impact of Migration, HIV/AIDS, and Children at
Risk,” in The Changing Face of World Missions, ed. Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen, and Douglas
McConnell (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), 45-78.
 15

being reshaped demographically in different ways. Therefore, ministry strategy should be built

upon context-specific demographic research.

By examining these three observable facets of the social structure, a contextualizer is

attempting to gain the information necessary to describe observable, group characteristics. Only

after the contextualizer gains a foundational understanding of these observable characteristics is

he or she ready to begin examining the unseen and more complicated phenomenon of worldview.

Know the Unobservable Features of the Cultural Context

Charles Kraft defines worldview as “the culturally structured set of assumptions

(including values and commitments/allegiances) underlying how a people perceive and respond

to reality.”44 While many aspects of culture are obvious, worldview assumptions are not easily

observable because these assumptions about reality lie at the very core of culture. Submerged

deep within culture, worldview governs surface-level behavior.

Worldview assumptions about abstract subjects such as time, conflict resolution,

values, the value of a person, power, work, shame, patience, truth, gender and authority roles,

beliefs and motivations manifest themselves in everyday behavior.45 For example, Westerners

generally resolve conflict in a direct manner. If members of a group disagree on a course of

action, the members discuss and debate among themselves until finally a vote is taken. Asian

cultures, on the other hand, seek harmony and value consensus. Asian leaders poll all the

members of a group for their opinion. Tolerance and understanding matter more than rational

44
Charles Kraft, “Culture, Worldview and Contextualization,” in Perspectives on the World Christian
Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey, 1999), 385. According to
Kraft, worldview must be understood as the foundation of culture. Worldview cannot be separated from culture.
45
Galloway’s Traveling Down Their Road and McKinney’s Globe-Trotting in Sandals are excellent
resources that provide field research models for understanding a people’s worldview. Also consult, David M.
Fetterman, Ethnography: Step by Step, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998), Stephen A. Grunlan
and Marvin K Mayers, Cultural Anthropology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988) and Margaret D.
LeCompte, Jean J. Schensul, Margaret R. Weeks, and Marrill Singer, Ethnographer’s Toolkit, vol. 1-6 (Walnut
Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 1999).
 16

arguments, and decisions are made in a way that avoids bringing shame to any individual or to

the group as a whole.46

A cross-cultural minister cannot communicate the gospel or teach biblical truth

clearly without first understanding the worldview assumptions of the people to whom he

communicates. How can a minister hope to introduce the reality of God to a people if he does not

understand how the people view reality?

How Does One Plant Contextual Churches?

Understanding culture is a non-negotiable prerequisite for planting contextualized

churches. As a cross-cultural minister examines the culture, he begins to identify with its people.

He begins to understand how they see reality. He begins to understand how they think. This

cultural insight allows the cross-cultural minister to identify spiritual “bridges and barriers” to

the gospel within the culture. His understanding of culture guides him as he takes advantage of

natural openings in the culture to proclaim the gospel; and this understanding helps him to

anticipate the forms of natural resistance to the gospel inherent in the culture.

As the church planter shares the gospel and teaches biblical truth with cultural insight,

he becomes credible. Instead of babbling like a foreigner, ignorant of the culture, he speaks as a

person who is at home in the culture. Credibility and common ground enable communication.

Effective communication leads to understanding, the goal of contextualization.

Understanding is the goal of contextualization not only in gospel proclamation, but

also in all Great Commission activities.47 In other words, good contextualization is holistic.

Biblical truth must be contextualized as cross-cultural ministers proclaim the gospel, disciple
46
?
Galloway, Traveling Down Their Road, 56-57.
47
?
For the sake of written organization, the writer has divided this part of the paper into separate sections
on evangelism, discipleship, and church planting. The writer does not, however, view these as three separate
ministries. All three are intrinsically connected with each other and fall under the broad rubric of church planting.
 17

new converts, gather those converts to form indigenous churches, and develop local leadership.

To promote holistic contextualization that results in a people’s thorough understanding of the

gospel and that produces healthy, biblical, indigenous churches, it is important to contextualize

each aspect of the process.

Contextualized Evangelism
Only contextualized evangelism has the hope of being effective evangelism. C.

Thomas Wright defines contextual evangelization as “presenting the uncompromised gospel of

Jesus Christ in the sociocultural, ethnic, and linguistic context of the hearers so they may respond

and be discipled into a church.”48 As the cross-cultural minister presents the gospel, he must

choose carefully both his words and actions.

The actual words used to present the gospel will either connect with the context

audience, or they won’t. The people will either understand the concepts presented, or they won’t.

For example, many volunteers taking short-term mission trips arrive in countries like Brazil and

ask the people if they would like to “invite Jesus into their hearts” and “say the sinner’s prayer.”

To many Brazilians with a history of syncretistic Catholicism, neither of these two actions would

be considered life-changing. Brazilians involved in spiritism invite all kinds of spirits “into their

hearts.” And many Brazilians are happy to pray to anyone, including Jesus, Mary, and African

idols disguised as Catholic saints. They reason, “One more spirit and one more prayer couldn’t

be a bad thing.” Unless the volunteer moves from these types of phrases to clear explanations of

the gospel, including the concepts of sin, forgiveness in Jesus Christ alone, and a transformed

life, real communication of the gospel will not take place.49

48

?
C. Thomas Wright, “Contextual Evangelism Strategies,” in Missiology: An Introduction to the
Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John Mark Terry, Ebbie Smith, and Justice Anderson
(Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998), 453.
49
?
This is the writer’s observation after five years of working with volunteers in Brazil.
 18

In addition to choosing words, the cross-cultural minister must choose his actions

carefully as he presents the gospel. While conservative evangelicals rightly prioritize verbal

proclamation of the gospel, they also see the value in ministering to people with overwhelming

social needs. Many cross-cultural ministers, working in contexts with difficult social conditions,

proclaim the gospel verbally as they minister to the physical needs of those in poverty.

Yet great care must be taken in meeting physical needs. Communicating the gospel

through acts of service and love must also be contextualized. The cross-cultural minister must be

creative and minister to people in his new context in ways that meet real needs, even if those
expressions of service are quite different than those he knew in his home culture. Often these

creative acts of service provide the best opportunities for gospel proclamation.

Using another example from Brazil, many teenagers and young adults who want to

get married simply cannot afford the cost of a wedding. They cannot afford the wedding license

from the state, much less an elaborate wedding ceremony in a church. Unfortunately, many of

these young adults cohabitate anyway, hoping one day to gather enough money for a wedding.

Several churches in Brazil creatively minister to these young people by offering a wedding

ministry. The church pays the cost of the marriage license from the state and then the church

sponsors a wedding ceremony complete with decorations, cake, and live music. The pastor of the

church has the opportunity to share the gospel with the couple in premarital counseling, another

service he offers for free. For many young Brazilians, this is the first positive experience they

have in an evangelical church.50

Contextualized Discipleship
In addition to evangelism, discipleship must be contextualized. A cross-cultural

minister must deal with two challenges as he teaches biblical truth in another context.

First, the cross-cultural minister must strive to read and interpret the Bible through the

eyes of his new culture so that his application of biblical truth is culturally appropriate. In

50

?
Personal observation of churches in Brazil. Unfortunately, politicians also offer this same service
as a way to promote themselves and their political agenda.
 19

addition to gospel proclamation, the cross-cultural minister disciples new converts as he teaches

contextualized biblical truth. He must consciously examine the Scripture through the same

worldview lens of the people whom he is teaching. The constant challenge for a Western cross-

cultural minister is to teach the Bible free of Western worldview assumptions.

Obviously, God’s supra-cultural truth is not contextually dependent. It does not

change from context to context, but it must be communicated in culturally appropriate ways. For

the Western cross-cultural minister, this process begins as he reads the Bible with this different

culture in mind.
David J. Hesselgrave describes the process of building a hermeneutical bridge

between the biblical culture and the respondent culture. The cross-cultural minister must

examine biblical truth in the context of the biblical culture. Then he must “translate and

communicate the biblical message, (indeed, the Bible itself) into the language and forms that will

make it understandable to the hearers and readers in the ‘Respondent Culture’.”51 Hesselgrave

uses the terms “decoding” and “encoding” to describe this process. The cross-cultural minister’s

goal is to teach members of the respondent culture contextualized biblical truth that is free of

Western worldview assumptions.52

Second, the cross-cultural minister must use contextualized teaching methods.53

Traditionally, Westerners rely on literate-oriented discipleship materials. In the United States,

churches use literate-based discipleship materials, including Sunday School materials, to the

51

David J. Hesselgrave, “The Role of Culture in Communication,” in Perspectives on the World

?

Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne (Pasadena: William Carey, 1999), 393.

Ibid., 392-96. Larry W. Caldwell calls for a different approach to cross-cultural hermeneutics. His
52

approach, “ethnohermeneutics,” rejects the historical-grammatical foundation to hermeneutics on which Hesselgrave

and other conservative scholars rely. He argues that the hermeneutic employed should be a contextualized
hermeneutic and that the historical-grammatical approach is inherently Western. See Caldwell’s article, “Towards
the New Discipline of Ethnohermeneutics: Questioning the Relevancy of Western Hermeneutical Methods in the
Asian Context,” Journal of Asian Mission 1 (1999), 21-43.
53
?
Robert W. Pazmino, God Our Teacher (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), 60. Inherent in Pazmino’s
definition of education is the component of context.
 20

extent that they depend on these materials for discipleship. In some contexts, this dependency on

exclusively literate discipleship material creates barriers to discipleship. The Lausanne

Occasional Paper “Making Disciples of Oral Learners” describes the situation:

“…70% of all people in the world are oral communicators—those who can’t, don’t, or
won’t learn through literate means. Four billion in the world are at risk of a Christless
eternity unless literate Christians make significant changes in evangelism, discipleship,
leader training, and church planting.”54
If a cross-cultural minister is working in an oral society, he must contextualize his

teaching methods to effectively communicate biblical truth in ways that make sense to oral

learners. Gene Davis states the goal succinctly: “People need to meet God and hear Him speak to
their hearts in order to produce Christian character.”55 Literate-based discipleship methodologies

do not help oral learners to “meet God and hear Him speak to their hearts.”

So if literate methods do not communicate to oral learners, which methods do? The

authors of “Making Disciples of Oral Learners” suggest using “communication forms that are

familiar within the [oral] culture: stories, proverbs, drama, songs, chants, and poetry.”56 The

cross-cultural minister must draw upon his knowledge of his respondent culture and

contextualize biblical truth with indigenous communication forms. Fortunately, today there are

many sources to draw upon for help in this area of contextualization.57

Contextualized Church Planting

Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, “Making Disciples of Oral Learners,” Lausanne
54

Occasional Paper No. 54, (n.p.: Lausanne Committee, 2004), 1.

55
Gene Davis, “Is That Really God Speaking,” International Journal of Frontier Missions 12:2 (1995),
98.
56
Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, “Making Disciples of Oral Learners,” 1.
57
For an extensive list of orality resources visit the site of Dr. David Sills, http://www.davidsills.org/
orality.html. See also, Ruth Finnegan, Literacy and Orality: Studies in the Technology of Communication (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1988), William A. Graham, Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the
History of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), Roberta R. King, Syllabus and Readings in
Oral Communication (Pasadena: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2000), Herbert Klem, Oral Communication of the
Scriptures (Pasadena: William Carey, 1978) and Tex Sample, Ministry in an Oral Culture: Living with Will Rogers,
Uncle Remus, and Minnie Pearl (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox, 1994).
 21

Effective evangelism and discipleship culminate in new, healthy churches. According

to J.D. Payne, church planting “is evangelism that results in churches. It is a means of seeing

people come to faith, being baptized, and being taught. It is a means of fulfilling the Great

Commission.”58

If Donald McGavran is correct in his assertion that “today’s paramount task” is the

multiplication of churches, then the cross-cultural minister must not only engage in church

planting, he must plant contextualized churches that multiply.59 One essential characteristic of

contextualized churches that multiply is reproducible methodologies.60 Reproducibility is

essential in three different areas.

First, the church must have reproducible evangelism methodologies. As noted in the

previous section on contextualized evangelism, the evangelist must proclaim the gospel in words

and deeds that make sense to the people of the receptor culture. The church must analyze all

evangelistic methodologies to make sure they are reproducible.

For example, the EvangeCube is a popular tool for sharing the gospel today. Imagine

what might happen when a volunteer team comes to help a small, new church plant in an isolated

village in South America. The team comes, each member with an EvangeCube. The members of

the team witness with the EvangeCube for a week and many people come to Christ. As the team

departs, one member gives the pastor of this fledgling church an EvangeCube. What happens at

this point? Members of the church think that the best evangelism is done with an EvangeCube

because this is what has been modeled for them by a ministry team from a stronger church.

Unfortunately, they only have the one. So the members of the church take turns borrowing the

pastor’s EvangeCube; copying the methodology modeled by volunteers.61 As a result, few people

58
J. D. Payne, “Ecclesiology: The Most Critical Issue in Church Planting Today,” Theology for
Ministry 1 (2006), 105-17.
59
Donald A. McGavran, Understanding Church Growth (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), 63.
60
David Garrison, Church Planting Movements: How God is Redeeming a Lost World (Bangalore,
India: WIGTake Resources, 2004), 181-82. Garrison states, “…Church Planting Movements did not emerge without
a deliberate commitment to plant reproducing churches” (181).
61
 22

come to Christ because the church uses an evangelism methodology that is not reproducible.

They quickly ask for another volunteer team, hoping to get more “help.”

Second, discipleship methodologies must also be reproducible. Can a disciple make

another disciple using only the resources readily available? If not, dependence on outside

resources is hindering the multiplication of disciples.62 Only contextualized discipleship methods

enable disciples to reproduce in a multiplicative pattern.63

Within the discussion of discipleship arises the issue of leadership development.

Often the church imposes extra-biblical requirements upon future leaders.64 Is seminary an
absolute necessity to be an effective pastor? In no way should the biblical standards for

leadership be diminished. At the same time, however, the church must recognize that the

methods used to develop leaders must be contextualized. A methodology that worked well in one

context should not be elevated to the status of a biblical requirement in another context.

Unfortunately, this confusion between biblical standards and Western methodologies often

leaves churches in developing countries feeling like they are substandard churches because they

do not have the resources to emulate the methodologies of the West.

Finally, the church must embrace a contextualized form of expression that is

reproducible. The church should use indigenous forms of music in worship. If the church owns

the only organ in the city, the music is most likely neither indigenous nor reproducible. If the

local custom is to sit on the floor, then the church members should not build pews. The church

?
The writer is not implying that the EvangeCube is not an effective evangelism tool. He uses this
illustration to emphasize the fact that some evangelism tools are not reproducible in certain contexts. To order the
EvangeCube, go to the site http://www.evangecube.org/index2.html.
62
Ibid., Church Planting Movements, 249.

For a model of church multiplication that has proven highly effective in Latin America, see George
63

Patterson, Church Multiplication Guide (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1993) and Church Planting through
Obedience Oriented Teaching (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1981).
64
Ibid., Church Planting Movements, 242.
 23

building should not look like an artifact from the Southern United States. Church government

and decision making should be biblical forms; not necessarily Western forms.65

Every church-planting activity should be reproducible within the context. A church

planter should not model any particular method of Great Commission activity that his observers

cannot reproduce using resources indigenous to their own context.66 Churches that can easily

reproduce themselves multiply and, in doing so, prove themselves to be contextualized churches.

Conclusion
About the term “contextualization,” David Hesselgrave observes: “Still in its

infancy, that word has already been defined and redefined, used and abused, amplified and

vilified, coronated, and crucified.”67 Since the term appeared in missions literature in 1972,

missiologists, professors, church planters, and pastors have been discussing its meaning and

implications. No doubt, the discussion will carry on.

The church, however, must continue to do more than discuss the term. The church

must prioritize the work of contextualizing the gospel and all biblical truth among all peoples

of the world. David Sills correctly observes that the practice of contextualization “is of

crucial significance because there is no salvation apart from the gospel message [Rom 1:16-

17]. The glory of God and the eternal destinies of billions of souls are in the balance.”68

65

For more on the indigenous church that is reproducible, see Keith E. Eitel, “To Be or Not to Be?: The
?

Indigenous Church Question,” in Missiology: An Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World
Missions (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998), 301-17.

For a resource in workbook format that trains mission strategists and church planting teams to plant
66

reproducible churches, see R. Bruce Carlton, Acts 29: Practical Training In Facilitating Church-Planting
Movements among the Neglected Harvest Fields (n.p.: Radical Obedience Publishing, 2003).
67
David J. Hesselgrave, “Contextualization and Revelational Epistemology.” in Hermeneutics,
Inerrancy, and the Bible, ed. Earl D. Radmacher and Robert D. Preus (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984),
693-738.

M. David Sills, “How Shall They Hear the Gospel?” in Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 9:4
68

(2005), 62.
 24

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Alasuutari, Pertti. Researching Culture: Qualitative Method and Cultural Studies. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995.
 25

Bruce, A. B. The Training of the Twelve: Timeless Principles for Leadership Development.
Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1971.

Carlton, R. Bruce. Acts 29: Practical Training in Facilitating Church-Planting Movements

among the Neglected Harvest Fields. n.p.: Radical Obedience Publishing, 2003.

Eims, Leroy. The Lost Art of Disciple Making. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978.

Elmer, Duane. Cross-Cultural Conflict: Building Relationships for Effective Ministry.

Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993.

Engel, James F. and William A. Dyrness. Changing the Mind of Missions: Where Have
We Gone Wrong? Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000.

Fetterman, David M. Ethnography: Step by Step. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, 1998.

Finnegan, Ruth. Literacy and Orality: Studies in the Technology of Communication. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1988.

Flemming, Dean. Contextualization in the New Testament: Patterns for Theology and
Mission. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2005.

Friedman, Thomas L. The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization.
New York: Anchor, 1999.

Galloway, Bryan K. Traveling Down Their Road: A Workbook for Discovering a

People’s Worldview. Thailand: self-published, 2006.

Garrison, David. Church Planting Movements: How God is Redeeming a Lost World.
Bangalore, India: WIGTake Resources, 2004.

Graham, William A. Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of
Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Gruland, Stephen A. and Marvin K Mayers. Cultural Anthropology. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan 1988.

Hesselgrave, David J. Communicating Christ Cross-Culturally. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 1978.

________. Paradigms in Conflict: 10 Key Questions in Christian Missions Today. Grand

Rapids: Kregel, 2005.

________. Planting Churches Cross-Culturally: A Guide for Home and Foreign

 26

Missions. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980.

________ and Edward Rommen. Contextualization: Meanings, Methods, and Models.

Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2003.

Hiebert, Paul G. Anthropological Reflections on Missiological Issues. Grand Rapids: Baker,

1994.

King, Roberta R. Syllabus and Readings in Oral Communication. Pasadena: Fuller

Theological Seminary, 2000.

Klem, Herbert. Oral Communication of the Scriptures. Pasadena: William Carey Library,
1978.

Kostenberger, Andreas. The Mission of Jesus and the Disciples According to the Fourth
Gospel: With Implications for the Fourth Gospel’s Purpose and the Mission of the
Contemporary Church. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

Kraft, Charles H. Christianity in Culture: A Study in Dynamic Biblical Theologizing in

Cross-Cultural Perspective. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1979.

LeCompte, Margaret D., Jean J. Schensul, Margaret R. Weeks, and Marrill Singer.
Ethnographer’s Toolkit, Volumes 1-6. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 1999.

Levison, John R. and Pricilla Pope-Levison. Jesus in Global Contexts. Louisville, KY:
Westminster John Knox, 1992.

McGavran, Donald A. Understanding Church Growth. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970.

McKinney, Carol V. Globe-Trotting in Sandals: A Field Guide to Cultural Research.

Dallas: SIL International, 2000.

Murray, Stuart. Church Planting: Laying Foundations. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 2001.
Packer, J.I. Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1961.

Paschoal, Piragine J. A Contextualização da Igreja de Cristo: Igrejas Fieis no Mundo de

Hoje. Rio de Janeiro: JUERP, 2003.

Patterson, George. Church Multiplication Guide. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1993.

________. Church Planting through Obedience Oriented Teaching. Pasadena: William

Carey Library, 1981.

Pazmino, Robert W. God Our Teacher: Theological Basics in Christian Education.

Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001.
 27

Sample, Tex. Ministry in an Oral Culture: Living with Will Rogers, Uncle Remus, and
Minnie Pearl. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1994.

Steffen, Tom A. Passing the Baton: Church Planting that Empowers. La Habra, CA:
Center for Organizational and Ministry Development, 1997.

Stetzer, Ed. Planting Missional Churches. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2006.

________ and David Putman. Breaking the Missional Code: Your Church Can Become a
Missionary in Your Community. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2006.

Storti, Craig. The Art of Crossing Cultures. Boston: Nicholas Brealey, 2001.

Van Theenen, Gailyn. Communicating Christ in Animistic Contexts. Pasadena:

William Carey, 1991.

Warren, Rick. The Purpose Driven Church. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995.

Yount, William R. Created to Learn. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996.

Articles

Araujo, Alex. “Globalization and World Evangelism.” In Global Missiology for the 21st
Century: The Iguassu Dialogue, ed. William B. Taylor, 57-70. Grand Rapids: Baker,
2000.

Bruswell, James O. “Contextualization: Theory, Tradition, and Method” In Theology and

Mission: Papers Given at the Trinity Consultation No. 1, ed. David J. Hesselgrave, 87-
111. Baker: Grand Rapids, 1978.

Caldwell, Larry W. “Towards the New Discipline of Ethnohermeneutics: Questioning the

Relevancy of Western Hermeneutical Methods in the Asian Context.” Journal of Asian
Mission 1:1 (1999): 223-32.

________. “A Response to the Responses of Tappeiner and Whelchel to

Ethnohermeneutics.” Journal of Asian Mission 2:1 (2000): 135-45.

Carson, D.A. “Church and Mission: Reflections on Contextualization and the Third
Horizon.” In The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study, ed. D.A.
Carson, 213-57. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

________. “Reflections on Contextualization: A Critical Appraisal of Daniel Von Allmen’s

‘Birth of Theology.’” East Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 3:1 (1984): 16-59.

David, Gene. “Is That Really God Speaking?” International Journal of Frontier Missions
 28

12:2 (1995): 98.

Eitel, Keith E. “‘To Be or Not To Be?’: The Indigenous Church Question.” In

Missiology: An Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World
Missions, ed. John Mark Terry, Ebbie Smith and Justice Anderson, 301-17. Nashville:
Broadman and Holman, 1998.

Ericson, Norman R. “Implications from the New Testament for Contextualization.” In

Theology and Mission: Papers Given at the Trinity Consultation No. 1, ed. David J.
Hesselgrave, 71-85. Baker: Grand Rapids, 1978.

Espiritu, Daniel L. “Ethnohermeneutics of Oikohermeneutics? Questioning the Necessity

of Caldwell’s Hermeneutics.” Journal of Asian Mission 3:1 (2001): 267-81.

Greenlee, David. “Ancient Springs and Sweet Fruit: Missiological Contributions from the
Middle East.” In Global Missiology for the 21st Century: The Iguassu Dialogue, ed.
William B. Taylor, 333-46. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000.

Hesselgrave, David J. “Contextualization of Revelational Epistemology.” In Hermeneutics,

Inerrancy and the Bible, ed. Earl D. Radmacher and Robert D. Preus, 693-738. Grand
Rapids: Kregel, 1984.

________. “The Role of Culture in Communication.” In Perspectives on the World Christian

Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 392-96. Pasadena: William
Carey Library, 1999.

Hiebert, Paul G. “Cultural Differences and the Communication of the Gospel.” In

Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C.
Hawthorne, 373-83. Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1999.

________. “Social Structure and Church Growth.” In Perspectives on the World

Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 422-28. Pasadena:
William Carey Library, 1999.

Hogg, Richard W. “The Scriptures in the Christian World Mission: Three Historical
Considerations.” Missiology 12:4 (1984): 389-404.

Hughes, Robert Don. “Cross-cultural Communication.” In Missiology: An Introduction to

the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John Mark Terry,
Ebbie Smith and Justice Anderson, 278-300. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998.

Johnson, Cedric B. “The Influence of Society and Culture on Interpretation.” In The

Psychology of Biblical Interpretation, 67-90. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.

Kraft, Charles H. “Culture, Worldview and Contextualization.” In Perspectives on the

 29

World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 384-91.
Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1999.

Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization. “Making Disciples of Oral Learners.”

Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 54. n.p.: Lausanne Committee, 2004.

________. “The Willowbank Report: Consultation on Gospel and Culture.” n.p.: Lausanne
Committee, 1978.

McConnell, Douglas. “Changing Demographics: The Impact of Migration, HIV/AIDS,

and Children at Risk.” In The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging
Contemporary Issues and Trends, ed. Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen and
Douglas McConnell, 45-78. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005.

Moreau, A. Scott. “Contextualization: From an Adapted Message to an Adapted Life.” In

The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues and Trends, ed.
Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen and Douglas McConnell, 321-48. Grand Rapids:
Baker, 2005.

Nida, Eugene A. “Communication and Social Structure.” In Perspectives on the World

Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 429-37. Pasadena:
William Carey Library, 1999.

Patterson, George. “The Spontaneous Multiplication of Churches.” In Perspectives on the

World Christian Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 384-91.
Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1999.

Payne, J. D. “Ecclesiology: The Most Critical Issue in Church Planting Today.” Theology for
Ministry 1 (2006): 105-17.

________. “The Great Commission and Church Planting.” In The Challenge of the Great
Commission: Essays on God’s Mandate for the Local Church, ed. Chuck Lawless
and Thom S. Rainer, 107-20. n.p.: Pinnacle, 2005.

________. “Problems Hindering North American Church Planting Movements.” Evangelical

Missions Quarterly 39:2 (2003): 220-28.

Pocock, Michael. “Globalization: New York’s in New Delhi, Manila’s in Los Angeles.”
In The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues and Trends,
ed. Michael Pocock, Gailyn Van Rheenen and Douglas McConnell, 21-44. Grand
Rapids: Baker, 2005.

Richardson, Don. “Redemptive Analogy.” In Perspectives on the World Christian

Movement, ed. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 397-403. Pasadena: William
Carey Library, 1999.
 30

Sanchez, Daniel R. “Contextualization and the Missionary Endeavor.” In Missiology: An

Introduction to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John
Mark Terry, Ebbie Smith and Justice Anderson, 318-33. Nashville: Broadman and
Holman, 1998.

Sills, M. David. “How Shall They Hear the Gospel?” Southern Baptist Theological
Journal 9:4 (2005): 62-79.

Smith, Ebbie. “Culture: The Milieu of Missions.” In Missiology: An Introduction to the

Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John Mark Terry, Ebbie
Smith and Justice Anderson, 260-77. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1998.

Tappeiner, Daniel A. “A Response to Caldwell’s Trumpet Call to Ethnohermeneutics.”

Journal of Asian Mission 1 (1999): 223-32.

Taylor, John V. “India.” CMS Newsletter 327 (1969): 3.

Vanhoozer, Kevin J. “The World Well Staged?: Theology, Culture, and Hermeneutics.” In
God and Culture: Essays in Honor of Carl F.H. Henry, ed. D.A. Carson and John D.
Woodbridge, 1-30. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

Von Allmen, Daniel. “The Birth of Theology: Contextualization as the Dynamic Element in
the Formation of New Testament Theology.” International Review of Missions 64
(1975): 37-52.

Welchel, James R. “Ethnohermeneutics: A Response.” Journal of Asia Missions 2 (2000):

125-33.

Wright, C. Thomas. “Contextual Evangelism Strategies.” In Missiology: An Introduction

to the Foundations, History, and Strategies of World Missions, ed. John Mark
Terry, Ebbie Smith and Justice Anderson, 260-77. Nashville: Broadman and
Holman, 1998.