Unit 4

Perception and
coordination
(The nervous and endocrine
systems)

Biology and Geology

3º ESO
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
The body works in a similar way to an
orchestra, where all the instruments
have to work together.

All the cells in a living being have to function in a

coordinated manner. They must perform different
functions at certain times and adjust their level of
activity to the body´s specific needs.

In mammals, this coordination is carried out by two

systems: the nervous system and the endocrine system.
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
One of the most important features of living beings is their
capacity to feel sensations and respond to external and
internal stimuli.
This process (the interaction function) follows this outline:
Coordination
Stimulus Receptor Effectors
systems
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
Coordination
Stimuli Receptors Effectors
systems

A stimulus is a physical or chemical change that takes

place outside or inside the body and triggers a response.

Stimuli can be:

• Physical: light, sound, temperature, pressure, etc.
• Chemical: the presence or absence of chemical
substances
• Biotic: changes caused by the presence of other
living things.
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
Coordination
Stimuli Receptors Effectors
systems

Stimuli are perceived by the receptors.

▪ Internal receptors: Perceive changes inside the body.
They are spread all over the body and provide
information about its general condition and state. E.g.
Sugar levels in blood
Types of
receptors ▪ External or sensory receptors: Perceive stimuli in the
external environment. Depending on the nature of the
stimuli are classified as:
• Mechanoreceptors: perceive mechanical stimuli (pressure, vibration)
• Thermoreceptors: perceive changes in temperature
• Chemoreceptors: detect chemical substances in the air, water, etc.
• Nociceptors: perceive pain
• Photoreceptors: detect light stimuli.
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
Coordination
Stimuli Receptors Effectors
systems

Response

Receptors send the information to the coordination systems

(nervous and endocrine systems).

These system process the information and generate orders

or responses.
These orders or responses are sent to the effector organs
(muscles and glands), which carry out the order.
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
The nervous system
It is responsible for analysing the internal and
external stimuli perceived by the receptors,
generating orders and sending them to the
effectors through nerves impulses.
The nervous system coordinates fast, short-lived
responses, such as muscle contraction.
The endocrine system
It is made up of a series of endocrine glands,
which release hormones.
Hormones coordinate the internal organs by
triggering chemical reactions.
It coordinates responses that are slower but
longer-lasting.
1 Coordination: the nervous and endocrine systems
The nervous system and the endocrine system practise
coordinated actions, but they act in different situations
because each one has its own characteristics.

Nervous system Endocrine system

The transmission of information is The transmission of information is
carried out by means of a nerve carried out by means of secreting
impulse of an electric signal. hormones.
The action is fast. The action is slow.

The action lasts a short time. The action lasts longer.

The response is very specific The response in not very specific

Movement and dangerous situations Metabolism and growth

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2 The nervous system
The nervous system is made up of
nervous tissue, whose cells (neurons) are
capable of transmitting information
through nerve impulses.
2 The nervous system
Neurons are divided into three parts:
▪ The cell body, which contains the
nucleus and other organelles.
▪ The dendrites, which are short, branch-
like projections.
▪ The axon, which is a longer projection. It
ends in a slender branches which widen
slightly at the tip and are called axon
terminals.

In general, axons are protected by

a white substance called myelin.
2 The nervous system
The axons of various neurons group together to form nerve
fibres.
Nerve fibres can group together, surrounding by connective
tissue, to form nerves.
2 The nervous system
How are nerve impulses transmitted?
Neurons have a unique ability: they generate and transmit
nerve impulses.

When a neuron is stimulated,

electrical changes are originated in
the membrane and these transmit
the electric signal from the
dendrites towards the axon.
2 The nervous system
How do neurons communicate with each other?
Neurons do not form continuous networks. There are
microscopic spaces between neurons that the nerve
impulses must cross to get from one to another. This
structure is known as a synapse.
2 The nervous system
How do neurons communicate with each other?
A synapse consists of three elements:
• The presynaptic neuron, which is the neuron before the
synapse (transmitting neuron)
• The synaptic cleft, the microscopic space between neurons.
• The postsynaptic neuron, which is the neuron after the
synapse (receiving neuron)
2 The nervous system
How do neurons communicate with each other?
The nerve impulse is transmitted from the axon of the
transmitting or presynaptic neuron to a dendrite of the
receiving or postsynaptic neuron.
Presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron

Nerve impulse
2 The nervous system
How do neurons communicate with each other?
There are very small vesicles at the axon terminal that
contain a substance called neurotransmitters.
When the nerve impulse gets to the
axon terminal, the vesicles break
up and the neurotransmitters are
released into the synaptic cleft.
There they join the dendrite
membrane of the adjacent neuron,
causing chemical changes that
allow the nerve impulse to be
transmitted further.
2 The nervous system
How do neurons communicate with each other?

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1. Draw a neuron and label the different parts.
Use arrows to show the way travelled by the electric
signal originated when a neuron is stimulated

2. Synapse allows the nerve impulses to cross from

one neuron to another. Draw and label a diagram of a
synapse and explain the process.
2 The nervous system
The nervous system receives information from the receptors,
processes this information and elaborates an adequate response
(generates orders), which are carried out by the effectors.

The nervous system is made up of:

• The Central Nervous System (CNS)
• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
The CNS is the body´s control and nerve coordination
centre, in other words, coordinates all the body´s functions.
It is capable of perceiving stimuli and producing responses.

The CNS is formed by:

Encephalon
• The encephalon
• The spinal cord Spinal cord
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
The encephalon is protected by the
skull or cranium and covered by
three membranes called meninges.

The meninges, from the skull to brain,

are the pia mater, the arachnoid and
the dura matter. Between these last
two layers flows the cerebrospinal
fluid, which protects the encephalon
from knocks and blows.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
The encephalon has three main parts:
- The cerebrum
- The cerebellum
- The brainstem
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
• Cerebrum
It is the largest part of the encephalon. It is divided into
two hemispheres, which are separated by a groove and
joined at the base.

Its surface, called the cerebral cortex,

is rough and full of folds and furrows,
known as circumvolutions.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
• Cerebrum
Each hemisphere controls the activities of
the opposite side of the body and is divided
into four sections, called lobes.
Each lobe controls different functions.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
• Cerebrum
The cerebrum converts information into awareness, in
other words, it interprets information from the sense
organs. And also, it contains the higher functions,
because it controls language, memory and thought or
intelligence, and will (it produces voluntary responses
and movements we perform by thinking)
Some encephalon functions are localised in specific areas,
while others are not.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
• Cerebellum
It is located below the cerebrum. It consists
of two hemispheres, which are joined by a
narrow strip.
It controls balance and voluntary movements,
such as walking, running or riding a bicycle.
The cerebellum makes adjustments to
cerebrum responses so that movements are
fluid and precise.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The encephalon
• Brain stem
The brainstem links the encephalon to
the spinal cord.
It controls diverse involuntary functions that keep us
alive (we perform them automatically, even when we
are asleep)
For example, the part called the medulla
oblongata controls involuntary actions such as
the heart rate, respiratory rate or swallowing. It
is also involved in protective reflex actions such
as coughing, vomiting, sneezing and hiccups.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin bundle of nervous
tissue in the back, covered by the meninges and
protected by the vertebral column, which links
the encephalon to the rest of the body.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The spinal cord
It serves as a conduit for nerves impulses
from the receptors to the encephalon,
and from the encephalon to the effectors.

Motor nerves exit it and sensory nerves enter it.

• Sensory nerves transmit impulses from the

receptors to the CNS.
• Motor nerves carry the nerve impulses from
the CNS to the effectors (muscles and glands)
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
▪ The spinal cord
It also coordinates simple responses called reflex actions,
which are involuntary responses. These actions happen due
to a response to a stimulus, without the brain participating.
(These permit us to react quickly and without thinking).

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/watch?v=-s8yEhRZgvw
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Cerebrum injury
When a blood vessel breaks in the cerebrum, the amount
of blood flow decreases to an area of the cerebrum.
⮚ What area would be affected if the person could not
speak?
⮚ What about if this person
become blind?
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Brain tumour
A brain tumour is a mass caused by abnormal cell growth on or
near the brain. Brain tumours can be both noncancerous (non
malignant) and cancerous (malignant).

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2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Injury to the cerebellum
What happens if the cerebellum is damaged?
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Injury to the cerebellum
What happens if the cerebellum is damaged?
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Injury to the brain stem
What happens if the brain stem is damaged?
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Injury to the brain stem
What happens if the brain stem is damaged?
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Spinal cord injuries
Spinal cord injuries happen in some car accidents and some
people suffer tetraplegia or paraplegia; in other words, they
cannot move their legs or arms.
⮚ If the encephalon controls the movements of muscles and
it is not injured, why can´t this person move their limbs?
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Spinal cord injuries
Spinal cord injuries happen in some car accidents and some
people suffer tetraplegia or paraplegia; in other words, they
cannot move their legs or arms.
⮚ If the encephalon controls the movements of muscles and
it is not injured, why can´t this person move their limbs?
Lack of movement can be due to a damage in some
part of the spinal cord.
Spinal cord carries the motor nerve impulse from the
brain to the effector organs (in these case legs or
arms). So the nerve impulse cannot reach the effector
organ (it´s stopped in the spinal cord)
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Spinal cord injuries
Spinal cord injuries may result
from damage to the vertebrae,
ligaments or disks of the spinal
column or to the spinal cord itself.
2 The nervous system
2.1 The central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord injuries
▪ Spinal cord injuries
Spinal cord injuries

Complete Incomplete
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
The PNS links the CNS to the body´s organs.
It is the part of the nervous system outside
the encephalon and the spinal cord.

The PNS consists of both sensory and motor

nerves.
• Sensory nerves transmit impulses from the
receptors to the CNS.
• Motor nerves carry the nerve impulses from
the CNS to the effectors (muscles and glands)
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
The PNS is formed by:
• 12 nerves which originate from the
encephalon (cranial nerves).
For example, optical and auditory nerves.

• 31 pairs of nerves which stem from

the spinal cord (spinal nerves).
For example the sciatic nerve.
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
The PNS is divided into two systems:
▪ The somatic system
▪ The autonomic system.
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
▪ The somatic PNS
It consists of the sensory nerves and the motor nerves.
This system is responsible for:
• Transmitting sensory information that comes
from sensory organs. It connects the sensory
receptors of the sensory organs to the central
nervous system and this to the skeletal muscles.

• Voluntary movements. It is responsible for

nearly all voluntary muscle movements, such as
walking. (Remember, these voluntary movements are
controlled by the cerebellum)
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
▪ The autonomic PNS
It consists of motor nerves which regulate the activity of
internal organs. Therefore, it´s responsible for the
involuntary activity of internal organs such as heartbeat,
digestion and breathing. (Remember, these voluntary movements
are controlled by the brain stem-medulla oblongata-)
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
▪ The autonomic PNS
The autonomic system is divided into branches:
• The sympathetic nervous system, which
activates the organs (It stimulates the
body to react to stress, fear, etc.)
• The parasympathetic nervous system,
which relaxes the organs (It causes the
body to relax)

The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are antagonistic

(they act in opposite ways)
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
▪ The autonomic PNS
The sympathetic system regulates the flight-or-fight
responses. This system prepares the body to expend energy
and deal with potential threats in the environment.

When action is needed, the sympathetic

system will trigger a response by
speeding up the heart rate, increasing
breathing rate, increasing blood flow to
muscles, activating sweat secretion, and
dilating the pupils.
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
▪ The autonomic PNS
The parasympathetic system helps to maintain normal
body functions and conserve physical resources.

Once a threat has passed, this system will slow the heart rate,
slow breathing, reduce blood flow to muscles, and constrict
the pupils. This allows us to return our bodies to a normal
resting state.
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system
▪ The autonomic PNS

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 Which part of the PNS is in charge of the
following situations?

▪ Control the process of digestion

▪ Hold a glass of water

▪ A stressful situation such as

speaking in public

▪ Touching a hot pan

 Which part of the PNS is in charge of the
following situations?

▪ Control the process of digestion The autonomic

PNS
The somatic
▪ Hold a glass of water PNS

▪ A stressful situation such as Autonomic PNS

speaking in public (The sympathetic system)

▪ Touching a hot pan The somatic

PNS
2 The nervous system
2.2 The peripheral nervous system

Complete the scheme of the nervous

system, adding the main functions and
components of the PNS
2 The nervous system
2.3 Response types: Involuntary actions / Voluntary actions
Involuntary actions
The quickest way to respond to a stimulus is through a reflex or
involuntary response, which does not require any conscious
perception of the stimulus. This is known as a reflex action.
These responses are produced in the spinal cord and take the
shortest path from the receptor to the effector.
A sensory neuron carries the impulse from
the receptor to the spinal cord. The impulse
then passes to the interneuron, and then to
the motor neuron, which carries the
response from the spinal cord to the
effector. This chain of neurons is called the
reflex arc.
2 The nervous system
2.3 Response types: Involuntary actions / Voluntary actions
Voluntary actions
Voluntary actions result from orders
that start in the encephalon and
reach the effectors through the
cranial and spinal nerves.
 Explain the similarities and differences
between a reflex action and a voluntary action.
2 The nervous system
2. 4 The hierarchical nature of the nervous system
Our nervous system has a complex and hierarchical
structure organised on different levels.
There are small neural circuits that perform a particular
function, such a reflex action.
The numerous neural circuits in our body are regulated by
higher level neurons, which in turn are regulated by other
neurons. The top level is made up of structures such as the
cerebral cortex.
2 The nervous system
2.4 The hierarchical nature of the nervous system
This complex and hierarchical structure explains why the
respiratory movements of the rib cage, which normally
occur automatically and are controlled by the medulla
(brain stem), can be stopped by a direct order from the
cerebral cortex. This is why is possible to hold your
breath for a short time while swimming.

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2 The nervous system
2.5 Diseases of the nervous system
▪ The most common mental disorders
A mental disorder is a disturbance of the intellectual
functions that is not related to an injury or an abnormal
functioning of the neurons.
• Depression is a mental illness that
often takes the form of low mood
and an inability to lead a normal
life. In severe cases, sufferers may
present self-destructive behaviour.
2 The nervous system
2.5 Diseases of the nervous system
▪ The most common mental disorders
• Anxiety is a psychological disorder that causes fear,
anguish and even hyperactivity.
2 The nervous system
2.5 Diseases of the nervous system
▪ The most common mental disorders
• Schizophrenia is an illness that occur after adolescence.
It causes severe personality disorders, a tendency to
disconnect from the outside world, delusions and
hallucinations.
2 The nervous system
2.5 Diseases of the nervous system
▪ Neurological diseases
These diseases are caused by the abnormal functioning of the
neurons due to variations in the transmission of nerve impulses,
or by an injury caused by increased blood pressure, a blow to
the head, insufficient blood supply, an infection, etc.
Some examples are: epilepsy, brain tumours or strokes
2 The nervous system
2.5 Diseases of the nervous system
▪ Neurodegenerative diseases
These are diseases caused by the degeneration of nerve cells
in certain areas of the brain that leads to the gradual loss of
intellectual functions.
The most significant are Parkinson´s disease, Huntington´s
disease and dementia (there are two types: Alzheimer´s
disease and vascular dementia)
3 The endocrine system
The endocrine system consists of cells that secrete substances
(hormones) directly into the blood.
When these cells are grouped together, they form endocrine
glands.

Hormones
3 The endocrine system
Hormones are distributed throughout the body, but only
act on certain cells that recognise them. These are called
target cells.

Target cells have special

receptors that recognise the
hormones and allow them
to influence that cell.

A hormone´s function depends on the tissue or organ upon

which it acts, so the same substance can have different
effects on different parts of the body.
3 The endocrine system
3.1 How the endocrine system works
The endocrine systems depends on a large extent on the
nervous system.
The hypothalamus, a region of the brain connected to the
pituitary gland (also called hypophysis), controls the body´s
hormonal activity and acts as a link between the nervous
and endocrine systems.
3 The endocrine system
3.1 How the endocrine system works
The hypothalamus receives information from other brain
regions and detects hormone levels in blood.
In response to these stimuli, cells called hypothalamic
neurosecretory cells secrete hormones that act on the
pituitary gland.

External/ Internal stimuli

Hypothalamic
Hypothalamus neurosecretory cells

Hormones

Pituitary gland
3 The endocrine system
3.1 How the endocrine system works
Then, the pituitary gland secretes hormones that directly
regulate the activity of other glands.

External/ Internal stimuli

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamic
neurosecretory cells

Hormones

Pituitary gland Hormones Other endocrine gland

(Thyroid, ovary, adrenal, etc)
3 The endocrine system
3.1 How the endocrine system works
The hormones produced by the other endocrine glands are
distributed through the bloodstream and regulate the
activity of the body´s organs.

An increase in the level

of hormones in the
bloodstream sends a
signal to the pituitary
gland, telling it to stop
manufacturing its
hormones.
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3 The endocrine system
3.1 How the endocrine system works

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3 The endocrine system
3.2 Main glands and hormones

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be.com/watch?v=HJ
I11Fj4jYs
3 The endocrine system
3.2 Main glands and hormones
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland
Thymus

Adrenal glands
Pancreas

Ovaries (Women)

Testis (Men)
3 The endocrine system
3.2 Main glands and hormones
Label in the following diagram the main endocrine glands
and the hormones they release.
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders
When a disorder affects the endocrine system, the hormone
levels in the blood change. Furthermore, the levels of
various hormones are often interdependent.

These disorders cause a loos of

homeostasis (balanced internal
environment) and metabolic abnormalities,
which are accompanied by clinical
symptoms.
One single hormone molecule can alter cell
metabolism.
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders
The main disorders are caused by:
• An excessive increase in hormones due to an overactive
gland (hyperthyroidism). In this case, the target cells are
overstimulated due to the increased hormone levels in
the blood.
• A decrease due to an overactive gland (hypothyroidism).
In this case, the target cells are not activated and stop
performing their function.
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders

Gigantism
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders
Goitre (Bocio)
3 The endocrine system
3.3 Hormonal disorders
3 The endocrine system