CHAPTER I

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

A computer is a high speed data processing machine. It is a system which consists of

interrelated components that performs the basic system functions of input, processing, output,
storage and control.

COMPONENTS

 Input
 Processing
 Output
 Storage
 Control

STRUCTURE

 Input devices
 Central Processing Unit
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Primary memory / volatile memory
 RAM Random Access Memory
 ROM Read Only Memory
 Secondary memory
 Hard disks
 Compact Disk (CD)
 Digital Video Disk (DVD)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 Control Unit
 Output devices

FEATURES OF NEW GENERATION COMPUTER

1. Speed of operation
2. Accuracy
3. Storage
4. Versatility
5. Automatic operation
6. Diligence
7. Complexity
8. Reliability

PARTS OF NEW GENERATION COMPUTER

1. Computer case - The main components of a computer are enclosed in a computer case.
Cases are usually built with steel or aluminum. Cases can come in many different sizes. The
size and shape of a computer case is usually determined by the form factor of the
motherboard that it is designed to accommodate, since this is the largest and most central
component of most computers. At present, the most popular form factor for desktop
computers is ATX.
2. Central Processing Unit - The central processing unit, or CPU, is that part of a computer
which executes instructions given in the form of programs. In older computers this circuitry
was formally on several printed circuit boards, but in PCs is a single integrated circuit. Nearly
all PCs contain a type of CPU known as a microprocessor. The microprocessor plugs into the
motherboard using one of many different types of sockets.
3. Motherboard - The motherboard is the primary large printed circuit board within a
personal computer. Many other components connect directly or indirectly to the motherboard.
Motherboards usually contain one or more CPUs, supporting circuitry providing the interface
between the CPU memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main memory and in many
portable and personal computers. The motherboard houses nearly all of the PC's core
components.
4. Main memory - Another critical component in computers is memory. The two most
important kinds of memory are read-only memory (ROM) and random access memory
(RAM). Computers can read data stored in ROM, but cannot write new data to it. With RAM,
computers can read from and write to that memory. Without computer memory, every
calculation on a computer would be stateless.
5. Hard disk
Magnetic disks are also known as hard disks. The hard disk is direct access storage medium
with a rigid magnetic disk. The data is stored as magnetized spots arranged in concentric
circles (tracks) on the disk. Each track is divided into sectors. The number of tracks and
sectors on a disk is known as its „format'.
7. Visual display unit
A Monitor is a commonly and at the same time powerful output device which is used to see
data, graphics, images and all other type of information. A visual display unit or monitor is a
piece of electrical equipment that displays viewable Images generated by a computer without
producing a permanent record.
8. Card Reader
It is usually faster and more convenient to move large amount of data by removing the card
from the mobile device, instead of communicating with the mobile device through a USB
interface.
9. Video card
The Video card also called a graphics card processes and transfers the graphics output from
the computer to the monitor, and is an essential part of the modern computer. Today in many
computers, graphics circuitry is integrated with the motherboard but, for modern flexible
machines, they are supplied in other formats.

DRIVE BAYS
A drive bay is a standard-sized area for adding hardware to a computer. Most drive bays are
fixed to the inside of a case, but some can be removed. Drive bays are most commonly used
to store disk drives, although they can also be used for front-end USB ports, |/O bays and
other uses.

PORTS
A personal computer may have several ports for connecting devices peripherals such as a
trackball, expanded keyboard, scanner, touch screen, and other devices. An adapter will be
needed if the port of the computer does not match with the connector of an adaptive device.
1.PS/2 Port
This port is the connection from the user to the personal computer. It allows for the
connection of a mouse and a keyboard, and it enables the computer user to access functions,
type in commands, and generally communicates any need the user may have to the machine
itself.
2.Serial Port
A serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which information transfers
in or out one bit at a time. Throughout most of the history of personal computers, data
transfer through serial pons connected the computer to devices
3.Parallel Port
Even though parallel port may support other functions, it is almost always used for
connecting printer. Input is important, but output is essential. This port will support a wide
variety or printers, and is one of the most important ports on PCs. The parallel port is an
interface that uses a 25-pin connector.
4.Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Most computers will sport at least two of these ports, yet some may have more. This is one of
the most popular ports found on a PC. It is very user friendly. Once it is connected to a PC, it
is automatically detected and set up. With USB ports, it is easy to connect other peripherals,
such as printer and scanner, to a computer. Without these kinds of ports, a computer would
remain a one-dimensional machine with little user friendliness.
5.VGA port
This port connects the computer to the monitor and allows the user to actually see what he is
creating. Without a monitor it is impossible to ascertain one‟s progress, and without a VGA
port it would be impossible to hook up any kind of monitor.
5.Firewire
This high-speed interface is found on newer PCs. It works well for digital video and audio. It
is also good for connecting external hard drives or other high bandwidth peripherals.
Bandwidth is the amount of data or information on that can be sent over a network
connection on a given period of time.
6.Flashcard
This type of ports allows user to read and write flashcards. Some types of flash card are
Compact Flash I/ll, SmartMedia, Memory Stick, MultiMedia Card, and secure Digital. With
flash card ports, users can access data directly from the flash cards without having their
PDAs(personal digital assistants) or digital cameras connected to a PC.
PERIPHERALS OF A NEW GENERATION COMPUTER
A peripheral is a piece of computer hardware that is added to a host computer in order to
expand its abilities.
1. Headset
A headset is a headphone combined with a microphone. Headsets provide the equivalent
functionality of a telephone handset with hands-free operation. Headsets typically have only
one speaker like a telephone, but also come with speakers for both ears. These are widely in
call centers and other telephone intensive jobs and for personal use at the computer to talk
and type simultaneously.
2. Webcam
A webcam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer network and
therefore it is an input device. These're small cameras that usually connected at the top of the
computer monitor and are used to transfer both still and video directly to the computer. The
most popular use of webcam is for video telephony, permitting a computer to act as a
videophone or video conferencing station.
3. Sound cards and Speakers
Sound cards are an integrated circuit that generates an audio signal and sends it to a
computer‟s speakers. The sound card can accept an analog sound and convert it to digital data
that can be stored in an audio file, or accept digitized audio signals and convert them to
analog signals that can be played on the computer‟s speakers. On a personal computer, the
sound card is usually a separate circuit board that is plugged into the motherboard.
4. Removable Storage
The same kinds of CD and DVD drives that could come built-in on our computer can also be
attached externally We might only have a CDROM drive built into our computer but we need
a CD writer to burn CDs. The same is true for DVD writers. Flash drives have become very
popular forms of removable storage especially as the price of flash drives decreases and the
possible size for them increases.
5. Printers
In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy of documents stored in
electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or, transparencies. Many
printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most
new printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document source.
6. Video Card
A video card also known as graphics card is an expansion card whose function is to generate
and output images to a display Some video cards offer added functions such as video capture,
TV tuner adapter, ability to connect multiple monitors, and others.
7. Network Card
A network card is an expansion card that allows computers to communicate over a computer
network. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.
8. USB
USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a serial bus standard to interface devices. USB was designed to
allow many peripherals to be connected using a single standardized interface socket and to
improve the plug-and-play capabilities by allowing devices to be connected and disconnected
without rebooting the computer. Other convenient features include providing power to Iow-
consumption devices without the need for an external power.
INPUT DEVICES
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer.
1. Keyboard
Keyboard is an important data entry device. Programs and data are entered into a computer
through a Keyboard which is attached to a microcomputer or the terminal of a mini or large
computer. A computer Keyboard looks like an ordinary typewriter Keyboard. All keys found
in a type writer are also available on a keyboard. It contains alphabets, digits, special
characters and control keys. In addition to the usual keys, computer has some special keys
known as function and operating keys. These keys are used for correcting data and also used
for performing certain sequence of instructions automatically when pressed.
a. Alphanumeric keys
b. Punctuation keys
c. Special keys
2. Mouse
It is a pointing device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen.
A mouse is a small object that can roll along a hard and flat surface because it is operated by
two rotating wheels. Its name is derived from is shape which looks a bit like a mouse. The
connecting wire of the mouse can be resembled with the mouse‟s tails. When a user moves
the mouse across a flat surface, the cursor also moves in the direction of mouse‟s movement.
The cursor can be positioned anywhere on the screen.
3. Track ball
A track ball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other electronic
devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on the
top which can be rolled in any direction. It mostly used in notebook or laptop computer.
4. Touch Screen
Touch Screen is a type of display screen that has a touch sensitive transparent panel covering
the screen. Instead of using a pointing device such as mouse or light pen, one can use this
finger to 'point directly to objects on the screen. When you touch the surface of such a screen,
it detects exactly where you touched it. This input device is widely used on ATM machines,
retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and industrial control
panels.
5. Touch pad
This is another type of pointing devices used in portable computers. A touch sensitive pad is
used to point figure on a desired object or place on the screen.it is alternative to the mouse.
6. Light pen
Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light sensitive detector to select objects on display
screen.
7. Graphics Tablet
A graphics tablet allows data to be input in much the same way as a mouse. This input device
that enables an artist to draw or sketch digitally using a pen or stylus. We slide the stylus
along the surface of the tablet which then inputs our movement into the computer. But the
arm and hand movement is more natural than a mouse for creating sweeping lines and curves.
8. Digital Camera
Digital camera is used to feed image input to the computer. These images can be manipulated
in many ways using the various imaging tools available. The digital camera takes a still
photograph or video, stores it and then sends it as digital input into the computer. The images
are then stored as digital files. These devices are connected to the computer by cable or
transmit data wirelessly.
9. Webcams
Webcam is input device that connects to a computer and the internet and captures either still
pictures or motion video of a user or other object. This is an input device because it 'can
capture video image for further processing. it is either built into the computer monitor or
laptop or connected through an USB cable. The images captured by webcam are sent to the
computer for further.
10. Joystick
It is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It
is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper end. The joystick can be moved
in all four directions.
11. Scanners
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation. A scanner operates by digitizing an image. Scanners can
convert photographs and flat documents into electronic images. Both color and black & white
images can be created.
12. Microphone
Microphone or mike is used to convert the spoken word to a digital signal for computer input.
It allows computer users to input audio into their computers. The microphone converts audio
signals to electrical waves and these can be converted by electronic circuitry in the computer
to digital from.
13. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
MICR can identify character printed with a special ink that contains particles of magnetic
material. MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques
to be processed every day. The bank‟s code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.
14. Optical mark recognition (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is
specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
15. Bar code reader
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data-data in the form of light and
dark lines. Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired
from. The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit,
which then converts it into a form that can be understood by the user.
1. MONITORS
Monitor is compute screen or “display”. Monitor is an output device that resembles the
television screen. It may use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to display information. The monitor
is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and displays the information as it
is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the television, monitors
are also available in different sizes. There are three main types of monitors: the CRT, or
Cathode Ray Tube monitor, the LCD Flat Panel monitor, and the TFT-LCD monitor. Each
has their own advantages.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor: This is the most inexpensive monitor in the market
today and it looks like our traditional TV set. Monitor unit is capable of displaying
alphanumeric characters and graphs. A CRT display unit displays characters in multicolor.
Information that is fed using the keyboard is displayed on the screen. The main disadvantages
of these are the size and weight of the tubes. The other major drawback deals with the power
consumption. The energy needed for the electron beam means that the monitors consumer
and generate a lot more heat than the LCD monitors.
LCD Flat panel monitor
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors were first developed for use with laptop computers.
Also known as flat screen monitors, they are becoming more and more common these days.
These flat screens cost quite a high price, but with its popularity and wide usage, prices are
continuing to drop. The biggest advantage to LCD monitors is their size and weight.
TFT-LCD Monitor: A Thin Film Transistor (TFT) LCD monitor is now being more widely
used with LCD monitors, because of its high level of resolution and sharpness. The only
difference is a thin film transistor that is applied to the screen, which results in better control
of pixels.
2. PRINTERS
Printed output is the most common form of Visual Output. Printers are used to produce paper
output generally known as hardcopy. Thus computers can produce printed reports and
documents such as invoices, payroll, reports and bank statements. The format of the output is
designed by programmers.
Based on the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact printers
When a part of printer impact or presses the paper to print a character is known as impact
printers. It can print a character or line at a time. It uses the typewriting printing mechanism
wherein a hammer strikes the paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot matrix
and character printers fall under this category.
Dot matrix printers: this is the most popular type of serial printers. A character is printed by
printing the selected number of dots from a matrix of dots. Each letter is formed with a series
of dots. A character is printing using 5dot rows and 7 dot columns. This pattern is called 5*7
dot matrix. In dot matrix printers, small pins are arranged in a rectangular matrix of 5*7.
Character to be printed is sent one character at a time from the memory to the printer. These
pins are moved forward to form a character and they hit the carbon ribbons in front of the
paper there by printing that character.
Non-impact printers
A non-impact printer does not strike the papers but ink used for printing is sprayed by other
means. This type of printers does not touch paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or
electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, desk jet, laser, thermal printers etc. fall
under this category of printers.
Laser printers
This is one of the fastest printers available. It is also known as page or document printer.
These types of printers can print 120 to 300 pages per minutes. Laser printers are capable to
produce a report page by page by page and it also produces high quality printed output
including text and graphics. They also offer a wide variety of character fonts. One advantage
of laser printer is their speed to print output which is highly essential in commercial data
processing.
Inkjet printers
Ink jet printers work by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the inks
path direct the ink on the paper in the required shapes. Ink jet printers are suitable for
producing high quality print. A typical ink jet printer provides a resolution of 300 dots per
inch.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
1. Lack of Commonsense
Computer does not possess commonsense and thinking power. It is an obedient servant who
carries out the instructions given to it by the master
2. Inability to correct
Due to the lack of commonsense and intelligence a computer cannot correct a wrong data. It
obeys all the instructions whether they are right or wrong.
3. Dependence on human assistance
A computer cannot work independently without seeking the human help. It cannot learn from
experience. The same mistake may be repeated until it is corrected by the programmer.

USE OF COMPUTER
1.Education: Computers have been important learning tools starting from kids to college
students and research scholars. Remote and distant areas can now be reached and the
education can now be enriched through the use of computers
2. Science: All branches of science, from astronomy to zoology, depend on computers to
further their knowledge on increasing the lifespan of man. and other computer-aided
machines help doctors and scientists to better understand the peoples medical needs.
3. Communications: Another important area where computers have been widely used is
communication. Computers have even transformed communication through the
advancements in technology
4. Business: Computer has changed the entire way of doing business. Gone are the days of
labor -intensive and manual way of inputting data through ink and paper. Now, with a few
touching of keys and a few clicks of the mouse, good and productive business is on its way
5. Government: Government offices also depend on computers for its basic needs. From
simple letters to the more complicated projects are now being produced through the use of
computers. Government agencies and their databases are now interlinked, making it easier for
the agencies to monitor economic developments.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE SELECTING COMPUTER

1. Usability
A single core computer is sufficient if user intention is simply browsing the internet and
using some online services. On the other hand, if he want to use computer for heavy video
editing and professional work, then it might be better to select a system that has enhanced
multimedia options.
2. Price
Generally speaking, there is a price difference between a basic laptop and a basic desktop PC
even if they have similar specifications due to many factors. There might be some very fancy
features that user want in a new PC. However, if he doesn't have enough cash to pay then it
might be better in choosing suitable alternatives.
3. Type of Operating System
Users with minimum requirements may be better off buying a Windows Starter or Home
Premium version e.g. of Windows 7. For users who wish to take advantage of more enhanced
features and require more effective tools such as connecting their PC to a domain are
naturally better off buying a Professional or Ultimate Edition. A Mac OS is high-quality but
relatively expensive. If you are buying a computer for graphics, editing, and music,
4. Size
Size is also a factor to be considered especially when buying a laptop. Some people prefer
buying larger laptops for a better display screen, whereas other prefers smaller and more
portable sizes.
5. Peripherals
Peripheral devices such as printers and scanners can significantly increase or reduce the price
of a computer. It might be better off buying a system with a DVD combo drive if you do not
require writing data to DVDs.
6. Brand
Some brands offer better warrantees, whereas others offer software packages that come with
the system.
7. RAM
It is obvious that for more professional tasks more RAM is needed than for merely using a
PC for browsing the internet. Moreover, the RAM type may matter more than many people
might consider. If the computer is going to be used for a lot of data processing, more RAM is
always better for photo or video editor, or planning to do CAD/ CAM work, you need at least
16 GB of RAM.
8. Processor (CPU) speed
The Processor (CPU) is one of the most important parts of a computer and can mean the
difference between a computer that frequently hangs up and one that runs smoothly. Two
processor manufacturers, Intel and AMD dominate the market. AMD is cheaper but Intel is
much more reliable. The differences are not significant to most users.
9. Hard Disk
The right amount of disk space and disk type might be necessary for the efficient
management of regular tasks for a professional. Computers today usually come with 250 GB
and 750 GB of space in the hard drive. As more people are storing their information online on
cloud storage, it is better to rethink of buying a huge hard drive space. A common user may
merely have to decide between buying a 120 GB or 320 GB hard disk system. An IT
professional on the contrary might have to decide between a SCSI or a Sata drive.
10. Warranty
Warranty is the most important consideration for people when selecting a system. The right
kind of hardware warrantee is essential and should be unconditional.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

1. Generating new business ideas
Computers can be used for searching new business ideas. Even before actually starting a
business, millions of people daily search new business ideas and thousands other type of
quires related to business on Google. Computer can search and find the information and data
quickly and accurately.
2. Executing business idea and plans
The role of computer in business is very productive when anyone starts executing business
ideas and plans. To create business plan, business owners can use Microsoft Excel to perform
financial calculation, marketing budget planning, visualization of data for seminars and
meetings and analysis of data analytics to create innovative and unique valuable products and
services. They can download the predefined and designed excel templates. They can also buy
or purchased full business plan templates by using internet.
3. Hiring employees
Computers can be used for accessing website and online job portal to hire employees and
remote workers. This proves to be quite convincing and time saving.
4. Cost reduction
Big companies are using hybrid computer technologies to speed up the process and reduce
the cost of manufacturing and production. Companies are using Robots in more complex and
difficult works by replacing humans from dangerous environment. Even in small business,
marketing, selling and other business activities are automated by the use of Business
Intelligence applications, artificial intelligence and cloud computing.
5. Marketing
Computers allow businesses to create websites, eye-catching ads and complete, marketing
campaigns. Marketing videos can be edited and custom ads created in-house with the use of
specialized software. Businesses can completely develop and manage websites with their own
servers or connect remotely to a third-party business to upload their latest content such as
articles, product images and blog posts.
6. Marketing and advertising materials
They need marketing and advertising material on daily basis. But to create marketing and
advertising materials they have to use popular computer applications such as Adobe
Photoshop, Microsoft Office, Corel Draw, Adobe Illustrator and printer etc. Without
computer it is impossible to create marketing materials such as images, videos, slideshows
Business cards, letter head and brochures quickly and accurately.
7. Advertise and Market products and services
Online marketing is the fastest way to advertise and market products and services around the
world within few seconds. Every business owners want quick profit, more results and
targeted and customer oriented marketing. Google is existed still today is not because of its
free search facility but they charge fer advertisements.
8. Global marketing
Businesses can not only market its products and services fast. but also it can sell the products
on the Internet by targeting any country, state and city. They use ecommerce website or
create their own ecommerce website where they can sell the products and services to wider
audience.
9. Increase the demand of product and services
When cost of conducting business is low, then business can spend more money on marketing
and distribution process. That will increase the demand.
10. Communication
Communication is key when gaining and maintaining clients and other important contacts.
Computers give businesses access to email, instant messaging and customer contact systems.
11- Accounting
Accounting software allows businesses to simply input their financial data and instantly see
gains and losses. All necessary tax reports are available the moment the data is entered. Using
computers for invoicing, managing expenses and calculating payroll is vital for ensuring
financial data is as accurate as possible.
12. Storage
Instead of filing cabinets, businesses are able to store millions of files using computers and
servers. Data can be stored centrally for easy access from multiple computers or stored
locally for individual use. Computerized storage saves space and provides a far more efficient
organization strategy.
13. Documents and Reports
Most businesses have some sort of productivity software which typically includes a word
processor and spreadsheet application. These two programs allow businesses to create
reports, memos, tutorials and even colorful ads for company events. Spreadsheet applications
give businesses the chance to organize, manage and calculate both numeric and alphabetic
data. With charts and graphs, reporting becomes visual instead of text-based.
14. Education
Businesses use computers to help educate employees on software, company policy, standard
procedures and safety. Instead of hiring teachers, computers can be used to educate
employees at their own place or through an online webinar with live questions and answers.
This form of education fits the busy schedules of businesses without sacrificing the quality of
the education;
15. Research
Now computers are used to conduct research. From learning more about the competition to
discovering customers really want can' be researched with the help of computers. Search
engines, forums, social networks and industry specific websites provide businesses with a
wealth of information and research data.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. A
computer network can be categorized by their size
COMPONENTS OF NETWORK
1. Network Interface Card
The network adapter transmits data onto the network and receives data from the network.
This is a device that enables a computer to talk with other computer; network. These are
devices connected in network nodes to communicate with each other .and to access the
network. Using unique hardware addresses encoded on the card chip, the data-link protocol
employs these addresses to discover other systems on the network so that it can transfer data
to the right destination.
2. Hub
Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a
distribution centre. Computers connect to a hub via a length of twisted-pair cabling. In
addition to ports for connecting computers, the hub will receive the request and transmit it to
the entire network. Each computer in the network should then figure out whether the
broadcast data is for them or not
3. Switch
A network switch, or bridge, is a specialized device that connects multiple network segments.
It is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area
network (LAN).Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical
device addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right
destination or port.
4. Routers
Network routers are typically small box like pieces of equipment that multiple computers can
connect to. Router have a number of ports the front or back that provide the connection points
for these computers, a connection for electric power, and a number of LED lights to display
device status.
5. Cables and connectors
Cable is one way of transmission media which can transmit communication signals. The
wired network typology uses special type of cable to connect computers on a network.
There are a number of solid transmission Media types, which are listed below. -
Twisted pair wire: It is classified as Category 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6 and 7. Category SE. 6 and 7
are high-speed cables that can transmit 1Gbps or more.
Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable more resembles like TV installation cable. It is more expensive
than twisted-pair cable but provide high data transmission speed.
Fiber optic cable: It is a high-speed cable which transmits data using light beams through a
glass bound fibers. Fiber optic cable is high data transmission cable comparing to the other
cable types. But the cost of fiber optics is very expensive.
6. Modems
A modem is used for the signal conversion and it connects a computer to the communication
channel. The process of converting digital signals into analog and then back to digital form is
known as modulation and demodulation and the word modem is the combined abbreviation
of these two words.
Types of network
Network based on distance
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
– LAN is a computer network that connects information processing devices with in limited
geographical area such as office building, manufacturing plant, educational institution etc. An
is most common type of network used in organization. LANs are capable of transmitting data
at very fast rate.
– Characteristics of a LAN
• Limited geographic operation up to 10km.
• High speed data transfer rates
• Full time connectivity to local services
• It uses mainly bus, ring, and star topology
• Require little wiring
Advantages of LAN
• Lower in cost
• sharing of resources
• High speed
• Security
Disadvantages
• When number nodes become increase then performance became decrease.
• Area covered is limited
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a computer network covering broad geographical areas such as state or country. Wan
is also used to connect LANs together. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN
is the internet.
Advantages
• Large geographical area
Disadvantages
• Complicated and complex
• High cost
• Required high performance device
• Low security
• Expensive network equipment.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MANs are the network spread over a city. They are large computer networks usually
spreading a campus or a city. MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than
that of a LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that
are apart but resides in the same or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and
may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a
high-speed connectivity. Eg. Cable TV network
Advantages
• It is wider area than a LAN
• It is a large network connectedness
Disadvantages
– Data rate is slow compare to LAN
– Cost is higher than LAN, required more devices and cables to covered large area.
– It is difficult to manage
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a
computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one
building. These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and are
managed by one person or organization from a single device.
Advantages
– PANs are efficient, cost effective and convenient
– Security because it is control by single person
Disadvantages
– Shorter distance up to 10 meter only
– Data rate is low compare to other network
5. Body area network
A BAN (body area network) is a network of the wearable device such as smart watches,
fitness bands and medical devices placed inside the body like pacemakers. These devices may
be placed in the human body or surface mounted on the human body in a particular position.
The devices may be embedded inside the body, implants, may be surface-mounted on the
body in a fixed position Wearable technology or may be accompanied devices which humans
can carry in different positions, in clothes pockets, by hand or in various bags
Advantages
– used for detection of chronic diseases
– This technique is used in military for security purposes
– It also assists the seamless communication between individual and machine.
Disadvantages
• Restriction between the body movements.
• Interference of the multi devices that share the channel.
• Lack of integration sensor.
6. Storage Area Network (SAN)
As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to several
servers, these types of networks don‟t rely on a LAN or WAN. Instead, they move storage
resources away from the network and place them into their own high-performance network.
SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a server. Types of storage-
area networks include converged, virtual and unified SANs.
Advantages
– Scalability
– Performance
– Uptime
– Disaster recovery
Disadvantages
– It is expensive to implement
– Require high level of skill to maintain and troubleshoot problems
7. Campus Area Network (CAN)
It is larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks. These types of networks
are typically seen in universities, large schools or small businesses. They can be spread across
several buildings that are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.
Advantages
– Cost effective
– It can be wireless or wired network
– Multi departmental network access
– Managed service available
– High Bandwidth
Disadvantages
• Difficult to manage
8. Home Area Network (HAN)
It is a type of computer network that operates within a small area typically a home or small
office. It connects home digital devices such as PCs, mobile phones, tablets, smart watches,
home security system and smart appliances into a common network.
Advantages
 Resource sharing
 Easy to manage
 High security
 Easy accessible
Disadvantages
 Lack of Wi-Fi password
 Health issue
9. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) – This is a LAN which works using wireless
network technology such as Wi-Fi. This type of network is becoming more popular as
wireless technology is further developed and is used more in the home and by small
businesses. It means devices do not need to rely on physical cables and wires as much and
can organize their spaces more effectively. Wireless LAN can contain many different kinds
of devices
- Mobile phones
- Laptop and tablet computers
- Internet audio system
- Game consoles
- Internet enabled home appliances
Advantages
• Portable
• Planning not needed
• Installation is quick and easy
10. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a public network, and
enables users to send and receive data across shared or public networks as if their computing
devices were directly connected to the private network. Applications running on a computing
device, e.g. a laptop, desktop, smartphone, across a VPN may therefore benefit from the
functionality, security, and management of the private network. Encryption is a common
though not an inherent part of a VPN connection.
Advantages
• Cost
• Security
• Scalability
• Mobility
Disadvantages
• Bandwidth
• VPN security

Network based on administration.

1. Peer to Peer network
P2P Stands for "Peer to Peer." In a P2P network, the "peers" are computer systems which are
connected to each other via the Internet. Files can be shared directly between systems on the
network without the need of a central server. In other words, each computer on a P2P
network becomes a file server as well as a client. In its simplest form, a peer-to-peer (P2P)
network is created when two or more PCs are connected and share resources without going
through a separate server computer. A P2P network also can be a permanent infrastructure
that links half-dozen computers in a small office over copper wires. Ten to fifteen computers
can be connected to each other using p2p networking model without problem.
Advantages
• A software application need to be installed on a single computer and shared by every
computer in the network.
• They are inexpensive to set up.
Disadvantages
• Designed for limited number of computers
• Less secure
• The resources of the computers in the network can become overburdened.
• Regular training is required for computer users of P2P network.
2. Client-server network
• A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a
hub to which many less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are
connected. The clients run programs and access data that are stored on the server.
• In such networks, there exists a central controller called server. A server is a specialized
computer that controls the network resources and provides services to other computers in the
network.
• If client 1 wants to send data to client 2, it first sends request to server to seek permission
for it. The server then sends a signal to client 1 allowing it to initiate the communication.
• A server is also responsible for managing all the network resources such as files, directories,
applications & shared devices like printer etc.
• If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first seeks permission from the server
by sending a request.

Advantages
1. Faster access
2. The clients are allowed to function as workstation.
3. System wide services can be provided through the server software.
4. High security.
Disadvantages
– High initial setup cost.
– Network can become overburdened
Types of peer to peer network
1. Wired Ethernet Network
2. Wireless Ethernet Network
3. Power-line Networks

1. Wired Ethernet Network

In an Ethernet networks, wires and cables run from computer to computer.it is the ideal
network for multiple users who want to share their internet connection.it is very popular LAN
technology due to its inexpensive setup cost and reasonably fast speed with transfer rates up
to 100 mbps.
Advantages
– Fast transferring
– Less expensive
– Wired connection
– Users are not required to purchase any extra hardware.
– Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are extremely reliable.
2. wireless Ethernet Network
A wireless network is the easiest to install because it transmits data via radio frequencies
instead of cables. This is type of network which works without wire. It is most convenient
networking solution to setup of computers in different rooms or on different floors. It is not
much fast, little more expensive than wired network, wireless networks have a range of up to
150 feet and transfer speeds up to 11 mbps. It is less secure
Advantages
1. Cable free networking
2. Freedom and mobility to work anywhere in the house- even out side
3. Easy to install
4. Compatible with Ethernet networks
5. Ideal for notebook users
3. Power-line Networks
Power line networks use the wires that already exist inside the walls to connect computers in
the network. In a power line network, any already installed electrical can be used for network
connection.

USE OF COMPUTER NETWORK

1. Information sharing
2. Sharing hardware
3. Sharing software and hardware
4. Centralized administration
5. Email
6. Internet Relay Chat
7. Audio/video conferencing
8. Internet phone

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN VARIOUS AREAS OF BUSINESS

1. Production: help to design model of product, use computers to control machines
2. Scheduling: To ensure they are meeting their goals while being efficient
3. Accounting: Use accounting software and ledgering systems to ensure the accuracy of
their financial status
A. Invoicing: Invoicing issued to customers to whom goods are sold.The invoice
contain all the details regarding the sales.
B. Accounts receivable: Keep records of amounts owes by customers
C. Account payable: the system takes into account the data generated from purchase
and payment made by suppliers.
D. General ledger: consolidated data received from accounts receivable, account
payable, payroll and other accounting information system.
E. Payroll.: preparation of pay slip to employees.
4. Inventory management: A computer based inventory control system records changes to
inventory levels and prepares appropriate stock reports.
5. Capital budgeting: Capital budgeting refers to planning of long term capital expenditure
in a business concern
6. Budgeting and forecasting: Computer can be used to prepare detailed budgets and
corporate forecasts.
7. Marketing: To create websites, stunning ads and complete marketing campaigns
8. Prepare marketing documents: Adobe Photoshop provides many templates that users
can manipulate to produce eye catching custom marketing materials.
9. Marketing and advertising: social media sites,
10. Website and advertising: company designs a website to displaying company
information and products.
11. Customer interaction: computer now assist human call centers with answering customer
questions, taking payment and providing general assistance.
12. Customer relationship management: it can be sending emails to advertise the new
products.
13. Communication: email, chat, we conferencing, and VOIP.
14. Networking: primary tool of getting information about job opportunities and employees
can connect clients through the internet.
15. Research: internet can use to research its competitors product and prices by studying
their websites
16. Data mining: helps to know undiscovered source of business intelligence and also
acquire and store massive amounts of information.
17. Human Resource Management: helps businesses do everything from fing potential
employees to discipline them when problems occur.

INTERNET
Internet is the world‟s largest computer network. It is a network or inter-network of hundreds
of connecting network made up of different types of computers all over the world that can
share messages and information with one another.
Features of internet
1. This is a global network and is not owned by any single individual, company or country.
2. It has no central controlling body
3. Information is available in different format such as text, graphical, audio, and visual.
4. It is the only way to connect globally.
5. Internet as a most important source of information
6. TCP/IP is a standard protocol suite for internet.

Internet access
Internet access is the ability of individuals and organizations to connect to the Internet using
computer terminals, computers, and other devices; and to access services such as email and
the World Wide Web.
1. A dial-up connection: It uses a standard phone line and analog modem to access the
Internet at data transfer rates (DTR) of up to 56 Kbps. A dial-up connection is the least
expensive way to access the Internet, but it also slowest connection. When that phone line is
connected to a modem and then configured to dial a specific number, a user can access the
internet. To access dial up account you need
. Computer
. Modem
. Telephone connection
. Shell or TCP/IP account
. Internet client software such as internet browser
2. Broadband
Direct connection is the secure, dedicated and most expensive, level of internet connection.
With leased connection, computer is dedicatedly and directly connected to the internet using
high speed transmission lines.no modem is needed router is sufficient. DSL, cable and optics
are in this category.
A. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
DSL is a wire line transmission technology that transmits data faster over traditional copper
telephone lines already installed to homes and businesses. DSL-based broadband provides
transmission speeds ranging from several hundred Kbps to millions of bits per second
(Mbps). The availability and speed of your DSL service may depend on the distance from
your home or business to the closest telephone company facility.
B. Cable Modem
Cable modem service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the same coaxial
cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV set.
Most cable modems are external devices that have two connections: one to the cable wall
outlet, the other to a computer. Subscribers can access their cable modem service by simply
turning on their computers, without dialing-up an ISP. You can still watch cable TV while
using it. Speed can be up to 10 times that a dial up and the cost is about twice that of an ISP
dial up account,
C. Fiber optics: fiber optics allows speed even greater than DSL or cable. Fiber optic
connections are more expensive than DSL and broadband, and are not available in all areas
3. Wi-Fi: wireless broadband is of interest for mobile users.it all allow users to connect
whether they are at home, schoolwork, or on the road

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides customers with Internet access.
Data may be transmitted using several technologies, including dial-up, DSL, cable modem,
wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects.

FACILITIES AVAILABLE ON INTERNET

1. Email: is a paperless method of sending messages. E-mail, the Internet equivalent of postal
mail, is the most widely used facility on the Internet. E-mail messages routed across the
Internet can reach an overseas destination in seconds. You never receive a busy signal and
you never play “telephone tag.” Varieties of e-mail programs offer features allowing you to
print, forward, save, and/or reply to another's message. Some include advanced features
allowing you to attach a word processing document, spreadsheet, software program, video, or
image file
2. FTP: Using the File Transfer Protocol facility, Internet users can transfer software
programs, product upgrades, and other types of computer files between computer systems
connected to the Internet.is a internet utility software used to upload and down load files.
3. Usenet: Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers.
Usenet is a collection of user-submitted notes or messages on various subjects that are posted
to servers on a worldwide network. Each subject collection of posted notes is known as a
newsgroup. This software allows users to post messages or articles to any newsgroup for
other users to read and possibly attach their comments in more than 1500 news groups.
UseNet provides separate news group on a different topics.
4. Telnet: Telnet allows internet users to access another computer linked to the internet. The
user computer called local computer and the computers to which connection is established is
known as remote computer. The local computer can give commands to the remote computer
and all the commands executed by remote computers. Upon providing correct login and sign-
in credentials, a user may access a remote system's privileged functionality. Additionally,
Telnet's commands may be executed on a supported client or server device.
5. Internet Relay Chat(IRC):With Internet Relay Chat, small numbers of users meet in on-
line chat groups and “talk” to each other by typing messages on their keyboards. Internet
Relay Chat is an application layer protocol that facilitates communication in the form of text.
The chat process works on a client/server networking model.
6. World Wide Web: the World Wide Web, commonly known as the WWW and the Web, is
an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform
Resource Locators, which may be interlinked by hypertext, and are accessible via the Internet

World Wide Web (WWW)

It is also known as the web, the www is hypertext based information retrieval tool.one can
easily surf the web by jumping from one document to another using the links in those
documents. The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in
HTML and accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages that can
be accessed over the Internet. The World Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by Tim
Berners-Lee while he was a contractor at CERN.
Web pages and HTML
The web presented information as a series of documents. These documents are known web
pages that are prepared using Hyper Text Markup Languages (HTML) static and dynamics
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)
A web page is created using HTML. HTML is a presentation language used to create
hypertext documents containing text, list boxes and graphic information.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
A web page is transferred to a user computer through Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It
provides language that allows servers and browsers to communicate. In this method web page
are transferred over the internet.
Web browsing
Web browsing or net surfing is the process of accessing different web sites on the internet
hosted by various companies, organization, educational institutions etc..,
Web browsers
Is a program that runs on internet connected computer and provide access to web pages. The
tool used to view these webpages on internet is known as internet browser or simply browser.
Internet addressing
It is used to identify people computers and information related with internet.
IP address: An IP (Internet Protocol) address is an identifier for a particular computer on a
particular network. A 32-Bit binary number that uniquely and precisely identifies the location
of a particular computer on the Internet. Every computer that is directly connected to the
internet must have an IP address. An IP address consists of four sections separated by periods
(dots). Each section contains a number ranging from 0 to 255. E.g. 128.43.7.12
Domain name: A domain name is your website name. A domain name is the address where
Internet users can access your website. A domain name is used for finding and identifying
computers on the Internet. Computers use IP addresses, which are a series of number.
However, it is difficult for humans to remember strings of numbers.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique identifier used to locate a resource on the
internet. It is also referred to as a web address. URLs consist of multiple parts including a
protocol and domain name that tell a web browser how and where to retrieve a resource.
End users use URLs by typing them directly into the address bar of a browser or by clicking a
hyperlink found on a webpage, bookmark list, in an email or from another application.
Search engines
A search engine is an internet based interactive search device that enable a user to search for
information on the internet. Actually it is a database that contains references to thousands of
resources. User has to type one or more key words. It is an interface between the user and
database.

BUSINESS USE OF INTERNET

– Access to database
– Electronic commerce
– Electronic mail
– Conferencing
– Worldwide audience
– Provide product information
– Save on literature costs
– Easy access to customer service representatives
– Recruit new employees
– Provide online service
– Eliminate the middleman
– Entertainment programs

Social media
– Social media is an internet based form of communication. Social media platforms allow
users to make conversation, share information and create web content.
– There are many forms of social media including blogs, wikis, social networking sites, photo
sharing sites, instant messaging, video sharing sites, podcasts and virtual worlds.
– Social media is become an integral part of business as well. In business, social media is
used to market products, brands and connect to current customers and foster new business.
Since their introduction, social network site have attracted millions of users.
–When joining an SNS(social network site), an individual is asked to fill out forms
containing a series of questions. The profile is generated using the answers to these questions
which typically include descriptors such as age, location, interests and an “about me” section.
Features of social networks
– Profile page
– Find and link to friend or connections
– Privacy controls
– The ability to send public and private messages
– Ability to share various digital objects and information
Types of social networks
1. Face book
2. Twitter
3. Google +
4. My space
5. YouTube
6. Flickr
7. Picasa
8. LinkedIn
Social media and its uses in business
– Revenue
– Gain valuable customer information
– Attracting customers
– Brand development
– Customer acquisition
– Run targeted ads with real time results
– Direct customer interaction
– Generates more leads/sales
– Provide rich customer experience
– Increase website traffic and search ranking
– Information about competitors
– Networking
– Build relationships
– Recruitment
– Effective and inexpensive
 CHAPTER 2
BUSINESS AND WEBSITES
INTRODUCTION TO WEB DESIGN
A website or simply web refers to a central location that contains more than one web page. A
website is a related collection of World Wide Web (WWW) files that includes a beginning
file called a home page. A web page is a document which can be displayed in a web browser
such as Firefox, Google Chrome, Opera, Microsoft internet explorer or Edge or Apple's
Safari. These are also often called “web pages” or just “pages”. It is a document commonly
written in Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) that is accessible through the internet or
other network using an internet browser. A web page is accessed by entering a URL address
and may contain text, graphics and hyperlinks to other web pages and files.
Web design is a concept of planning, creating and maintaining websites. The process of using
creativity to design and construct a website and updating it regularly to incorporate changes is
also referred to as web designing. Web design is a process of creation with the intention of
presenting the content on electronic web pages, which the end users can access through the
internet with the help of a browser. Web designing is a process that can be done by anyone
who has the right knowledge about it but is usually best handled by professionals known as
web designers.
ELEMENTS OF WEB DESIGN
 Layout: It is a method to arrange graphics, ads and texts in a website. It requires
maintaining a balance between items consistency and integrity of the design.
 Colour: The choice of colours depends on the nature and purpose of Business and
type of customers.
 Graphics: Graphics can include logos, photos, clipart or icons, all of which enhance
the web design and it should be placed suitably.
 Fonts: The use of various fonts can enhance a web design. The designer should use
widely accepted groups of fonts.
 Content: Written text should always be relevant and useful. Content should be
optimized for search engines and be of a suitable length, incorporating relevant
keywords.
 Shape: Squares or rectangular shapes are used in most websites but they don't
necessarily have to be.
 Direction: A good web design is one which automatically makes visitor's eyes move
from one corner or content of the website to another according to relevance or
hierarchy.
 Multimedia: Relevant video and audio stimuli in the design can help user to grasp the
information understanding in an easy and quick manner.
 Compatibility: The webpage should be e able to access from different browsers and
operating system.
 Technology: Advancement in technology give design as the freedom to add
movement, innovation, fresh, dynamic and professional contents.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING WEBSITE
1. Accessibility: When a visitor enters the website he must be able to access each bit of
information in an easiest manner. This means that the text must be legible, the colours
must not be harsh on the eyes and the background must not overpower the content etc.
2. Simplicity: Company should keep their website simple and clean along with a user-
friendly interface to help visitors search for information they needed easily.
3. Communication and content: The content should be communicated with the visitors
clearly and in an engaging manner and the information must be compelling, easy to
read and easy to process. Communication is not just about providing a written
information but also about images, and multimedia such as videos and audio pieces.
Visible language is the concept that means the content people see on the screen, and
involves three fundamental principles. They are.
a. Organize: The website should provide the visitors a clear and highly
consistent layout or structure.
b. Economize: The designer must try to deliver the more information with less
visual elements.
c. Communicate: The user interface must be in a way that the users are able to
understand everything in the most convenient way.
4. Navigation: Buttons meant for navigation should be placed at the top of the page so
that it is easy to identify it. They should look like navigation buttons and be well
described. Therefore it is always best to use standard practices to site navigation like
use dropdowns with clear headings, include a sitemap etc.
5. Precedence: It is about how much visual weight need to be given to different parts of
design. It can be achieved through position of information, colour, contrast, size and
design elements.
6. Good structure: A web page must have a good structure and should be simple to
understand so that users would not have to think which way to go. It must be self-
explanatory.
7. Typography: Text is the most common element of design, so a lot of attention to be
given on it.
a. Font choices: the right font type should be used for the web design
b. Font sizes: the text size should be consistent and large enough to read
c. Spacing: spacing between lines and away from other object is important to
consider
d. Line length: the line length should not be too be too long
e. Colour: suitable colours should be selected for text presentation
f. Paragraphing: appropriate paragraphing method should be adopted like left
align, justify etc.
8. Spacing: In web design there are three aspect of space that need to be considered:
a. Line spacing: there should be adequate space between the lines of the text to
improve readability.
b. Padding: it is the space between elements and text. Generally the text should
never touch other elements
 c. White space: it refers to empty space on a page. it is used to give balance,
proportion and contrast to a page
9. Usability: A website not only looks attractive, but it should also be usable. Some
other aspects of usability are as follows:
a. Adhering to standards: there are certain things people always expect about a
web page like if text has an underline, visitors expect it to be a link. It is better
to follow certain standards.
b. User's experience: prototyping is a common tool used in web design which
aims to actually try out a design
c. User's tasks: designers should always bear in mind different types of tasks
people might do on a site and how they will achieve them like placing a search
box.
10. Visual hierarchy: In web page, visual hierarchy refers to the sequence in which eye
moves from one topic, content or block to another. when designing a webpage, a
designer first need to identify the order of importance of the various topics and then
place them in such a way that the visitor's attention first catch on most important
things and then move on to the others in a hierarchical manner. There are two ways to
create a visual hierarchy as given below.
a. Size hierarchy: this kind of hierarchy in which the most important content or
images of the largest size on a webpage, followed by the second most
important content or image in the second largest size and so on.
b. Content hierarchy: content can be placed in such a way that the human eye
first travels to the content that is most important and then moves to the less
important content blocks in a hierarchical order.
11. Consistency: Consistency implies matching of everything in a website such as
heading sizes, font choices, colouring, button styles, spacing, design elements,
illustration styles and photo choices.
12. Regular testing: Test Early and Test Often (TITO) is another web design principle
that all designers and website owners must consider. Conducting usability testing
every now and then provide important results and insights in to many kinds of
problems and complications related to a website design
GOLDEN RULES OF WEB DESIGNING
 Define website goal: During design process focus must be given on what business is
trying to achieve through the website.
 Easy to remember web address: The web address should be simple and easy to
remember so that it is easy for potential customers to remember it.
 Visibility: Providing basic information such as corporate address directions map
product catalogue etc on a website would go a long way in establishing the credibility
as well as converting leads to customers
 Highlight brand image: A website should focus on brand image and it should project
the character of the brand and impress the visitor's by providing right emotions.
  Identify target audience: The design and layout should coincide with the preferences
of target audience or else company will never be able to bring the potential customers
to company's brand
 Responsive: Visitors must be able to access the website from all devices and making
it available on all platform
 Analyze competitor websites: Competitive web websites should be analyzed and try
to understand what they are doing. It will help to introduce some unique features in
our business website.
 Credibility: A company can continuously serve consumers online and increase its
credibility as a business owner using a website. When company provide better
product or good service it is likely to spread positive word of mouth about business.
 Contact information: Sufficient space must be provided in the home page itself to
show contact information such as address, phone number and email address
 Frequently asked questions (FAQs): Include a page with frequently asked questions
will allow the customers to quickly find information they searching.
 Customer reviews and testimonials: Honest feedback about product or services will
not only help customers decide about dealing with a business but it will also make the
business more tangible.
 Information capture form: A form on the website that new and existing customers
can fill out to ask questions, seek quotes or provide feedback will be a good practice
to create an impression that company always open.
 About us: Give a brief description about the people behind the company, its history
and what drives it.
 Evaluate and improve: It is necessary to measure the result and find out if the
website is actually working toward the specified goal. Continuous improvement is
important for every website to increase visits and win clients.
 Social links: Business can build up followers and reach customers where they spend
majority of their time by including icon links to various social media sites
HOMEPAGE DESIGN
Homepage is the initial page of a website that serves as the starting point of a website.
It is the default web page that loads when you visit a web address that only contains a domain
name. Visitors can find hyperlinks to other pages on the site. The following points are
considered while designing home page
 Identity and purpose: home page should have its own identity. It should have a
distinct look so that uses can recognize it as their starting place when coming from
any other part of the website. The homepage conveys the information about the
purpose of the site.
 Structure: The overall structure or hierarchy of the site should come out very clearly
on the homepage
 Updating contents: It is quite essential to update contents of site whenever new
products or services come out. Site content should be regularly updated to make sure
it is still relevant and accurate
  Search facility: The home page should provide an option to the user to search
contents of the site using a search engine.
 Registration: If the site expect the user to register then there needs to be a
registration panel on the home page and also a facility to log in by using their user id
and password
 Promotion and teasers: The home page should catch the user's attention with some
attractive promotions and teasers depending on the nature of the site.
 Commercial space: Some space needs to be reserved for showing ads deals done
with other sites etc.
HOMEPAGE DESIGN GUIDELINES
 Goal 1: Answer the question, “what is this place?”
 Goal 2: Don't get in the repeat visitor's way
 Goal 3: show what's new
 Goal 4: provide consistent, reliable global navigation
DESIGNING THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF A HOMEPAGE
1. Tagline: Tagline is an additional line of text added next to the logo of a site. It should
be clear informative and attractive
2. Blurb: It is the short description of the site that user can view prominently to
understand the main purpose of the site. It should be short understandable and catchy
3. Page title: The page title should state the company's name followed by a brief
description about the website and should be meaningful as well
4. Main tasks: The home page should list the most important tasks that uses a likely to
be interested in. These tasks should have very clear headings and boundaries. Two
more tasks should not overlap.
5. Search box: The home page should have a search box and the length of that should
be sufficiently large.
6. Disappearing content: The links to disappearing home page content should be
provided to the users in case they are interested in reading it again.
7. Glimpses of actual content: Instead of just listing of contents available on the site it
is much better to show some glimpses or icons of those contents.
8. Meaningful links: When user takes a look at the links of the homepage they should
be very meaningful and clear and also be different from each other.
9. Avoid over emphasis: It is better to avoid over emphasizing the content because the
user things of such contents as an advertisement, since it looks different from the rest
of the content and simply ignores it.
10. Size of homepage: The web pages should be flexible size so the user can resize the
window without distorting the contents on the screen.
11. Using graphics effectively: It is recommended to use graphics and images that are
very relevant and close to the top.
TYPES OF WEB PAGES
Static web page: Static web pages are also known as flat or stationery web pages. Search
web pages contain only static information. User can only read the information but can't do
any modification or interact with the information. Static web pages don't change content or
layout with every request to the web server. They change only when a web author manually
updates them with a text editor or web editing tool like Adobe Dreamweaver.
Dynamic web page: Dynamic web page shows different information at different point of
time. It is possible to change a portion of a web page without loading the entire web page.
Using client-side scripting techniques, content can be changed quickly on the user's computer
without new page request to the web server.
WEB STANDARDS
Web standards are rules and guidelines established by the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) developed to promote consistency in the design code which makes a web page.
Simply it is the guideline for the markup language which determines how a web page
displays in a visitor's browser window. Currently five standards have been officially
implemented. Most of them come from the W3C. One standard, however, originated at
another organization called ECMA
 HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language): This is the most common tool for
designing web pages. Using HTML structuring elements text documents in the
protected by browsers can display their content according to specified formats.
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language): It allows the quarter to customize new tag
elements according to their every set document type definition for to one that can be
personally defined. XML is the standard through which the webs full potential can be
achieved.
 CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): The overall appearance of in their sights can be so
defined with the use of CSS allowing it to be remodeled in a matter of seconds.
 DOM (Document Object Model): It is a scripting language that allows programs and
script to dynamically access and update the content, structure and style of web
documents.
 ECMAscript (the standardized version of JavaScript): This is a client side object
oriented scripting language. It is to manipulate objects in a document that is specified
by the DOM.
ADVANTAGES
 Easy format conversion
 Greater visibility in web searches
 Accessibility
 comprehensive
 Device compatibility
 Faster loading
 Flexibility
 Indexing
AUDIENCE REQUIREMENT
Audience is any group of people with some measurable characteristics in common
which influences how relevant and significant they are to specific outcomes. Matching a
website and design to target audience is an important step in website creation. Website will
probably initially target towards the same existing clients, but it is also necessary to consider
widening potential audience.
 The first step to building a high converting website is to identify target audience.
Knowing target audience and ideal customer is crucial before actually starting designing
journey. Knowing the preferences of target audience will have a huge influence on website
design and will help to make a perfect website. Once there is a clear target audience in mind,
company can begin to design a website around them by using the right typography, layout
and style. The following points should be kept in mind when designing website for audience
point of view.
 Colour scheme: Selecting wrong colour scheme could make visitors leave the site in
a matter of seconds. Therefore make sure the colour matches the image of Business
and the message that is trying to communicate.
 Layout: The website should be easy to read and navigate, the target audience will
determine nature of navigation they need. If it is possible to understand the audience
well, it is probably easy to know the audience requirement of navigation.
 Fonts and typography: Fonts and size of the font used in a site can often help get
fine messages across to uses. The font type and the font size are also based on the
targeted audience.
 Content: When it comes to the content on a website the overall style, spacing and
how it is arranged should be considered.
 Images: In order to get the attention of audience the right images in the correct style
is needed to include in a website.
ROLE OF WEBSITE IN BUSINESS
 Increasing customers: A professional looking website with a graceful interface,
showing visuals, attractive contents and easily navigable features is convincing
enough for a customer to do business and make purchases from a business.
 Increasing visibility: Even if people have heard about a company, they may want to
carry out search online first, before actually making any transaction with them.
 Cost effective: Website is a very cost effective way to promote a business. Although
the cost of designing a website varies, once it is set up and running, a website for a
small business generally costs very less.
 Accessible around the clock: a website is operational around the clock and so
customers and clients can easily access website and services.
 Customers informed: A website is actually an online brochure or catalogue. It is
much easier to update information about products and services on a website than in
print material.
 Credibility: A website is also important for business because it helps to establish
credibility of business. By building a website, business is getting an opportunity to tell
consumers why they should trust a company and the testimonials and facts to justify
their arguments.
 Sales: By having an online presence, company is allowing for the sale of product or
services around the clock to whomever and whenever without any limitations
 Global marketing: Having a website and online presence strategy allows to market
products and services online. Because the website can be accessed by any person from
any part of the world within a second.
  Saving time: With an on-line catalogue company can provide lots of information
about their products and service easily.
 Improved customer service: Website can also provide improved customer service.
For example, a company may be selling environmental friendly products and so they
can to share tips on how to recycle.
HTML DOCUMENTS
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language and it is the most widely used
language to write web pages. It is not a programming language. It does not require any
specific system configuration. It is completely system independent.
Hypertext refers to the way in which webpages (HTML documents) are linked
together. Thus the link available on a webpage is called hypertext. HTML is a markup
language which means we use html to simply “mark-up” a text document with tags that tell a
web browser hot to structure it to display.
BASIC HTML DOCUMENT STRUCTURE
HTML5 is the latest and most enhanced version of HTML. Every HTML document follows
this basic structure:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Page Title </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>My First Heading </h1>
<p>My First Paragraph </p>
</body>
</html>
 The <!DOCTYPE html> declaration defines this document to be HTML
 The <html> element is the root element of an HTML page
 The <head> element contains meta information about the document
 The <title> element specifies a title for the document
 The <body> element contains the visible page content
 The <h1> element defines a large heading
 The <p> element defines a paragraph
HTML TAGS
HTML is a markup language and makes use of various tags to format the content. These tags
are enclosed within angle brackets <tag name>. Except few tags, most of the tags have their
corresponding closing tags.
<tag name> write content here…. </tag name>
 HTML tags normally come in pairs like <p< and </p>
 The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag
 The end tag is written like the starting tag but with a forward slash inserted before
the tag name.
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration represents the document type and helps browsers to display
web pages correctly. It must only appear once at the top of the page before any HTML tags.
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration is not case sensitive.
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration for HTML5 is:
<!DOCTYPE html >

DOCUMENT CREATING IN HTML

An HTML file can be created using any text editor. Notepad is such an editor and is part of
the typical installation on windows computers.
The following steps are needed to create first web page with notepad or TextEdit
Step 1: Open notepad (PC)
Windows 8 or later:
Open the start screen (the windows symbol at the bottom left on your screen) Type notepad
Windows 7 or earlier:
Open Start> Programs> Accessories> Notepad
Step 2: Write HTML codes
Step 3: Save the HTML page
Save the file on your computer. Select file > save as in the notepad menu. Name the file
“sample.htm” and set the encoding to UTF-8 (which is the preferred encoding for HTML
files). We can use either .htm or .html as file extension.
Step 4: View the HTML page in the browser
Open the saved HTML files in a web browser (double click on the file or right click and
choose “open with”)
The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML documents and display them. The browser
does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to determine how to display the document.

Heading tags
Any document starts with a heading. We can have headings with different sizes. HTML also
has six levels of headings which use the elements <h1>, <h2>, <h3>, < h4>, < h5> and
<h6>. While displaying any heading browser adds one line before and one line after that
heading.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Heading example </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is heading 1</h1>
<h2>This is heading 2</h2>
<h3>This is heading 3</h3>
<h4>This is heading 4</h4>
<h5>This is heading 5</h5>
 <h6>This is heading 6</h6>
</body>
</html>
Paragraph tag
The <p> tag is used to structure text into different paragraphs. Each paragraph of text should
go in between an opening <p> and closing </p> tag as shown in the following example

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Paragraph example </title>
</head>
<body>
<p> Here is a first paragraph of text.</p>
<p> Here is a second paragraph of text.</p>
<p> Here is a third paragraph of text.</p>
</body>
</html>
Line break tag
When the <br/> element is used, anything following it, starts from the next line. This tag is
an example of an empty element, where opening and closing tag is not needed because there
is nothing to include in between them.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Line break example </title>
</head>
<body>
<p> Hello<br/>This is next line<br/>Thanks<br/>Welcome</p>
</body>
</html>
 CHAPTER 3
ELEMENTS OF HTML
HTML ELEMENT
The HTML element is everything from the start tag to the end tag. An HTML element
usually consists of a start tag and end tag, with the content inserted in between them. HTML
element which does not have a closing tag is called void elements or empty elements. They
are element with no content. The empty tags such <br>,<hr>.<img> etc. are used in empty
elements.
HTML TAGS VS ELEMENT
Tags are used to mark up the start and end of an HTML element. An HTML element
is defined by a starting tag. If the element contains other content, it ends with a closing tag.
For example <p> is starting tag of a paragraph and </p> is closing tag of the same paragraph
but <p>This is paragraph</p> is a paragraph element.

ATTRIBUTES
Attributes are extra bits of information which are added with the tags. An attribute is
used to define the characteristics of an HTML element and is placed inside the element's
opening tag. All attributes are made up of two parts a name and a value
 The name is the property we want to set. For example, the paragraph <p> element in
the below example carries an attribute whose name is align, which we can use to
indicate the alignment of paragraph on the page.
 The value is what we want the value of the property to be set and always put within
quotations. The below example shows three possible values of align attribute:
left ,center and right.
Attribute names and attribute values are case insensitive. However the W3C recommends
lowercase attributes/ attribute values.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title> Align attribute example </title>
</head>

<body>
<p align = “left”>This is left aligned </p>
<p align = “center”>This is center aligned</p>
<p align = “right”>This is right aligned </p>
</body>
</html>
CORE ATTRIBUTES
The four core attributes that can be used on the majority of HTML elements are
 id
 title
 class
 style
The id attribute
The id attribute of an HTML tag can be used to uniquely identify any element within an
HTML page. There are two primary reasons for using an id attribute on an element
 If an element carries an id attribute as a unique identifier, it is possible to identify just
that element and its content
 If there are two elements of the same name within a web page, this id attribute can be
used to distinguish between elements that have the same name.
Example
<p id=”html”>This para explains what is HTML</p>
<p id=”css”>This para explains what is Cascading Style Sheet</p>

The title attribute

The title attribute gives a suggested title for the element. The behaviour of this attribute will
depends upon the element that carries it, although it is often displayed as a tooltip when
cursor comes over the element or while the element is loading
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title> Title attribute example </title>
</head>

<body>
<h3 title=”Hello HTML!”>Titled heading tag example</h3>
</body>
</html>

The Class attribute

The class attribute is used to associate an element with a style sheet, and specifies the class of
element. The value of the attribute may also be a space separated list of class names. For
example
class= “className1 className2 className3”

The style attribute

The style attribute allows to specify Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) rules within the element.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title> The Style Attribute</title>
</head>

<body>
<p style=”font-family:arial;color:#FF0000;”>Some Text…….</p>
</body>
</html>
INTERNATIONALIZATION ATTRIBUTES
There are three internationalization attributes which are available for most XHTML elements
 dir
 lang
 xml:lang
The dir attribute
The dir attribute allows to indicate to the browser about the direction in which the text should
flow. The dir attribute can take one of two values, as we can see in the table that follows;
Value Meaning
ltr Left to right (the default value)
rtl Right to left (for languages such as Hebrew or Arabic that are read right to left)
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html dir=”rtl”>
<head>
<title> Display directions</title>
</head>

<body>
This is how IE 5 renders right-to-left directed text
</body>
</html>
When dir attribute is used within the <html> tag, it determines how text will be
presented within the entire document. When used within another tag, it controls the text's
direction for just the content of that tag.
The lang attribute
The lang attribute allows to indicate the main language used in a document, but this attributes
was kept in HTML only for backwards compatibility with earlier version of HTML. This
attribute has been replaced by the xml:lang attribute in new XHTML documents.
The values of the lang attribute are ISO-639 standard two-character language codes. Check
HTML language codes: ISO 639 for a complete list of language codes.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=”en”>
<head>
<title> English language page</title>
</head>

<body>
This page is using English Language
</body>
</html>

HTML FORMATTING
We are all familiar with the formatting techniques such as the texts bold, italicized or
underlined in word processors. These are also available in HTML.
Tag Description
<b>…..</b> Defines bold text
<i>…..</i> Defines italic text
<u>…..</u> Defines underlined text
<strike>…..</strike> Defines strike text
<tt>…..</tt> Defines monospace font
^….. Defines superscripted text
_….. Defines subscripted text
<ins>…..</ins> Defines inserted text
<del>…..</del> Defines deleted text
<big>…..</big> Defines larger text
<small>…..</small> Defines smaller text
All the formats are included in the below example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Formatting in HTML</title>
</head>

<body>
<p>This is an example for <b>bold</b> font</p>
<p>This is an example for <i>italics</i> font</p>
<p>This is an example for <u>underlined</u> font</p>
<p>This is an example for <strike>strikethrough</strike> over text</p>
<p>This is an example for <tt>monospaced</tt> font</p>
<p>This is an example for ^superscript text</p>
<p>This is an example for _subscript text</p>
<p>This is an example for <del>delete</del> and <ins>insert</ins></p>
<p>This is an example for <big>larger</big> text</p>
<p>This is an example for <small>small</small> text</p>
</body>
</html>

Font tag
HTML uses font tag to add style, size and color to the text on website. The font tag is having
three attributes called size, color and face for customize text in a web page. The <font> tag is
not supported in HTML5. Use CSS instead of <font> in HTML5.
Font face
The font face attribute specifies the font name of the text inside a font tag.
<font face=”Arial”> Arial font </font>
When Specify a font face, the typeface you specified must be installed on the
computer of the person viewing the web page. The value of the face attribute can hold several
font names separated by a comma.
<font face=”Sans serif,Comic Sans MS,Lucida Console”>
A visitor will only be able to see font if they have that font installed on their
computer. When the page is loaded, browser will display the first font face that it has
available, otherwise second one and so on. If the specified fonts are not installed on your
computer, then it will load default font face of web browser. Always use double quotes
around the font names.
Font size
Font size can set by changing the size attribute of <font> tag. The range of accepted values is
from 1 (smallest) to 7 (largest). The default size of a font is 3.
<font size=7>Text here</font>
Font color
The color attribute specifies the color of the text inside a font tag. We can specify the color
that we want by either the color name or hexadecimal code for that color.
<font color=”green”>Text here</font>
<font color=”#008000”>Specify hexcolor #008000</font>
We can use face, size and color attributes together one <font> tag.
All those attributes related font tag is given below;
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title> Font Attributes</title>
</head>
<body>
<font size="7">Different font faces</font><br/>---------------------------------------------<br/>
<font face="Times New Roman" size="5">Times New Roman</font><br/>
<font face="Verdana" size="5">Verdana</font><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<font size="7">Different font sizes</font><br/>---------------------------------------------<br/>
<font size="1">Font size="1"</font><br/>
<font size="2">Font size="2"</font><br/>
<font size="3">Font size="3"</font><br/>
<font size="4">Font size="4"</font><br/>
<font size="5">Font size="5"</font><br/>
<font size="6">Font size="6"</font><br/>
<font size="7">Font size="7"</font>
<br/>
<br/>
<font size="7">Different font colors</font><br/>---------------------------------------------<br/>
<font color="#0000FF">This text is in blue</font><br/>
<font color="green">This text is in green</font>
</body>
</html>
<basefont> element
the <basefont> element is supposed to set a default font size, color and typeface for any part
of the document that are not otherwise contained within a <font> tag.
<img> tag
The <img> tag is used to insert an image into a document. The <img> tag is empty. It
contains attributes only and does not have a closing tag. The src attribute specifies the URL
(web address) of the image.
Eg:- <img src="image URL".... attributes-list>
The alt attribute
The alt attribute provides an alternative text for an image, if the user for some reason cannot
view it. If a browser cannot find an image, it will display the value of the alt attribute.
Eg:- <img src="image.jpg" alt="image cannot be displayed">
Image size- width and height
We can use the style attribute to specify the width and height of an image. The values are
specified in pixels.
Eg:-<img src=”image.jpg” alt=”image cannot displayed” style=”width:120px;height:120px”>

Image border
By default, image will have a border around it, we can specify border thickness in terms of
pixels using border attribute. A thickness of 0 means, no border around the picture.
Eg:- <img src=”image.jpg” alt=”image cannot displayed” style=”width:120px;height:120px”
border=”3”>
image alignment
By default, image will align at the left side of the page, but we can use align attribute to set it
in the center or right
Eg:-
<img src="image.jpg" alt="image cannot be displayed" style="width:128pix;height:128pix;
"border="3"align="right">
An example describing image tag and image attributes is given below
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>using images</title>
</head>
<body>
<h2>images</h2>
<img src="Windows-8-Wallpaper-4.jpg" alt="image not displayed"
style="width:304px;height:228px">
<h2>Image with border and right aligned</h2>
<img src="Windows-8-Wallpaper-4.jpg" alt="image not displayed"
style="width:304px;height:228px" border="3" align="right">
</body>
</html>
HTML lists
HTML lists are used to specify lists of information. All lists must contain one or more list
elements. There are three different types of HTML lists
 <ol> ordered list or numbered list: This will use different formats of numbers to list
various items.
 <ul> unordered list or bulleted list: This will list items using plain bullets
 <dl> description list or definition list: This list will arrange items in the same way as
they are arranged in a dictionary.
HTML ordered list or numbered list
In the ordered HTML lists, all the list items are marked with numbers. It is known as
numbered list also. The order list start with <ol> tag and the list items start with <li> tag. The
list items will be marked with numbers by default. An example is given below
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>ordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol><li>Physics</li><li>Commerce</li><li>Maths</li></ol>
</body>
</html>
The type attribute
We can use type attribute for <ol> tag to specify the type of numbering. By default it is a
number. Following are the possible options
<ol type=”1”> Default case numerals
<ol type=”I”> Uppercase numerals
<ol type=”i”> Lowercase numerals
<ol type=”A”> Uppercase letters
<ol type=”a”> Lower case letters
Example of <ol type=”1”>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML ordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol type="1">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
Example of <ol type=”I”>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML ordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol type="I">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
Example of <ol type=”i”>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML ordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol type="i">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
Example of <ol type=”A”>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML ordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol type="A">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
Example of <ol type=”a”>
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML ordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol type="a">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
HTML unordered list
An unordered list is a collection of related items that have no special order or sequence. This
list is created by using HTML <ul> tag. Each item in the list is marked with a bullet. We can
use type attribute for <ul> tag to specify the type of bullet. By default it is a disc. Following
are the possible options
<ul type=:”square”>
<ul type=”disc”>
<ul type=”circle”>
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title> HTML unordered list</title>
</head>
<body>
<ul type="disc">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ul>
<ul type="square">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ul>
<ul type="circle">
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Maths</li>
</ul>
</body>
</html>
HTML description list or definition list
HTML supports a list style which is called definition list where entries are listed like in a
dictionary. The dictionary list is the ideal way to present a glossary, list of terms, or other
name or value list. The <dl> tag defines the description list, the <dt> tag defines the term
name and the <dd> tag describe each item.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Definition list</title>
</head>
<body>
<dl>
<dt><b>ENGLISH</b></dt>
<dd>This is universal language</dd>
<dt><b>MALAYALAM</b></dt>
<dd>Our mother tongue</dd>
<dt><b>HINDI</b></dt>
<dd>National language</dd>
</dl>
</body>
</html>
HTML tables
Tables and forms are integral part of any website or webpage. HTML tables allow web
authors to arrange data like text, images, links, other table etc. into rows and columns of cells.
HTML tabs are created using the <table> tag in which the <tr> tag is used to create a table
rows and <td> tag is used to create data cells. The elements under <td> are regular and left
aligned by default.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML tables</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border=”1”>
<tr>
<td>Row1, column1</td>
<td>Row1, column2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Row2, column1</td>
<td>Row2, column2</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Here, the border is an attribute of <table> tag and it is used to put a border across all
the cells. If you do not need a border then you can use border=”0”.
Table heading
Table heading can be defined using <th> tag. This tag will be put to replace <td> tag.
Normally we will put our top row as table heading as shown below otherwise we can use the
element in any row. Headings which are defined in TH tag are standard and bold by default.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML table headers</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border=”1”>
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Place</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Rajeesh</td>
<td>Thrissur</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Varma</td>
<td>Trissur</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Hyperlinks
A web page can contain various links that take visitor directly to other pages and even
specific parts of given page. These links are known as hyperlinks.
Hyperlinks allow visitors to navigate between websites by clicking on words, phrases
and images. Thus we can create hyperlinks using text or images available on a web page.
A link is specified using HTML tag <a>. This tag is called anchor tag and anything
between the opening <a>tag and the closing <a> tag becomes part of the link and a user can
click that part to reach to the linked document.
<a href="document URL" .... attribute list> Link text </a>
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Hyperlink Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Click following link</p>
<a href="https://www.example.com" target="_self">HTML example</a>
</body>
</html>
Download links
We can create text link to make your PDF or DOC or zip files downloadable. This is very
simple; we just need to give complete URL of the downloadable file.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Hyperlink example</title>
</head>
<body>
<a href=" https://www.example.com /page.pdf">download pdf file</a>
</body>
</html>
Internal and external links
There are two types of resources we can link to using the <a> element: internal and
external. Internal links are those that point to other pages of our websites. External links point
to web pages that are not part of our website.
Image links
It is also possible to create hyperlinks using images. It is simple to use an image as hyperlink.
Here an image inside hyperlink is used instead of text.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Hyperlink example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Click following image</p>
<a href=”http://www.google.com” target=”_self”>
<img src=”google.png” alt=”Google” border=”0”>
</a>
</body>
</html>
Multimedia in HTML
Sometimes we need to add music or video into our web page. The easiest way to add video or
sound to our website is to include the special HTML tag called <embed>. This tag cause the
browser itself to include controls for the multimedia automatically provide browser support
<embed> tag and given media type.
 We can also include a <noembed> tag for the browser which cannot recognize the
<embed> tag.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML embed tag</title>
</head>
<body>
<embed src="/html/yourfile.swf" width=”200” height=”200”>
<noembed><img src="yourimage.gif" alt="Alternative media"></noembed>
</embed>
</body>
</html>
Background audio
HTML <bgsound> tag is used to play a soundtrack in the background of a web page.
This tag is supported by internet explorer only and most of the other browsers ignore this tag.
The background sound file also will reply whenever the user refreshes the page. loop and src
attributes are used to allocate the file.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Hyperlink example</title>
</head>
<body>
<bgsound src="/html/yourfile.mid">
<noembed><img src="yourimage.gif"> </noembed>
</bgsound>
</body>
</html>
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper or in other
media. It provides easy and effective alternative to specify various attributes for the HTML
tags. CSS saves a lot of work. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once.
Each property has a name and a value, separated by a colon (:). Each property declaration is
separated by a semicolon (;)
CSS can be used in three ways in an HTML documents
 External style sheet
 Internal style sheet
 Inline style sheet
External Style Sheet
An external style sheet is used to define the style for many HTML pages. With an external
style sheet, we can change the look of an entire website, by changing one file. To use an
external style sheet, add a link to it in the <head> section of the HTML.
Example
Style.css file
.red{color:red;}
.thick{font-size:20px;}
.green{color:green;}
html file
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML external CSS</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/html/style.css">
</head>
<body>
<p class="red">This is red</p>
<p class="thick">This is thick</p>
<p class="green">This is green</p>
<p class="thick green">This thick and green</p>
</body>
</html>
Internal Style Sheet
If we want to apply style sheet rules to a single document only, then it can include those rules
in header section of the HTML document using <style> tag. An internal CSS is used to define
a style for a single HTML page.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML internal CSS</title>
<style type="text/css">
.red{color:red;}
.thick{font-size:20px;}
.green{color:green;}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p class="red">This is red</p>
<p class="thick">This is thick</p>
<p class="green">This is green</p>
<p class="thick green">This thick and green</p>
</body>
</html>
Inline Style Sheet
We can apply style sheet rules directly to any HTML element using style attribute of the
relevant tag. This should be done only when we are interested to make a particular change in
any HTML element only. An inline CSS is used to apply a unique style to a single HTML
element. An inline CSS uses the style attribute of an HTML element.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML inline CSS</title>
</head>
<body>
<p style=color:red;>This is red</p>
<p style=font-size:20px;>This is thick</p>
<p style=color:green;>This is green</p>
<p style=color:green;font-size:20px>This thick and green</p>
</body>
</html>
Web publishing or hosting
Web publishing refers to the process in which the content is published on the internet.
It simply refers to the placement of web pages in a location that is accessible to users. The
websites are generally published by using a web server. The website pages are transferred to
the web server. If the company has its own web server, it can publish its own website using
its own host. However if the company does not have a web server then it needs the services
of a web hosting provider. Web hosting providers are companies that provide the space in
order to publish the web pages on the internet.
Steps in web publishing
 Planning a website: It involves thinking about issues that could affect the design of
the website. The purpose of the website and the characteristics of the people that we
want to visit the website should be identified.
 Analyzing and designing a website: Here we want to determine specific ways to
meet the goals identified in the previous steps. Design and layout of elements of the
web pages such as text, graphics, audio, video and virtual reality is very important.
 Creating a website: Creating a website also called web page authoring, involves
working on the computer to compose the website.
 Deploying a website: After the web pages are created, it needs to store them on a
web server. Once a website is created and located a web server to store it, we need to
upload it.
 Maintaining a website: A webmaster is the individual responsible for maintaining a
website and developing web pages.
Web hosting
Web hosting is a service of providing online space for storage of web pages. These
web pages are made available via World Wide Web. The companies which offer website
hosting are known as web hosts. The companies that offer this service, provide their server
computers to store the websites.
A web hosting service is a kind of service through which one gets space on a server
for a website. This space can be owned by some other party. The servers on which website is
hosted remains switched on 24x7. These servers are run by web hosting companies. Each
server has its own IP address.
Types of hosting
 Shared hosting: In shared hosting the hosting company puts thousands of website on
the same physical server. Each customer has their own allocation of physical web
space and a set of bandwidth limit.
 Virtual Private Server (VPS) or Virtual Dedicated Server: It is a server which is
partitioned into smaller servers. In this, customer is given their own partition, which is
installed with its own operating system.
 Dedicated server: In this kind of hosting single dedicated server is setup for just one
customer
 Reseller hosting: A reseller acts as a middle man and sells hosting space of someone
else's server.
 Grid hosting: Instead of utilizing one server, grid hosting spreads resources over a
large number of servers.
Domain strategies
 Use a .com
 Avoid trademarks
 Don't use dashes or numbers
 Brandable domain
 Discoverable domains
Reviewing web hosts
Factors which are considered for review purpose:
 Type of hosting
 Bandwidth/ traffic
 Storage
 Processing power
 Quality of service/ uptime
 Customer service
Saving the site
 Go to a webpage in Chrome that we want to save
 Click on chrome‟s main menu button located in the upper right corner of our browser
window and represented by three vertically aligned dots.
 When the drop down menu appears, move the pointer over the More tools options to
open a sub menu.
 Click on save page as to open a standard save file dialogue that overlays browser
window. Its appearance varies depending on operating systems used
 Select the location on our drive or removable disk where we want to save the current
web page and any accompanying files.
Keyboard shortcuts to save a webpage
o For Chrome OS and windows, use Ctrl+S
o For mac OS X and mac OS Sierra, use Command+S
Saving website
 Click save at the top right of the editor
 Click done
How to manually upload a website created with MS publisher?
 Create an empty folder on desktop as a new location for the files you are about to
upload
 Open the website you created in Microsoft publisher
 Open the home page from the pages you created if you have created more than one
page
 Go to the file menu and select “save as”
 Browse to the folder you created on your desktop
 Set the “save as” type to “web page”.
 Set the file name to be “index.htm”.
 Click save
 Check the new folder be created to see if there is a file named index.htm add a folder
named index_files. If you do not see these two files or they are named differently you
will need to delete the folder and start over at step one.

The easiest way to publish from publisher would be to just to use publisher itself to
upload the files to your HostMonster account. Here are the steps you will have to take
 Open your website in publisher
 Click on file > publish to the web (a window will open up asking you to put in the
files name, delete the name in the box)
 Under the file name type http://www.yourdomain.com (then click save. Publisher will
try to login to your account)
 Type the username: password: you are main HostMonster password (then click ok.
Publisher will login to your account. )
 Under file name, now type index.html and click on save
Working with themes
A theme describes the look and style of a website. It is made up of many things such
as font, type, size, color scheme and other areas that affect the aesthetics of a site. The theme
helps to reflect our identity through the site and helps to improve customer‟s experience.
Themes are extremely powerful. A theme is more than color and layout. Good themes
improve engagement with your website's content in addition to being beautiful. It is
necessary to decide the type of website going to be created when choosing a theme.
The fastest way to develop a new website is to purchase a “ready-made” theme. It
saves time and effort. For example a WordPress theme changes the design of your website,
often include its layout. There are thousands of free WordPress themes in the WordPress.org
theme directory, though many WordPress sites use custom themes.
Most themes you purchase can be customized by using a „child theme‟. A child theme
is where all customizations are added, so when a new version of your theme is developed,
any customizations that were made to the theme will not be overwritten when the new
version is installed.
Website templates
Templates are pre-made websites that can be fully customized to look unique and
fresh, yet familiar. Building a website is quite expensive for designers and coders and hence
templates allow for high-end quality of websites at minimum to no cost. When we choose a
website template, it will look like a fully completed website; except for the contents. We get
the chance to insert our own content.
Website for business growth
 Online appearance
 Global reach
 A new way of lead generation
 Company‟s reliability
 Cost effective advertising
 Easy contact
 Get more customers through search engines
 Customers informed
 Wider market through branding
 Improves customer services
 CHAPTER 4
E-COMMERCE AND DIGITAL PAYMENTS

Meaning
E-Commerce is short for electronic commerce. It is concerned with the buying and
selling information products and services over computer communication network.
Information is electronically transferred from computer to computer in an automated manner.
Definitions
“Electronic commerce is where business transactions take place via
telecommunication networks, especially the internet” - E. Turban, J Lee, D. king and H.M.
Chung
“Electronic commerce is about doing business electronically” – P. Timmers

Characteristics of E-Commerce
 Ubiquity: E-Commerce is characterized by its ubiquity which means it is available
everywhere at all times.
 Global reach: E-Commerce is much helpful to do business beyond geographical
boundaries more conveniently and cost effectively than in traditional commerce
 Universal standards: The technical standards for conducting e-commerce also use
universal standards which means they are shared by all nations around the world
 Ample information: Information about the product or services can be accessed by the
people with the help of internet
 Interactivity: E-Commerce technologies allow for interactivity through two way
communication between merchant and consumer.
 Information density: The internet and the web vastly increase information density
which means the total amount and quality of information available to all market
participants such as consumers and merchants.
 Customization: E-Commerce technologies permit personalization. Merchants can
target their marketing messages to specific individuals by adjusting the message to a
person's name interests and past purchase.

Importance of e-commerce
 Consumer sovereignty: The marketing strategies of all business organizations are
one way or other related with the satisfaction of consumer. Consumers in e-commerce
enjoy wide choice and best service. He is free to select any goods and services
displayed on computer screen.
 Customization: The companies should concentrate on establishing better relationship
with customers and to enhance customer loyalty, otherwise the customer with full of
choice may jump from one website to another.
 New markets: It is easier to penetrate and reaching of the customers across the world
within minutes over internet. The internet enables suppliers to introduce and promote
new products to meet the needs of the individual buyers.
  Efficient use of resources: Availability of plenty of information, no transportation
cost and free entry into markets led to the efficient use of resources will in turn reduce
both cost and prices.
 Employment opportunities: E-commerce provides employment opportunities to
large number of people across the world. A large number of professionals are
employed in software service sector.
 Quick and speedy disposal of customers: Internet related technology process
transactions at a great speed and it takes less time to complete formalities without
considerable investment. The time consuming procedures can be given to
computerized system to avoid delay associated with the traditional system of
processing customers.
 Managing competition: E-Commerce is particularly attractive because it can serve as
the great equalizer. That is it enables the small and medium sized enterprises to
effectively compete with the large and multinational firms in the global marketplace.

Products suitable for E-Commerce

 Selling of commodity items
 Information based products
 High value products
 Services
 Investments
 Product suitable for shipping
 Strong brand identify
 Standard and non-perishable goods
 Physical inspection
 Permissible under law

Traditional commerce
Traditional commerce is the process of exchanging goods and services in the form of
money directly. Traditional Commerce involves face to face and in person dealing with all
the parties to perform the exchange of goods and services with predefined prices.
In traditional commerce, in addition to buying or selling, firms engaged in many other
activities. For example, the seller of a product must identify demand, promote its products to
potential buyers, accept orders, deliver its products, bills and accepted payment for its
products,and support its customer's use of its product after the sale .
Features of traditional commerce
 Identity: customers can easily confirm the identity of a merchant simply by visiting
into a shop.
 Immediacy: customers can touch and feel and hold the goods and services in
traditional commerce. They can collect relevant information before they make a
purchase decision.
 Value: it is very easy for a buyer to appraise the value of a product, especially its
relative value, if that item is very near to customers.
 Dialogue: customers can talk with the merchant face to face
  Feedback: customers can contact and interact with the other customers and collect
feedback about the merchant
 Privacy: customers can make purchases with cash without revealing their identity

DISTINCTION BETWEEN TRADITIONAL COMMERCE AND E-COMMERCE

BASIS TRADITIONAL COMMERCE E-COMMERCE
Volume of sales Many traditional commerce facilities E-Commerce business may
are designed to sell in large volume. process numerous orders a day,
They may handle many orders per but the size of their order may
day and most of these orders are be small compared to
typically quite large traditional commerce
More products They can stock and sell large variety Handling numerous products is
of products for their customers a major challenge
Direct interaction It is based on face to face interaction They can't exploit this
opportunity unless features
such as related items or live
chats are implemented
Lower costs Maintaining a physical store is costly Opening an online store can be
done with a minimum cost
Access Selling of products are restricted to There is no limit to the market
people who actually visit the shop
Product's returns The customer will be able to touch A significantly higher rate of
rate and check the items, to make sure returns of products can expect
they are suitable, and even try them in e-commerce business
on, which reduces the number of
returned items or complaints
Credit card fraud This type of fraud is comparatively The remote nature of e-
low in traditional commerce commerce makes much more
difficult to detect fraud

E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS

Timmers defines a business model is "A set of planned activities designed to result in
a profit in a marketplace". The business model is at the centre of a business plan. An e-
commerce business model aims to use and exploit the unique qualities of the internet and the
World Wide Web.
E-commerce is a much wider subject than selling online. E-Commerce covers any
form of transaction over internet and communication technology has a major role to play.
There are many different types of e-commerce with different relationships existing with each.
The important models of e-commerce are discussed below
1. Business-to-Business (B2B)
B2B is the major type of e-commerce model. It is conducted between two separate
businesses. This is a kind of e-commerce, where a company selling or buying from other
companies. One company communicates with other companies through internet technology.
B2B describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as between a manufacturer
and a wholesaler, or between a wholesaler and a retailer. The volume of B2B transactions is
much higher than the volume of B2C transactions.
Benefits of B2B e-commerce
 Helps to remove barriers raised by geographical fragmentation of the market
 While buyers get to know about new sellers with better products, suppliers discover
new buyers.
 Helps to eliminate unnecessary inventory buildup for both buyers and sellers
 Supply chain management can be easily possible
 Reduced order processing cost and low cost of interacting with each other
2. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
B2C e-commerce consists of the sale of products or services from a business to the
consumers. It is conducted between a business and a retail consumer. It involves customers
gathering information, purchasing and receiving products over an electronic network.
Thus B2C stands for business to consumer and applies to any business or organization
that sells its products or services to consumers over the internet for its own use. In this type of
e-commerce model, businesses directly sell to the end consumer. However these sites require
huge investment in terms of advertisement effort, hardware and software required to support
the many millions of hits that they experience. To maintain customers always with the
company's website, the company must update the information on the web regularly.
Consumers always demand greater convenience and lower prices.
Benefits of B2C E-Commerce
 Lower marketing cost
 Lower order processing cost
 Better customer service
 Lower customer support cost
 Wider markets
3. Consumer-to-Business (C2B)
C2B is an e-commerce business model in which consumers offer products and services to
companies and the companies pay them. This business model is a complete reversal of
traditional business model where companies offer goods and services to consumers.
4. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
C2C e-commerce involves the electronically facilitated transactions between consumers
through some third party. It consists of individuals using the internet to sell products and
services directly to other individuals. This is essential that both the seller and the buyer must
register with the website. E.g. OLX, eBay etc.
5. Business-to-Government (B2G)
It refers to the supply of goods and services for online government procurement. This is a
huge market which mainly covers everything from office supplies to military equipment.
B2G websites offer lower cost and greater choice to the administration, and make
government tendered offers more accessible to companies. One of the main B2G activities is
paying government taxes and fees online such as vehicle tax, property tax and income tax.
 B2G decreases the cost of transactions with reference to licenses, selling publications of
government documents, tax returns and general dealings with businesses and the public.
There are also some limitations such as security reasons, hackers gaining access to authorized
information etc.
6. Business-to-Employee (B2E)
It is also called Intra business e-commerce. This is the use of intranet technology to
handle activities that take place within a business. An intranet is an internal network that used
internet technologies. Most of the companies use the B2E processes to automate the
employee related issues for the corporate purposes. Some of the most common examples for
the B2E applications are the online insurance policy management, corporate dissemination,
online supply requests, special offers for the employees and also the reporting for the benefits
of the employees. It helps in nurturing the relations between the employee and the
organization. B2E is different from other types since it is not a revenue form of business.
BUSINESS MODELS IN EMERGING E-COMMERCE AREAS
1. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) business model
2. Peer-to-Peer P2P business model
P2P business models connect users and enabling them to share files and computer
resources without a common server. The focus in P2P companies is on helping
individuals make information available for anyone's use by connecting users on the web.
3. M-Commerce business model
Mobile commerce permits mobile access to the web. Wireless network utilize newly
available bandwidth and communication protocols to connect mobile users to the internet.
The key technologies here are telephone-based 3G or 4G, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

APPLICATIONS OF E-COMMERCE
1. Electronic Commerce and banking
Banks now have a variety of technological devices to initiate online banking programs
without investing huge investments. The rich and delivery capability of the internet help the
banks a lot to move on online banking so that customers can manage their money anywhere,
anytime. Technology not only provides better and efficient service to the customers, but it
also markets novel products and services.
Banking on the internet is not the same as banking online. In the case of internet banking
consumer need not purchase any additional software to store any data on the computer. But in
the case of online banking, service to the customers is restricted in the sense that they have to
install a software package in their computers.
2. Electronic Commerce and retailing
Retailing is expected to change with the rapid development of new online sales and
distribution channels. Now customers are able to do their shopping at anywhere, anytime. As
the technology develops, the concept of retailing also underwent radical change. In the
traditional method of retailing, customers went to the retail store and locate the product. But
today, in the e-commerce scenario, the retailer going to the customer, the whole concept is
reversed. A retailer has to consider the following elements to develop a new online system of
retailing
  Product
 Process
 Price of products
 Payment modes
 Market penetration issues
 Type of software
3. Television retailing
Television based retailing has now become a popular method of retailing. Customers get
information about products, price etc. through cable, broadcast and satellite media. The target
audience of these kinds of retailing is educated and high income earning groups.
4. CD ROM based shopping
The CD-ROM catalogues are very cheap compared to paper catalogues. It has the
multimedia capability and therefore sound, photos and full motion video to present products
can be added to a catalogues. This method is cost effective and visually superior.
5. Online based shopping
With the popularity of internet and World Wide Web, many retailing firms are adopting
websites as an effective media for retailing. Web based retail outlets are cheap, easy to access
and capable of making changes. Many retailers are developing programs to deliver online
shopping to internet users around the clock. Goods are delivered next day. Moreover retailers
now concentrate their attention to study the various aspects concerning the attitude and
behavior of consumers towards online shopping.
6. Online publishing
Electronic publishing is mostly being used to supplement demand for printed periodicals.
Many publishers have now established facilities to produce electronic materials such as
online database and online magazines for their customers. Recently the emergence of the
internet and World Wide Web has played a vital role in popularizing online publishing to a
large number of visitors.
There are various publishing approaches. One of such approaches is online archive
approach. A good example of online archive approach is library catalogues and bibliographic
databases. The second important approach of online publishing is the new medium approach.
It includes real time news delivery, education and entertainment.
Another area of online publishing is full text and bibliographic databases. This type of
publishing includes trade publications and newspapers.

REQUIREMENTS OF E-COMMERCE WEBSITE

 Responsive web design
 Attractive and good looking web design
 Quick page loading
 Product details
 Search and filter
 Videos
 Customer reviews
 New promotions
  Powerful shopping cart
 Simple checkout
 Clear contact information
 Social media
 Return and exchange information

Modes of delivery
Delivery is becoming increasingly important for online shoppers. Choosing the delivery time
and location is an important factor for an increasing number of customers. So there must be
several delivery options to customers and it will help to choose their own delivery time or
location. The delivery time, speed, location and the return solutions are the major motivators
for a customer in choosing a specific web shop.
Following are the important delivery modes in the context of e-commerce
1. Parcel brokers
They do not actually transport any parcels but act as a broker and take a commission for each
parcel booking they made. They offer e-retailers cheap delivery prices by buying delivery
facilities in bulk and reselling them.
2. Parcel and courier consolidators
They provide preparation and collection of parcels and packets, thereafter are put into the
delivery operator's parcel distribution chain. By collecting small parcels from many small
senders, the consolidator can obtain larger discounts from the delivery operator than the
senders would have been able to obtain individually.
3. Fourth party logistics providers (4PLs)
An integrator that assembles the resources, capabilities, and technology of its own
organization and other organizations to design, build and run comprehensive supply chain
solutions. Logistics outsourcing can be defined as the strategic use of outside parties to
perform activities traditionally handed by internal staff and resources.
4. Software solution providers
They provide e-retailers and delivery operators with software solution to support e-logistics
and e-fulfillment and to improve efficiency and quality of service thereby meeting customer
needs. Solutions include EDI, tracking, labeling, push notification to recipients etc.
5. Drop shippers
Drop shipping is a retail fulfillment method where an e-store need not keep the products it
sells in stock. The biggest difference between drop shipping and the standard retail model is
that the selling merchant doesn't stock or own inventory. Instead, the merchant purchases
inventory as needed from a third party-usually a wholesaler or manufacturer to fulfill orders.

DIGITAL PAYMENTS
Electronic payment is defined as a financial exchange that takes place online between
buyers and sellers. The content of this exchange is usually some form of digital financial
instruments such as encrypted credit card numbers, electronic cheques or digital cash that is
backed by a bank or an intermediary, or by a legal tender.
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC PAYMENTS
1. Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD)
USSD enables a person to access banking services with a single number. It is offered
through a national unified USSD platform (NUUP) on a short code *99#. This can be used to
for payments up to Rs.5000 per day per customer. This service allows mobile banking
transactions using basic feature mobile phone. There is no need to have mobile internet data
facility for using USSD based mobile banking. This USSD based communication can be used
for checking account balance, generating mini statement, fund transfer via MMID (a code
allotted by banks on mobile banking registration), IFSC code or Aadhaar number
2. National Unified USSD Platform (NUUP)
NUUP stands for National unified USSD platform. It is an innovative service developed
by NPCI (National Payments Corporation of India) and launched by the Indian government
in 2014. It is a USSD based mobile banking service that brings together all the banks and
telecom service providers. It does not require any application to be installed on the phone. In
NUUP, a customer can access banking services by just pressing *99# from his mobile
phones. It is a platform that provides access to the Unified Payment Interface (UPI) service
over the USSD protocol.
This service helps customers to do following banking transactions
 Balance enquiry
 Mini statement
 Fund transfer to accounts using mobile number and MMID
 Fund transfer to accounts using IFS code and account number
 MMID retrieval
 Change MPIN
 Generate OTP for IMPS merchant payments
3. Aadhaar Enabled Payment System (AEPS)
Aadhaar Enabled Payment System is a payment service empowering a bank customer to
use Aadhaar as his identity to access his respective Aadhaar enabled bank account and
perform basic banking transactions.
The objective of AEPS is to empower a bank customer to use Aadhaar to access his Aadhaar-
enabled bank account and perform basic banking transactions that are intra bank or interbank
nature through a Business Correspondent (BC). BC is an approved bank agent providing
basic banking service using a micro ATM (terminal) to any bank customer wishing to avail
their bank BC service.
4. Unified Payment Interface (UPI)
UPI is a payment system that allows money transfer between any two bank accounts by
using a smartphone. It is a single window mobile payment system developed by NPCI and
regulated by Reserve Bank of India. It allows users to link more than one bank account in a
single smartphone app and make fund transfer without having to provide IFSC code or
account number. This is a real time payment system where funds are credited instantly on a
real time basis. A user will only have to use a virtual address, known as a Virtual Payment
Address (VPA) to carry out any transaction.
 5. Debit cards
Debit card is a kind of payment card that transfers fund directly from the consumer's bank
account to the merchant's account. It is a small plastic card with a unique number mapped
with the bank account number. A debit card is a payment card that deducts money directly
from a consumer's bank account to pay for a purchase. Each time the customer makes a
purchase, an equal amount of the purchase is debited in his account. So he should maintain
sufficient balance in account for the transaction to get completed.
Advantages
 Easy to obtain
 Convenience
 Safety
 Readily accepted
6. Credit cards
When a customer purchases a product via credit card, credit card issuer bank pays on
behalf of the customer and customer has a certain time period after which he can pay the
credit card bill.
Bank issue credit cards to their good customers. Cards are issued to customers on the basis of
their income level, credit history and total financial soundness. By using these cards,
customers can purchase goods and services either offline or online without making immediate
payment. Payment to the merchants will be made by the customer's bank. The customer is
supposed to repay his debts during the payment period. Otherwise interest will accumulate.
Advantages
 Convenience
 Fast payment
 Easy access
 More shopping options
 Consumer protections
 Credit score
 Record keeping
7. Smart card
Smart card is a plastic card embedded with a memory chip and microprocessor used for
information storage, management and authentication.
Smart card is a small plastic card that has a built in microprocessor to store data and records.
The microprocessor is under a gold contact pad on one side of the card. It has the facility to
store the details about customer. The ability of the chip to store more information in its
memory makes the card smart. It encrypts digital cash on a chip and can be refilled by
connecting to a bank.
Advantages
 Security
 Convenience
 Flexibility
 Control
 International use
  Interest free loan
8. Prepaid cards
In the case of prepaid cards, a customer is allowed to spend only up to the amount that
has pre deposited into the account. This type of payment system is highly useful to those
customers who would like to control over spending. Prepaid cards are taken by the customer
by depositing money with the credit giving company. It can be deposited in the savings
account or current account. It is very effective card as it does not put in debt. Once the money
exhausts in the account the credit card cannot be used.
Benefits of prepaid cards
 It is accepted at all merchant establishment worldwide according to the affiliation of
the credit giving company
 It can be used to withdraw cash at ATMs
 Reloadable anytime anywhere
 It can be used to withdraw cash in any international currency
 It is usually backed up by personal accident insurance cover
 Customers have the facility to get online and track spending, check balance, change
pin etc.
9. Internet banking
It refers to any banking transaction that can be conducted over the internet, generally
through a bank's website under a private profile, and with a desktop or laptop computer.
These transactions include services traditionally offered at local branches without having to
go to one.
Internet banking is generally defined as having the following characteristics
 Financial transactions are conducted over the internet through a bank's secure website
 The bank may have physical branch locations or it may exist only online
 The user must register with the financial institution online and create a login ID and
password
The internet provides a secure medium for transferring funds electronically between bank
accounts and also for making banking transactions over the internet. Internet banking is
highly useful for making payments for the goods and services purchased online.
Advantages of internet banking
 Simplicity
 Convenient
 Anytime anywhere
 Fast and efficient
 Safety
 Promotion
10. Mobile banking
It allows customers to perform many of the same activities as internet banking using a
smartphone or tablet instead of a desktop computer. However, simply accessing the bank's
website on a mobile device is not the only method of mobile banking. It includes logging into
a bank's mobile website, using a mobile banking app and text message (SMS) banking.
Mobile banking can be used for many of the same tasks that you would complete at a bank
branch or on your desktop computer like checking account balances, transferring money from
one account to another, finding an ATM, setting up alert, viewing account statements etc.
Advantages
 Convenient
 Control of finances
 Secure
11. E-Wallet
E-wallet is a type of electronic card which is used for transactions made online through a
computer or a smartphone. Its utility is same as a credit or debit card. An E-wallet needs to be
linked with the individual‟s bank account to make payments.
E-wallet is a type of pre-paid account in which a user can store his money for any future
online transaction. An E-wallet is protected with a password. With the help of an E-wallet,
one can make payments for groceries, online purchases, and flight tickets, among others.
E-wallet has mainly two components, software and information. The software component
stores personal information and provides security and encryption of the data. The information
component is a database of details provided by the user which includes their name, shipping
address, payment method, amount to be paid, credit or debit card details, etc.
12. M-Wallet
A mobile wallet is a virtual wallet that stores payment card information on a mobile
device. Mobile wallets are a convenient way for a user to make in-store payments and can be
used at merchants listed with the mobile wallet service provider. The mobile wallet is an app
that can be installed on a smartphone or it is an existing built-in feature of a smartphone.
Types of m wallets in India
 Closed mobile wallets: Closed mobile wallets don‟t provide services like redemption
or cash withdrawal. It can only be used for purchasing goods and services for that
specific company. E.g. MakeMyTrip, Jabong etc.
 Semi closed wallets: Semi closed wallets are also similar like closed wallets. It also
doesn't permit to redeem or withdraw cash. But it allows users to purchase goods and
services with listed merchants who have a contract with the wallet company to receive
payments. E.g. Paytm,Mobikwik, oxigen etc.
 Open wallets: The wallet that allows users to redeem and withdraw cash named as
open wallets. E.g. Vodafone powered M-Pesa
13. POS terminals
A point of sale terminal is an electronic device used to process card payments at retail
locations. A customer needs to enter a card PIN to complete the transaction using the POS
terminal. POS terminals provide customers with the hardware interface in which to insert,
swipe, or enter their cards transmitting data from the cards' chip or magnetic stripe.
The POS terminal can read the information of a customer's credit card or debit card, check
whether the fund is sufficient, transfer the fund from customers account to the seller's account
and record the transaction and prints a receipt.
 14. M POS
M POS or mobile point of sale is the ability for a customer transaction to be carried by a
portable mobile device instead of by a traditional check out register. The M POS is a
combination of handheld devices, consisting of a payment card reader and a
smartphone/tablet (communicating through Bluetooth/audio jack) that enables merchants to
accept credit/debit card payments anywhere. The real differentiator of the MPOS is the
mobile app on the smartphone /tablet through which it can do much more than just accept
payments.
M POS implementations enable service and sales organizations to conduct financial
transactions in a more versatile manner without having to be tethered to a single location.
This improves the customer experience (CX) by speeding up service and wait times and
offering multiple payment options.
15. V POS
It is a payment gateway which allows merchants to manually authorize card transactions
initiated by the buyer. This process greatly expands their payment sources and reduces the
time of the payment process, while adding additional security.
Virtual point of sale systems does not require additional hardware, like a card reader, to
operate efficiently. They are easy to set-up with a simple web-based or software platform.
This allows for the input of the credit card details virtually by the merchant.
Today, all you have to do when shopping online is to add items to the cart, and after you‟ve
chosen them, you will be redirected to the virtual point of sale (or POS for short) page where
you will securely input your debit or credit card information and pay for your purchase.
16. E-Cash or electronic cash
E-cash is digital money that is exchanged electronically over computer or
telecommunications networks. It is a method that allows buyers to pay for goods and services
online by transmitting over the internet a unique electronic number or other identifier that
carries a specific value. It is also known as digicash, cybercash, electronic currency etc.
Digital cash is a system of purchasing cash credits in relatively small amounts, storing the
credits in your computer, and then spending them when making electronic purchases over the
Internet.
Advantages
 Digital cash is exchangeable
 It is storable and retrievable
 Digital cash have a monetary value. It is backed by cash
 This is issued by a bank and represents a specified sum of real money.
 Like the serial numbers on real currency notes, the E-cash numbers are unique.
 Complex cryptographic algorithms prevent double spending
 Anonymity is preserved unless double spending is attempted
17. E-Cheque or Electronic cheque
Electronic cheques are very similar to ordinary paper cheques except that they are
initiated electronically. Digital signatures are used for signing and endorsing electronic
cheques. Public networks such as the internet deliver electronic cheques. Electronic payment
(deposits) are gathered by banks and cleared through existing banking channels such as
automated clearing houses. Since the cheque is in an electronic format, it can be processed in
fewer steps. Additionally, it has more security features than standard paper checks including
authentication, public key cryptography, digital signatures, and encryption, among others.
Advantages
 The online merchants could receive payments instantly
 Electronic cheques are very similar to traditional cheques.
 Since electronic cheques use conventional encryption than public and private keys as
in e cash, electronic cheques are much faster
 Since the customer's bank will be involved in the transaction, it would be impossible
for an E-cheque to bounce.
 The risk is taken care of by the accounting server, which will guarantee that the
cheque would be honoured.
 CHAPTER 5
DIGITAL SECURITY

Digital security refers to the policies, procedures and technical measures and to
prevent unauthorized access, alteration, theft or physical damage to information system.
So, the term “digital security” refers to the efforts to protect electronic payment
systems from the relevant threats.

OBJECTIVES OF DIGITAL SECURITY

 Availability objective: Information should be available and usable whenever it is
needed
 Confidentiality objective: The information should be available to only those who have
the right to access it
 Integrity objective: Information should be protected from unauthorized alteration,
modification and misuse.

SECURITY THREATS IN INTERNET AND E-COMMERCE

1. Computer viruses
A computer virus is a program that can copy itself and infect a computer without the
permission or knowledge of the user. Viruses are programs that attach themselves to a
computer or a file and then circulate themselves to other files and to other computers on a
network. They usually affect the data on a computer, either by altering or deleting it. A
computer virus has two major characteristics: the ability to replicate itself, and ability to
attach itself to another computer file.
2. Worms
Computer worms are programs that reproduce, execute independently and travel across
the network connections. The key difference between virus and worm is the manner in which
it reproduces and spreads. A virus is dependent upon the host file or boot sector, and the
transfer of files between computers to spread, whereas a computer worm can execute
completely independently and spread on its own accord through network connections. They
merely make functional copies of themselves and do this repeatedly till they consume all the
available space on a computer's memory.
3. Trojan horses
This term „Trojan horse‟ derives from Greek mythology and refers to a wooden horse that
the Greeks used to sneak into the city of Troy and conquer it. In software field this means an
unauthorized program which passively gains control over another's system by representing
itself as an authorized program. Once it is activated, Trojans can enable cybercriminals to
spy, steal sensitive data and gain back door access to system. This program may seem to be a
useful, but in fact does something harmful to the computer system without user‟s knowledge
like a game or screensaver.

4. Phishing
 Phishing means the fraudulent practice of sending emails purporting to be from reputable
companies in order to induce individuals to reveal personal information, such as passwords
and credit card numbers. It is a method of online identity theft. In phishing, phisher, attempts
to fraudulently retrieve legitimate user's confidential or sensitive information by mimicking
electronic communications from a trustworthy or public organization in an automated
fashion.
5. Hacking
Hacking is an unauthorized access to a computer system or network. The person engaged
in hacking activities is generally referred to as a hacker. A hacker is a person who gains
unauthorized access to a computer network for profit, criminal mischief or personal pleasure.
Hacking is identifying weakness in computer system or network to exploit its weaknesses to
gain access.
White hat professionals hack to check their own security systems to make it more hack-
proof. In most cases, they are part of the same organization. Black hat hackers hack to take
control over the system for personal gains. They can destroy, steal or even prevent authorized
users from accessing the system. They do this by finding loopholes and weaknesses in the
system.
Types of hacking
 Website hacking
 Network hacking
 Email hacking
 Ethical hacking
 Password hacking
6. Spyware
Spyware is a type of software that collects information about use of a computer usually
without the knowledge of the owner of the computer, and passes the information across the
internet to a third party location. This is actually a type of malicious software (malware) that
collects information from a computer system without user's consent. It is often introduced to
a user's system embedded within another software package such as a file sharing application,
an instant messenger or another network dependent program. When the user installs the
package the spyware is installed as well and starts gathering and sending personal
information in one form or another.
Spyware can capture keystrokes, screenshots, authentication credentials, personal email
addresses, web form data, internet usage habits and other personal information.
7. Malware
Malware is short for malicious software and is typically used as a term to refer to any
software designed to cause damage to a single computer, server or computer network. The
three most common types of malware are viruses, worms and Trojan horses. These terms are
often used interchangeably, but they are actually very different. Each is a type of malicious
software, but they differ in how they infect and affect computers.
8. Spam
Spam refers to irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over the internet, typically to a
larger number of users, for the purpose of advertising, phishing, spreading malware etc. It
includes unwanted electronic communications, generally commercial in nature, and likely to
be a source of malware.
9. Internet hoax
Internet hoaxes are stories that spread throughout the internet, ofteen through email, forums
and blogs or showing images that are untrue or alterations of the truth. A hoax is usually an
email that receives with a supposedly very important message, urging to pass this information
to as many people as possible to make them aware of this information. However the message
is bogus and passing it on will give nothing else but create unnecessary junk email messages.
The only purpose of hoaxes is to waste time and make us participate in generating junk
internet traffic.

SECURITY MEASURES
1. Anti-virus program
Antivirus programs are special type of software meant for limiting risks created by
computer viruses. Such programs are designed to detect, and often eliminate, computer
viruses from an information system. Whenever a program attempts to open a file, the anti-
virus program steps in and scans the file for known viruses. If something suspicious is found,
the anti-virus program refuses the operation. The antivirus program needs to be updated
continuously to protect the information system from the attack of newborn computer viruses.
2. Firewalls
Firewall prevents unauthorized users from accessing private networks. The firewall acts
like a gatekeeper that examines each user's identification before allowing them to enter into
the organization's internal network. A firewall is a network security system that monitors and
controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A
firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network,
such as the Internet. It identifies names, internet protocol address, applications and other
characteristics of incoming traffic.
3. Encryption
Encryption is the process of coding and scrambling of messages to prevent unauthorized
access to or understanding of the data being transmitted. A message can be encrypted by
applying a secret numerical code, called an encryption key, so that it is transmitted as a
twisted set of characters. The key consists of large number of letters, numbers and symbols.
In order to be read, the message must be decrypted with a matching key.
Encryption employs mathematical formulas called cryptographic algorithm, or ciphers,
and the numbers called keys, to encrypt or decrypt information

Cryptography
Cryptography is the process of making information unintelligible to the unauthorized
reader. Cryptography techniques make use of secret codes or key to encrypt information. The
same secret key is used by the receiver to decrypt the information.
Forms of cryptography
 Secret key or symmetric
  Public key or asymmetric
Secret key cryptography: In this method, one key is used to both encrypt and decrypt the
data.
Public key cryptography: In this method, instead of using one secret key by both users,
each user has a public or private key pair. A user makes the public key open and available to
anyone, and keeps the private key secret. Thus, anyone can encrypt a message with someone
else's public key, but only that person would ever be able to read it with his linked private
key.
4. Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
SSL is a standard security technology for establishing an encrypted links between a server
and a client typically a web server and a browser. It is essentially a protocol that provides a
secure channel between two machines operating over the internet or an internal network. It is
typically used when a web browser needs to securely connect to a web server over the
inherently insecure internet. It allows transmitting sensitive information such as credit card
numbers and login identification securely. SSL secured websites also begin with https rather
than http.
5. Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)
SET encrypts payment card transaction data and verify that both parties in the transaction
are genuine. It is originally developed by MasterCard and Visa in collaboration with the
leading technology providers.
6. Biometrics
Biometric security is a security mechanism used to authenticate and provide access to a
facility or system based on the automatic and instant verification of an individual‟s physical
characteristics. Biometrics is the science of analyzing physical or behavioral characteristics
specific to each individual in order to be able to authenticate their identity. In computer
security, biometrics refers to authentication techniques that rely on measurable physical
characteristics that can be automatically checked. The aim is to capture an item of biometric
data from the person such as photo of their face, a record of their voice or an image of their
fingerprint.
There are several types of biometric identification schemes
 Face: The analysis of facial characteristics
 Fingerprint: The analysis of an individual's unique fingerprints
 Hand geometry: The analysis of the shape of the hand and the length of the fingers
 Retina: The analysis of the capillary vessels located at the back of the eye
 Iris: The analysis of the coloured ring that surrounds the eye's pupil
 Signature: The analysis of the way a person signs his name
 Vein: The analysis of pattern of veins in the back of the hand and the wrist.
 Voice: The analysis of the tone, pitch, cadence and frequency of a person's voice
7. Digital signatures
Digital signatures are used not only to verify the authenticity of the message and claimed
identity of the sender, but also to verify message integrity. A message is encrypted with the
sender's private key to generate the signature. The message is then sent to the destination
along with the signature. The recipient decrypt the signature using the sender's public key and
if result matches with the copy of the message received, the recipient can ensure that the
message was sent by the claimed originator and that the message has not been modified
during transmission, since only the originator is in possession of the corresponding
encryption key.
A digital signature provides a way to associate the message with the sender and is the
equivalent of an ordinary signature.
8. Digital certificates
A digital certificate is an electronic file that uniquely identifies individuals and websites
on the internet and enables secure, confidential communications between two parties.
Certification Authorities (CA) issues digital certificates to users who wish to engage in secure
communication. Once sender has provided proof of his identity, the certification authority
creates a message containing sender's name and his public key.
A digital certificate consists of the following fields to identify the owner of this certificate as
well as the trusted CA that issued the certificate
 Version
 Serial number
 Signature algorithm ID
 Issuer name
 Validity period
 Subject (user) name
 Subject public key information
 Issuer unique identifier
 Subject unique identifier
 Extensions
 Digital signature for the above fields

PRECAUTIONS WHILE USING INTERNET AND E-PAYMENTS

 Checking system security
 Acquisition of software from reliable sources
 Stop using pirated software
 Stop downloading everything
 Proper attention to the software installation process
 Use antivirus and antimalware software
 Use different passwords for different sites
 Always use two step authentication
 Use virtual keyboard for online banking
 Do safely online payment
 Use some common sense
 Testing new applications in single computer

THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT 2000

In India, the act was passed to provide legal recognition for transactions carried out by
means of electronic communication. The act deals with the law relating to digital contracts,
digital property and digital rights. Any violation of these laws constitutes a crime. The act
prescribes very high punishment for such crimes. The Information Technology (amendment)
Act, 2008 has further enhanced the punishments.
Section 65-74 of the act specifically deals with certain offences which can be called cyber-
crimes.
Major offences/ provisions