Govt. Resolution No.: Study - 2116 (Q. No. 43/16) SD-4 dated 25.04.

2016 in the meeting

of the Coordinating Committee dated 30.01.2020 has approved this textbook from the
academic year 2020-21 .

Water Security
Standard Nine

The digital textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-

learning material of the relevant lesson can be obtained
through DIKSHA App on your smartphone by using the
Q.R.Code given on the title page of the textbook.

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.

 First Edition: 2020 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004.
All rights of this book will remain with Maharashtra State Textbook Production and
Curriculum Research Board. No part of this book may be quoted without the written
permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research Board.

Subject Committee : Cover and illustrations:

Mr. Vivekananda Shivshankar Patil
Shri. Chandrakant Dalvi, Chairman Typesetting:
Shri. Popoatrao Pawar. DTP section, Textbook Bureau, Pune.
Translation:
Shri. Suresh Khanapurkar
Smt.Shweta Dilip Thakur.
Dr. Datta Deshkar
Mr. Upendra Dhonde
Co-ordinator
Dr. Umesh Mundalye Mr. Rajiv Arun Patole
Dr. D. M. More Special officer, Science
Dr. Irfan Aziz Inamdar Subject - Water Security
Textbook Bureau, Pune.
Dr. Manjusha More
Dr. Prachi Rahul Chaudhary
Dr. Nanda Ashok Haram Paper:
70 G.S.M. Creamvov
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Printer:
Shri. Rajiv Arun Patole, Member- Secretary

Subject Study Group: Production:

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Publisher
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Prabhadevi, Mumbai-25.
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 The Constitution of India

Preamble

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to
all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith
and worship;
EQUALITY of status and    of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of
the individual and the unity and integrity of the
Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
NATIONAL ANTHEM
 Preface
Dear students,
Welcome to Class IX. You are studying various subjects as per National Curriculum
Framework 2005, State Curriculum Framework 2010, State Secondary Education
Curriculum 2012 and Restructured Secondary Education Curriculum 2016. As per Govt.
misc. 2019 / S.No. (243/19)SD4, dated 8th August 2019, Water security is a compulsory
grade subject for secondary education level from the academic year 2020-21. We are
very happy to handover you the 9th grade textbook on water security. Studying various
subjects from primary level till now has developed various abilities in your personality.
You all know that there are different kinds of problems in the environment. They
are based on various factors. At the school level, the main objective of the curriculum
is that, the student should study the environment problems/issues, suggest solutions
and behave accordingly. The issue of water security has been framed with the same
objective in mind. While studying the subject of water security, you have to carefully
observe (analyse) the situation and the relevant factors around you. Understand the
various concepts, principles, theories in this subject and relate them to daily practice.
The major components of water education, water conservation, water management and
water quality are covered in this textbook. The textbook has been deliberately based on
information and activities while designing the topic of water security. You must apply the
complete information of the subject through activities and projects.
The main purpose of this textbook is to understand and apply the knowledge of
water security related to our daily life and explain its application to others. In the
textbook, various concepts, theories are explained through figures and actions. Exercises
are also given along with it. Try all these activities, experiments yourself to understand
the subject properly. Seek the help of your teachers, parents, society and classmates as
you practice. Connect the knowledge you have learned with your daily life.
In today’s fast paced world of technology, you are familiar with computers and
smartphones. Therefore, make proper use of information communication technology
tools while studying this water security textbook. Be careful while handling various
apparatus, important materials while doing activities and experiments and tell others
to be careful too. Also try environmental conservation while doing activities and
observations. Take care that plants and animals are not harmed. While reading, studying
and understanding this textbook, please let us know your favourite part of it as well as
the difficulties encountered.
Best wishes to you for your academic progress.

(Vivek Gosavi)
Pune Director
Date : 21 February 2020 Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Indian Solar: 2 Phalguna 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune 4
 Standard 9th Water Security

Unit Competency Statements / Learning Outcomes

1. To be able to name the different steps in the water cycle.
2. Be able to describe the processes that take place in each step of the water
cycle.
3. To be able to explain the scientific causation of the water cycle.
4. Identify the type of clouds in the area.
5. Be able to describe the process of rainfall.
6. Identify the type of rainfall in one’s own region.
7. To be able to tell the difference between seepage and run-off.
8. Be able to tell the type of rivers in the area.
9. To be able to describe the type of landforms formed by the river.
10. To be able to explain the involvement of components in the river
ecosystem.
Water
11. Be able to map the river system in the district.
Education
12. Explain the use of the river.
13. To be able to classify the various religious rituals, various types of actions
taking place along the river as right and wrong.
14. To be able to take care of the river by explaining the measures for river
protection.
15. To be able to classify the watershed/catchment area.
16. Describe the type of watershed/catchment area in the area.
17. To be able to explain the properties of rain.
18. To be able to explain the distribution of water and type of ground water.
19. Identify the aquifers of your district by understanding the types and
characteristics of aquifers.
20. To identify the types of soil and rocks in district / taluka through
observation.
1. Understand the work of the Water Conservation Department and be able
to review the work of this department in the area.
2. To be able to suggest various water conservation methods that are suitable
for the area.
Water 3. To be able to take measures considering the benefits of rain water
conservation.
Conservation
4. Understand the relationship between groundwater recharge and structure
of underground and choose recharge method accordingly.
5. To be able to use roof water for recharge.
6. To be able to calculate the rainfall in the area.
7. Explain the importance of soak pits in the groundwater recharge process.
8. Explain the care to be taken while refilling wells and borewells.
 1. To be able to calculate the water usage and calculate the water requirement
for the family, village, city.
2. To be able to explain the importance of water required for business.
3. To create awareness in the society to stop water leakage considering the
importance of water conservation.
Water 4. Understand and adopt different methods of saving water.
Management 5. To be able to get information about the water saving efforts being
implemented by the government.
6. To create awareness in the society about habits to avoid wastage of water.
7. Convincing others about the importance of water.
8. Explain the water journey from different water sources to the house.
9. To be able to describe the process of water purification.

1.
To be able to state the factors that affect water quality.
2.
To be able to name the components required for water quality.
3.
To be able to suggest necessary measures for sewage management.
4.
To be able to state the properties of drinking water / water quality criteria.
5.
To be able to describe suitable water storage methods as well as water
Water Quality
disinfection methods to maintain water quality at household level.
6. Understanding the causes of water pollution and reviewing the pollution
of water resources in the area.
7. To be able to suggest necessary measures to stop water pollution in the
area.

For teachers and students

Through the subject of class IX water security, the necessary information in daily life has
been introduced. Attempts have been made to create awareness and develop a positive attitude
towards the various situations around us, some important issues and measures to be taken
to avoid adverse effects on their daily lives. It is necessary to strive for the development of
personality, inquisitiveness, efficiency and a sense of leadership. While studying and teaching
the subject of water security, the steps will have to be taken not only for the purpose of knowing
the subject matter but also for the purpose of observation, reasoning through comparison,
conclusion and inference.
It is important to understand the subject and the actions taken to explain it to others, to
experience it for oneself and to make proper application of the information gained. While
formulating the subject, the main topics of water security include water education, water
conservation, water management and water quality.
The arrangement of these chapters has been done not only in the form of information but
also with various figures and photographs. The information given is rich in various activities
and experiments. Discussion, Observation, Tell, See are the titles given to give impetus to the
thought process. ‘Did you know ?’ is the title for extra important information. Through this
subject, we want to make our role, actions and behavior useful to the society on many issues
such as the water crisis, water scarcity that we find around us and in fact we personally feel. It
will help to mould oneself and society.
 Water Security
Standard Nine

Index
Sr. No. Unit Chapter Page No.

1. Water cycle 1

2. River system 7
Water
1
Education
3. Watershed area and water types 13

4. Soil and rock type 23

1. Water structure - Well, Lake, etc 26

2. Concept of Water Conservation 31

Water
2
Conservation
3. Catchment/Watershed treatment 36

4. Water Recharge 41

1. Water is the basis of life 47

2. Our water consumption 49

Water
3
Management
3. The journey of water : Dam to house 52

4. What is water management ? 56

1. Water Quality and Criteria 61

4 Water Quality 2. How to maintain the quality of water? 68

3. Water Pollution : Causes, Effects and

71
Remedies.
 Unit 1: Water Education
Chapter 1: Water cycle
 About 71 % of the earth's surface is This journey from sea to sea is due to the
covered by water. This mass of water is found constant movement of water in the earth's
in various forms such as glacial, freshwater, underground, evaporation, transpiration from
ocean salt water and atmospheric vapor. This the leaves of plants, liquefaction, precipitation,
water supply is constantly changing from one seepage from the soil, run-off water from the
form to another. That is, it evaporates from surface and subsoil, etc. While this is
rivers into the ocean and back into the happening, water goes through various stages
atmosphere through the process of evaporation such as liquid, gaseous and solid.
from the ocean. This cycle is indestructible
and continues uninterrupted. The sun, which primarily evaporates
ocean water, is the major component or driver
Let us understand the water cycle.
of the water cycle. Evaporation in the water
“Severe heat causes the water in the cycle is the process of purifying water and
oceans to evaporate. As it is lighter, it rises to recharging it on the ground. The water cycle
the sky, it forms clouds together, it becomes is essential for the survival of life on earth.
heavier because of the water in it. Due to cold
air, water from clouds that falls on ground in Evaporation:
the form of rain, this water flows through The process by which water gets converted
river brook and returns to the sea. In this way, into vapors due to heat is called evaporation.
the water travels through different conditions Evaporation is an essential part of the water
and returns to the sea. That is, a cycle is cycle.
completed, this is called the water cycle.”

Clouds Condensation
Clouds
Rain

Rain
Ice
Transpiration Evaporation

River
Pond
Ocean

Water level

1.1.1 Water Cycle

1
 The heat of the sun (solar energy) causes Many such particles combine to form vapors
water to evaporate from the sea, lakes, soil that form droplets. That is, they transform
moisture and other sources of water. into clouds.
The higher the temperature, the higher the Cloud types:
evaporation rate. At lower temperatures there
There are two types of clouds in the sky.
is less evaporation. The larger the surface
area of the liquid, the higher the rate of 1. A giant or huge cloud (Comulonimbus)-
evaporation of the liquid. Water in the form As water vapor freezes, a large amount
of gas (water steam) is called vapor. of energy is generated. It accumulates in these
giant clouds. The result is thunder and
Try this : lightning. Sometimes they fall on the earth in
Take water in a glass jar and cover it with the form of large fireballs. Occasionally there
a lid. Place jar in Sunlight. After 30 may be a major storm or hurricane.
minutes, observe the inside of the jar. 2. Crazy black curved or gray black cloud
Record what you see. (Nimbostratus) -
Condensation : This type of very large cloud can cause
heavy rainfall at any time. Sometimes it can
As the vapor rises higher, the air pressure
snowfall.
naturally decreases and the temperature
begins to decrease. As the temperature drops, How do clouds float in the air?
the vapor begins to liquify. As long as a tiny
The solar heat causes the earth's surface
drop of water is light in weight, it is weighed
to heat up. As a result, the surface air becomes
in the air. As these tiny droplets come together
lighter and superficial. Due to the hot air
to form larger droplets, they transform into
going up, clouds keep the particles in the air
clouds that appear over a large area of the
without falling on the ground. Similarly, due
sky. This vapor is also seen as a mist near
to storms, the warm air on the ground helps to
the ground. This vapor is carried by the wind.
keep the clouds afloat.
The tiny droplets of water in the clouds
increase in size and weight, collide with each As water vapor condenses on the dust in
other, and fall as rain on the earth under the air, a very fine nucleus is formed. These
favorable conditions. There are different particles cannot be seen with the naked eye.
types of rainfall. Water, a mixture of water But clouds are formed by the millions of
and hail, only hail and snow, depending on vapor dust that live in such centers. While the
the situation. vapor on the dust freezes, it helps to keep the
clouds floating with itself.
What exactly is a cloud?
Condensation/compression:
Clouds that form in the sky are also a
form of water. The warmth of the sun causes Condensation is the process by which the
water to evaporate from the surface of the vapor in the air or atmosphere decreases and
earth as well as from the surface of the ocean. is converted back into water particles.
As it is light it goes up into the atmosphere. Unsaturated air or air with a relative humidity
Cold air in high altitudes slows down the of less than 100% , cools as the temperature
movement of vapor molecules. This slowdown decreases. As a result, its evaporation capacity
causes these vapor molecules to come together decreases. Eventually this air becomes
and freeze. During this time, fine dust from vaporized which means its relative humidity
the air begins to accumulate around it. These is 100%.
particles are called condensation nuclei.

2
 The temperature or temperature level at Rain:
which unsaturated air evaporates at a certain Due to the inability of large water
temperature is called the dew point. particles to float in the air due to their big
size, the water particles fall in the form of
The action of condensation in the rain. Water falling from clouds to the ground
atmosphere depends on two factors. It is the in liquid or solid form is called rainfall.
relative humidity and temperature of the air. The forms of rain are as follows.
As the temperature of humid air decreases, it 1. Snowfall: When the air temperature goes
evaporates and a greater condensation below freezing point, the precipitation that
occurs. During condensation, vapor is takes place when steam is directly converted
converted into water particles or ice. The dust into snow is called snowfall.
2. Hail: Pallets of frozen rain which fall in
that is required for the formation of these
showers are called hail.
water particles or ice particles is called
How does it rain?
waterborne dust. If the temperature level Rainfall in the Indian subcontinent is
(dew point) is above the freezing point during called 'Monsoon'. Monsoon is a slang of the
condensation, then the conversion of vapor Arabic word 'Mausm'. It means season.
(into water particles) is seen in different When the clouds are joined by the wind,
forms like dew, fog, clouds or rain. And if, the clusters of clouds begin to come down in
during the condensation process, the dew the form of drops due to the weight of the
point is below freezing point (0 0C), then the water. Some vanish in between, but most of
vapor is converted into ice and there is dew, the drops reach the earth from the atmosphere.
This is what we call rain. During this time the
hail or snowfall.
size of the vapor dust increases. When they
The overall condensation action requires cannot carry their own weight, they separate
a lot of humidity in the air. And the temperature from the clouds and fall to the ground in the
of that air also has to go down. form of rain.

Do you know ?
1. When the ambient temperature is very
cold, the vapor cools and comes
together in the form of small droplets
in the cloud. This temperature is called
the hydrocephalus temperature.
2. Dust is required for clouds to form. 1.1.2 Rain
When large amounts of evaporated
3. In the same way that hot water vapor
clusters come together, dense black or gray
freezes on a mirror glass in the
clouds form. Even the sun rays cannot
bathroom, air vapor accumulates
penetrate them and reach the earth. At such
around the dust at cold temperatures.
times, there is no appearance of sun during
4. There is only a difference in size the day. These black clouds together can go
between water droplets and raindrops very high. Very large and black clouds can
in a cloud. reach heights upto 15 km in the tropics. These
5. Not all raindrops falling from the clouds types of clouds can cause very heavy or
reach the ground. Such drops are called torrential rain. Sometimes there is cloudburst
"Vibra". and the area becomes waterlogged.

3
The journey of water : Water is available The continuous circulation of water on
everywhere on earth in the form of vapor, the Earth, the convection of water from the
liquid or ice. Due to the heat of the sun, high oceans to the atmosphere, from the atmosphere
temperatures, the transition of water to vapor to the land and from the land back to the
continues uninterrupted. This process ocean is called the water transition cycle or
continues uninterrupted in any type of open water cycle. Although the level of water on
water reservoirs such as lakes, rivers, seas. the Earth is almost constant, water molecules
Similarly, the evaporation of water in animal are coming in or out of the atmosphere. Water
and plant bodies continues. The vapor created flows from one reservoir to another through
by this evaporation becomes lighter and goes physical processes such as evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, run-off and
up in the air. All this vapor forms clouds, they
groundwater flow. Like the water of rivers
rise up and up in the atmosphere.
gets to the sea or the water of the sea mixes
Clouds formed by the mixture of fine dust with the atmosphere in the form of vapor.
particles freeze due to the cold air in the upper
While this is happening, water is
atmosphere, forming water droplets. When transformed into solid, liquid, and gaseous
these clouds are blowing with the wind, they forms. One-third of the water that falls to the
get blocked by mountains or high mountain ground goes back to the ocean through surface
ranges and move higher. The size of such or subsurface water flows. The remaining
clouds also increases. At the same time, water two-thirds of the water re-enters the
droplets made up of tiny particles become atmosphere due to evaporation and
larger and heavier in size and eventually fall transpiration of plants. Thus a gross water
back to the ground in the form of rain. transition cycle is continued.
This rainwater flows back down the Types of rainfall
hillside and takes the form of small streams, 1. Ascending or converging precipitation/
brook and then forms itself into a river or rainfall : The air cools after reaching a
flows into the river. Sometimes it can certain height. The process by which air
accumulate in the form of lakes. Meanwhile, moves upwards is called 'ascent'. Cold air has
this water quenches the thirst of plants, other low evaporation capacity, so it condenses and
animals and human beings. All plants absorb converts into water particles and rains. This
ground water according to their needs and type of rainfall occurs in regions where there
release it into the atmosphere through the is a large upward movement of air, as well as
leaves due to transpiration. This indestructible in areas where it is not much in the horizontal
cycle continues year after year. line. In the equatorial region, such rain usually
falls every afternoon.

1.1.4 Ascending or converging

1.1.3 Water Cycle precipitation/ rainfall
4
2. Resistance Rainfall:
Winds containing vapor from the sea or
large reservoirs are blocked by high mountain
ranges in the path and begin to follow the
mountains. Due to the low temperature at the
altitude, the vapor in this air condenses and it
rains. This rain is called resistance rain as it Water
falls due to obstruction. Reservoir

Heat Land

1.1.6 Periodic Rainfall

Cloud
 Out of all the above three types of rainfall,
resistance type rain falls in most parts of the
world. There is such certainty in ascending
type rains but there is also uncertainty in
Water Hot vapors Rain
Shadow resistance and periodic precipitation.
reservoir Region Therefore, in these cases, sometimes we have
Mountain obstruction to face disasters like heavy rains, floods and
sometimes droughts. Considering
1.1.5 Resistance Rainfall Maharashtra, there is resistance rainfall in the
Western Ghats, drought prone areas in the
Rainfall is heavier on the slopes in the Marathwada region as a rain shadow region
direction in which the winds follow the and a lot of certainty in Vidarbha.
mountains, while in the areas where the winds
cross the mountain, the amount of rainfall Rainwater seeps into groundwater or it is
decreases as the amount of air vapor decreases carried to the ocean in the form of runoff.
and the vapor holding capacity of the air Seepage :
increases. Such a region with low rainfall is
called a 'rain shadow region'. Not all surface water flows into rivers.
Some water seeps into the soil. Groundwater
3. Periodic Rainfall: is the water that seeps into the soil. The period
A low pressure belt is formed at a specific of surface water flow depends on the porosity
place in the air, so that the winds from the of the soil, the type of soil, the slope of the
adjacent region are attracted in that direction. groundwater, etc. Depending on the factors,
These winds move in a circular direction and water seeps first into the subsoil and then
at a tremendous speed. This is called a cyclone deeper into the ground. Groundwater recharge
or periodic. When a cyclone is formed in a occurs. To some extent this water can come to
region, the air in the cyclone starts to go up. the surface as a source of living water. Deep-
As the air rises, its temperature decreases and seated water can be stored in the soil for a
the vapor in the air condenses and rain falls. long time.
Such precipitation is called cyclonic Run-off :
precipitation or cyclone precipitation. The
cyclones move from one place to another and A watershed is an area of land on which
rain falls wherever they pass. This type of all the rainwater that falls is collected in a
rain falls more in temperate belts. Also in the specific source of water. Watershed size,
tropics there is some cyclonic/periodic rainfall length, width, rainfall, soil texture and other
properties are related to each other. They
which is stormy.
5
determine the limit of water accumulation or Surface water and groundwater are also
stagnation of the catchment area. Run-off is stored in lakes naturally created due to
an integral part of the water cycle. Its topography. In the river basins, surface water
regulation and management is intended for and groundwater are constantly circulating.
watershed development. This water flows Over time, water enters the ocean and changes
from the surface to the ocean through brooklets its position in the water cycle.
(Odhe), runnels (Nale), rivulets (Ohol) and
rivers.

Exercise

1. What is the water cycle?

2. What are the main components of the water cycle?
3. Write the names of different steps in the water cycle.
4. Find out the information about places in India regarding heavy rainfall.
i) Mawsynram ii) Cherrapunji iii) Agumbe iv) Amboli v) Tamhini
5. Describe the main processes in the water cycle.
6. Make a model of the water cycle and present it to the class.
7. Briefly describe the journey of rain.
8. What are the factors that affect seepage and run-off ?
9. State the types of rainfall.
10. Visit an organization that keeps track of rainfall and other factors in the water
cycle.
11. Observe landforms related with runoff and groundwater.

6
 Unit 1 : Water Education
Chapter 2 : River System
We have all understood the water cycle in into the rocks and go underground. When
the previous chapter. more rain falls in a short period of time, it
exceeds the limit of seepage or accumulation
Let's recall. in one place, this water is seen flowing from
In the water cycle, water travels through the ground for some time, it is called runoff or
which stages? Observe the diagram and flow of water. Such a stream of water then
write the name of each step. flows continuously downhill. In some places
it is obstructed, water can accumulate in low
 This water cycle runs uninterrupted in lying areas and water seeping into the soil
nature. The river is a part of this water cycle. continues to flow through cracks and crevices.
Origin of the River : This natural flow of water is seen in various
 When it rains, the water does not flow forms like brooklets (Odhe), runnels (nale),
away from the ground immediately. Just as it rivulets (Ohol), tributary (upnadi) and rivers
falls on plane land, it also falls on reservoirs etc.
like mountain slopes, lakes and the sea. Some A river is a natural body of water that
parts of the water evaporate immediately as flows over a large area of land.   These
the soil warms, some parts are absorbed by different types of streams are collectively
the plants and some parts of the water seep called "River Systems".

1.2.1 Water Cycle

7
The shape of the River: Slow River : Where the slope of the land
The river is also a natural wide stream surface decreases and the basin widens, the
but such a river does not form at once. The river water starts flowing slowly, hence it is
small amount of rain water that flows from called slow river. The river basin can be deep
the ground is called Brooklet (Ohol). Many in this place so the water level in the river
such brooklets come together and flow basin is also high. Such rivers are found in
through the low lying areas on the ground, the plateau region.
they form Rivulets (Odhe). The "River" is the
one that is formed due to combining of many
such rivulets. Near the origin the river basin is
narrow and the slope is steep. Where it meets
the sea, its width increases and its slope
decreases.
Rivers and Landforms :
 The upper reaches of the river are near
the origin of the river. The flow of water in a
certain direction from a low-lying area to a
certain width is called a river basin. The river
basin can be deep, shallow, wide, narrow.
Usually it is single but sometimes the river
1.2.3 Slow river
basin is divided. In some places, islands are
also formed in the river basin. Old Rivers :
Types of River : Rivers which have a very low slope and
have no weathering capacity fall into old
 Natural flow of water also depends on
river category. Such rivers are most likely
the topography of the place, climate change,
found near the sea.
human barriers for water use. Accordingly
the types of river, are-  Revived River :
Noisy River : A river that dries up due to various
reasons and starts flowing again when the
 Usually immediately after origin, if the
surface is lifted due to topographical
water flows rapidly from the steep mountain
movements is called revived river.
slope and the river basin in that area is narrow
and deep, then such a river is called a noisy Living River :
river or a fiery river. This river is constantly River basin gets water in different ways.
eroding its bed. Such rivers are found in the Due to direct rains, streams and groundwater
highlands. from other places flow into the river basin in
the form of springs. But this is not always the
case. When the rains stop, some rivers stop
flowing and some can flow for twelve months.
A river that flows into a river basin in the
form of springs even in the absence of rain is
called a living river. A river that stops flowing
when the rains stop is called a dead river.

1.2.2 Noisy river

8
 The rapid flow of water in the highlands
Do you know ?
can also cause erosion of hard rocks. This
The velocity of a river is determined by creates sand having fine pieces of rock. The
its flowing volume in cusecs - how many river basin becomes deeper. In some places, a
cubic meters of water flowed in a second. flow that falls from a height (waterfall) is
(Cusec = 1 ft3 of water = 28.31 Liter/sec) formed.
Also sometimes measured in gallons.
Sometimes the strength of the flow in the
The edges built at the river banks are plateau changes the course of the river and
useful to control the speed of the river. Such makes the path shorter. Sometimes the rivers
wide stone banks are called ghats. All the pull the silt from the banks into the stream,
major rivers considered sacred in India have sometimes the river releases the silt from its
ghats. basins to the banks. This silt accumulates in
the middle of the stream and forms an island.
Landforms created by the River : Parts made of such silt are very fertile for
Mining of the river creates landforms like agriculture. Such islands are also found in
V-shaped valleys (ghalai), furrow or trenches Maharashtra in the river basins of Godavari,
(ghals), waterfalls, Pot-holes (ranjan khalge). Bhima and Krishna.

Due to the accumulation of river, flood Triangular regions are the areas of fertile
plains, flood banks, triangular regions, winged silt formed near the mouth of a river. E.g.
plains, serpentine turns, horseshoe shaped Many such triangular regions have been
lakes are formed. formed in the river Ganga and the river
Brahmaputra.

Source

Wetland Area
Meander
Water Fall

Stream Delta
tributary
Lake / Reservoir

Sediments Creek
River Mouth

Sea

Noisy part Middle slow part Final old part

1.2.4 Landforms created by the river

9
 In a river basin, if there is a sudden River Ecosystems : The organisms, plants
downpour or a cliff, the water picks up speed and animals living in the river water use only
or gets a circular motion. This is called a river the naturally occurring resources and habitat
vortex. of the river. The existence of an independent
cycle of life that depends on the river, is called
the river ecosystem. It consists of many plants,
animals and parasites. Most of the living
things in the river are freshwater, but some
can live in brackish water also.

1.2.5 River Vortex.

 The water stored in certain rocky areas of
the river basin for a long time is called river
pond / pool.
In the rainy season, when a large amount 1.2.7 River Ecosystems
of water enters the river basin, it extends to a Uses of River :
certain distance that exceeds the width of the Basic uses :
basin. Almost all rivers flow on the surface.
 Rivers are the main source of water for
But some rivers flow through caves below the
living things. Man uses river water for
surface. Many caves are enlarged by such
drinking, for industry, for transportation, for
rivers. Often such rivers erode salt rocks and
power generation, and for running large
form caves.
machinery. The river is also used as a border
Many miraculous shapes formed due to between the country and the state, ensuring
this are found. territorial boundaries.
The river has been used as a means of
transportation and direction for centuries. The
first evidence of river navigation has been
found in Indus culture since 3300 BC. River
basin transportation is very cheap. Today
such transport is carried on the most important
and largest rivers in the world. Rivers are also
used to transport of cut trees (wood) in forest
areas.
Rivers have been used for food since
eternal time. There is a cycle of life in rivers.
It produces many kinds of fish. River water is
being used not only for fishing but also for
agriculture and food production.
1.2.6 Salt rocks and Formed caves

10
 Most of the rivers in India have ghats for
recreation and access to the river.
River sand is used for construction. The
beautified riverbanks attract more tourists,
and give the local community the opportunity
to serve cruises. Sometimes rivers flowing in
mountainous areas form waterfalls.
Such places become the center of travel.
Sometimes a fast sailing boat called
‘kayaking’ is used in the rushing waters.

1.2.8 Rafting 1.2.9 Bhambavli-Vajrai Water fall, Satara

: A favourite destination
Religious significance of the river :
 The life of the whole village/city takes prayers (sandhya), chanting ( japa), tarpan,
place on the banks of the river. Culture is etc., started on the banks of the river from
developed on the banks of the river. ancient times. Therefore, the river is
Therefore, the daily activities of the people considered to be the major social and
are more related to the contact of the river. religious center of the village/city. So various
Therefore, religious activities festivals are held along the river banks to
(Dharmacharan) such as daily bathing, express the gratitude one feels for the river.

1.2.10 Religious significance of the river

11
 Exercise

1. Which main river flows through your taluka?

2. What is the type of this river? What will be the average length, width, depth of its
basin ?
3. What landforms are created by the river in your area?
4. How many tributaries or springs-brooklets-rivulets meet that river?
5. Which river flows next to that river? OR This river meets which major river ?
6. What are the major check dams, lakes, dams on the river?
(Seek the help of your parents.)
7. What are the uses of river?
8. Identify the factors that harm the river.
9. If you find any type of river pollution, what will you do ? bring it to the notice of
adults.
10. Present the information of the nearest river that you have visited or studied.
11. Discuss whether it is right or wrong to perform religious activities on the river bank.
12. Visit the nearest river and observe the ecosystem there. See which plants and animals
are found there, make notes and explain to others.
13. What are the main types of rivers?
14. What landforms are formed by rivers?
15. Explain the difference between a living river and a dead river.
16. Make a chart of the names of rivers and tributaries in Maharashtra.
17 Get a map of the river system in your district.

12
 Unit 1 : Water Education
Chapter 3 : Watershed area and water types

 The area in which rainwater naturally 1. Dimensions :

flows from one place (rivulets, river, etc.)  How much watershed is to be managed in
according to the geographical conditions, the the catchment area depends on the size of the
catchment area. Similarly, a large catchment
whole area from which the rainwater flows
area is beneficial for drainage. However, as
in, assuming a water stream (rivulets,
the catchment area expands, so does the
tributary, river, etc.) as a measure, is called variation in its geological composition, soil
the catchment area/watershed area. type, slope, etc. Therefore, the right way is to
Types and sizes of watersheds : study each watershed area separately and
come up with the right solution.
Each surface reservoir and each body of
2. Size :
water has its own catchment area. When
 The size of the catchment area affects the
many such small watersheds come together,
source flowing through that area. The
they form large watersheds, and when many
proportion of watershed coming from the
such streams come together, they form a river catchment area is related to the ratio of its
valley. length and width, it is inversely proportional
Watershed classification by area : to the length and directly proportional to the
width. If the length of the catchment area is
Micro Watershed Upto 10 hectares greater than its width, it takes longer for water
to come out of the catchment area. This
Mini Watershed Upto 200 hectares allows water to accumulate and seep into the
soil and less water is released. If the same
situation is reversed, that is, if the width is
Sub Watershed Upto 4000 hectares greater than the length, then the water in the
entire catchment area falls into the source
River Valley No area limit early. Therefore, it is less blocked and less
seeped in the soil.
Watershed properties :
 Before preparing a watershed development
1.Square shape
plan, it is necessary to check all the properties
of that watershed. Watersheds are divided 2. Rectangular, vertical 4. Polygonal or
and circular pentagonal
into three types- geographical, rainfed/rainy 3. Triangular

and geophysical.
Let us know the properties on which the Surface
height
characteristics of the catchment area/
watershed area depend. Length
1.3.1 Watershed size
13
3. Slope : from the area make it easier to plan the
The average slope of a watershed is management of the watershed and the
determined by the height of the highest point measures to reduce soil erosion.
in the catchment area and the maximum 6. Land use :
length of the slope. The time it takes for a  To study how the land in the catchment
drop of water flowing from the farthest point area is being used now and how to use it in
to reach the source to get out of the catchment the future according to the usability of the
area is inversely proportional to the height land? It is very important to plan this.
along the horizontal distance from that route. Watershed use, infiltration and drainage in
This means that it takes less time to carry the catchment area depend on the land use,
water in a steeply sloping catchment area the crops grown on it and the cultivation
than in a flat catchment area. If it takes longer method adopted. It also determines the
for the catchment to be carried away, more intensity of soil erosion to some extent.
water seeps into the soil and the catchment is 7. Water infiltration :
reduced. The watershed at the source of the
 The water holding capacity and drainage
steep slope catchment area is always higher
capacity of the soil depends on the amount of
than the watershed in the flat catchment of
water infiltration in the soil. If the water
the same area.
holding capacity of the soil is high, it will
4. Ground cover : absorb a large portion of rain water. However,
Ground cover is the surface vegetation, due to lack of natural drainage of water in
which affects both the surface watershed and such soils, there is a risk of infertility due to
the soil erosion. If there is grass everywhere water. Conversely, in lands with high drainage
on the ground, it keeps the soil particles tight capacity, maximum water will be absorbed
and reduces soil erosion. If there is dense and surface runoff will be reduced. Watersheds
vegetation on the ground, the intensity of the from lands with low water holding and
rain falling on the ground is reduced by drainage capacity will be more.
getting stuck in it and hence the soil particles 8. Soil :
will be less blown and the erosion will be
 This is a very important factor. The water
reduced. But if the land is cultivated and
holding capacity, drainage and inflow of soil
crops are taken, then there is a lot of erosion
depends on it. This means that the amount of
as the soil particles are free in such land. This
watershed and erosion also depends on it to a
will allow you to decide which type of soil to
large extent. For this, the type of soil has to
treat. Also the roots of the plants increase the
be decided by studying the composition,
porosity of the soil. As a result, more and
texture, color etc. of the soil. This work is
more water seeps into the soil, reducing the
done through a soil survey system. The
catchment area.
amount of soil erosion depends on the type of
5. Flow density: soil.
It is also necessary to study the number of 9. Geological componants :
watercurrents (brooklets, runnels, rivulets,
The type of soil depends on the subsoil
streams etc.) flowing in the catchment area.
and the rock. Therefore, it is important to
Because it also depends on the amount of
study this from the point of view of watershed
watershed in the catchment area, soil erosion
management.
and flood problem. Similarly, the division of
the watershed and the direction of departure

14
10. Soil depth : calculated as millimeters per hour. The total
Soil depth is also a factor affecting soil rainfall in a given hour is the density of
erosion, watersheds, etc. This is also studied rainfall in that hour. Automatic drawing type
in soil surveys. rain gauges have to be used to determine the
Rain (Precipitation) and its properties : rainfall density. From this graph, the rainfall
density of each day, every hour is calculated.
 Rainfall is the largest and most important
The hour in which the maximum rainfall
factor determining the amount of watershed
density is thus found throughout the year is
and soil erosion. So it is simply impossible to
considered to be the maximum rainfall density
plan watershed management without studying
of that catchment area for that year.
the rainfall in the catchment area. Many of
Considering the rainfall density of the last
the properties of rainfall affect the extent of
few years (e.g. 10, 25, 50) which is the highest,
the watershed and the erosion of the soil in
it is considered to be the reversible peak
different ways.
density of those periods. Reversible peak
Rainfall : rainfall density of a period of 10 to 25 years
 
Rainfall is rainwater falling on the is generally considered to determine the
surface. It is measured in millimeters. The pattern of soil conservation measures.
amount of rainwater that falls on a given Frequency :
surface area over a period of time is considered
Considering the total annual rainfall, the
to be the rainfall over that area over a period
maximum rainfall in the last few years (e.g.
of time. The water measured in this way up to
10, 25, 50) is the frequency of that rainfall.
a given date throughout the year is the
E.g. 1250 mm of an area. The frequency of
accumulated rainfall up to that date and the
rainfall is a maximum of 1250 mm of rainfall
total rainfall of such measured rain throughout
which falls once in 10 years in that area
the year is considered as the annual rainfall
of the area. Thus the average annual rainfall Distribution :
of an area is determined by averaging the  Rain does not fall uniformly throughout
rainfall over the last few years (e.g. 10, 25, the region. Or it does not fall every time, so
50). This rainfall determines the total its distribution depends on the area in which it
watershed of a catchment area. falls and the period in which it falls.
Rainy Season : The above properties of rainfall are
Rain does not usually fall continuously, generally related to each other. For this, it
but sometimes stops falling and then starts will be useful to remember some key points.
falling again after some time. The period of • The frequency of high rainfall is low and
time when rain falls at one time is called the the density is high. Also its duration is
rainy season. If the rainfall in this season is short.
short, maximum water is absorbed into the • The high density rainfall has low duration
soil and the amount of surface runoff and frequency.
decreases. Conversely, if the rainfall in this
season is high, the land becomes saturated Let's Recall?
and its water absorption capacity decreases. What are the two main components of
Rainfall Density : the earth's surface?
Rainfall density is the amount of rain that
falls over a period of time. This is usually

15
Groundwater: Along with rain and snow, rivers and
 Ground water is the water beneath the lakes can also be sources of this water.
land. It can be in porous soil, in rocky crevices, If the porosity of soil and rocks is high,
or in a cavity. then the groundwater table is above a water
current. For example, suppose two water
currents are at more and less height from
each other. If the porosity of the rocks is high,
then water will seep from the higher current
Ground surface
into the lower current.
Surface water
Water Table 2. Connate Water :
Ground water
 
This water does not seep into the soil
1.3.2 Ground Water from the surface. The water that gets stuck in
the sedimentary rock is called connate water.
1. The chemical composition of this water is
simple, easy and plain. Also, since the
water is trapped in rocks and sometimes
very deep in the ground, it is free from
turbidity, offensive colors or harmful
microorganisms. So it doesn't need much
processing to use it properly. Water
Sand
2. This water is relatively much safer than particles
surface water, as it is free from any Air
chemical, radioactive or biological
pollution.
3. Since this water is underground, it is not
affected much by any kind of climate
change, even drought. 1.3.3 Connate Water
4. Since this water is generally available 3. Magma / Volcanic Water :
locally, the means of supply may be
 
When water vapor in molten rocks is
available at cheaper rates. So this water is
formed due to underground magma, it tries to
also economically beneficial.
rise through the available notches. If it does
Groundwater sources: not find a place to rise, it eventually condenses
1. Rainfall : and transforms into water. This is ‘magma/
volcanic water’.
 This is the source of water. Rain, snow,
or water seeps underground from the earth's
surface. The amount of water that will
accumulate in an area depends on the type of
rocks in that area and their characteristics.
Normally, where there are sedimentary rocks,
the infiltration rate is higher. This is because
these rocks have the most cavities.

16
 Water vapour Can you tell?
spray
 What differences can you see among
the terrane layers in the picture?

Magma chember
1.3.4 Magma water formation
Groundwater again returns to the surface
in the following way.
1. Water in a nearby reservoir e.g. Rivers,
Springs, Ponds, Lakes etc.
2. As the groundwater travels downhill 1.3.5 Terrane layers
according to the law of gravity, it is found
to flow out in the form of springs in
mountainous areas where it penetrates the
surface.
3. Extracted for use from wells.

Briefly :
The journey of rainwater falling on the earth is as follows:
1. Water falls into the reservoir.
2. It flows from the ground to the nearby reservoir.
3. Groundwater reserves increase by seeping into the soil.

Recharge trench

Spring depending on
Water recharge
ground water

Ground water
Unconfined belt flowing to the sea
Sea
Confined belt
Flow of ground water Enchroaching
saline water
Aquifer

1.3.6 Flow of ground water

17
  On the basis of geographical formation (B) Confined aquifer : The layer of saturated
groundwater is classified as follows : aquifer is below the unsaturated layer.
1. Aquifer : Aquifer is made up of soil, sandy Similarly gaps between these cracked rocks
soil, muddy, cracked rock, limestone etc. and all other gaps are fill with water.
These areas have hollow spaces that can be Since there are many layers on the
connected to each other, through which water saturated layer, this layer is detached from
can seep. The velocity of groundwater seeping the surface or atmosphere.
through depends on the size of the cavities in
the soil or rocks and how they are connected Can you tell ?
to each other. Its main feature is that the
What happens if there is a huge pressure
reservoir can store water as well as supply
on the saturated water table?
water due to its permeability.
They have two types depending on
their location on the ground

Transpiration by plants

Stream
Water Table Water Table

Uncofined Aquifer Tube

Soil
Cofined Aquifer Rock
Sandy Rock
1.3.7 Aquifer
Rock
(A) Unconfined aquifer : The soil and rock
pores in this area contain air as well as water. 1.3.8 Fountain well and its internal
Being close to the surface, it is affected by structure
atmospheric pressure. Where there is a lake Fountain well : If water comes to the surface
as well as a swamp, this part does not exist, due to natural pressure after digging a well,
but in the desert region it covers hundreds of then that well is called a fountain well.
meters.
Can you tell?
Groundwater plays an important role
in providing water and nutrients to living What happens if water is pumped
creatures. out of the well from different water holding
layers?
Characteristics :
• This unsaturated aquifer controls the flow
of water from the surface to the saturated
aquifer. Well
• This affects the recharge of the aquifer.
• It is crucial in groundwater use and
management.
• This helps in removing unwanted
substances.

18
• When water is pumped out of unsaturated Geographical
aquifers, the water level decreases and Formation
Chara Aquifer Aquitard Aquiclude Aquifuge
the water in the empty spaces decreases.
cteristics
• When water is pumped out of saturated
reservoirs, the water pressure decreases, Water
holding Yes Yes Yes No
but the spaces remain filled with water. capacity
2. Aquitard : Water is not readily available Semi- Im- Im-
Permeability Permeable
due to low permeability of this layer. But if permeable permeable permeable
there is a reservoir below this layer, the water Ability to
Yes, but
in it seeps into the reservoir. Sandy soil is an provide Yes No No
slower
example of this layer. water
Hard
Borewell Sand, Sandy rocks e.g.
Tubewell Example Soil
gravel. soil Granite,
basalt
River Water Table
5. Hanging aquifer : This layer is on top of
Unconfined Aquifer unsaturated aquifer. Its size is generally
Aquitard small. The amount of water in it depends on
Confined Aquifer
Aquiclude
1.3.9 Aquiclude
3. Aquiclude : As this layer is porous, it has Unconfined area Land surface
good water holding capacity, but it does not Water table Water level Water surface
Floating aquifer
seep water. Therefore, water is not available Confined area
Ground water
from it. Soil is an example of this.
4. Aquifuge : This layer is impermeable and
not porous. Therefore, it cannot hold water
and water does not seep through it. Hard rock Floating water table
Floating aquifer
is an example of this. Water table

Unconfined Aquifer

1.3.11 Hanging aquifer and its Cross section

Unconfined Aquifer
Aquitard the weather conditions.
Confined Aquifer Surface water :
 
Surface water is water found on the
Aquifuge surface. These include rivers, lakes, springs,
reservoirs, ponds, creeks. Although seawater
1.3.10 Aquifuge is salty/ brackish, it is still surface water.
There are three types of surface water.
1. Perennial: It has water all year round. If
the rainfall is low, it is recharged by

19
groundwater. Observe and discuss.

1.3.12 Surfacewater
2. Temporary: It contains water only for a
few months of the year. These include small
creeks, coastal creeks.
3. Man-made: Water from dams as well as
constructed catchment areas, in short,
artificially stored water.
Maharashtra State Water Reserves :
Dams: Total 1821 large dams
Capacity Status in 2019
Region (Million (Million liters)
liters) Approx 1.3.13 Hand pump
Amaravati 4131000 2531000 What is common in these two pictures?
Where does the water from the borewell in
Konkan 3511000 2661000 the picture come from? Think about it.
Where did this groundwater come from?
Marathwada 7259000 4544000  
There are two main types of water
resources :
Nagpur 4604000 2996000
1. Groundwater 2. Surface water
Nashik 5823000 4848000

Pune 15199000 11942000 Water Resources

Reservoir in Maharashtra State :

Type of Water lifting Ground Water Surface Water

Total number
Reservoir (BCM)

Wells 21 Lakhs > 14. 85

River Pond Streams Icebergs and

Tubewells 1.91 Lakhs 1.29 polar ice
 (BCM =Billion Cubic Meters)

20
Observe and discuss.
How is the distribution of water on earth?
Water on earth Fresh water Surface water

Brackish water Ground water

Pond
(97%) (30%)
(87%)

Ice bergs and

glacier river
Fresh water (69%) Other (1%)
(3%) Rivers Wetland
(2%) (11%)
1.3.1 Distribution of water

The figure shows that,

 Most of the water on Earth is in the
oceans, which is brackish.
 Much of the freshwater is in the form of
snow and ice, while the rest consists of
rivers, lakes, groundwater, and air vapor.
 This means that even though the amount
of water on Earth is high, the usable water
is much less than 1%.

Let's recall.
How many types of water resources are
there on earth?
1.3.2 Water resources

1.3.3 Glaciers

21
 Exercise

1. Write the classification of watershed areas/catchment areas.

2. Write any four properties of the watershed area/catchment area.
3. Write the type of watershed area/catchment area found in your surroundings.
4. Using the Internet, write down the average rainfall in your district.
5. Briefly explain any two properties of rain.
6. What are the key points about the density and frequency of rainfall in your area?
7. Write the names of various groundwater sources.
8. Write how magma water is formed.
9. Explain the distribution of water on the earth with the help of a diagram.
10. Write the characteristics of unsaturated aquifers.
11. Explain the types of surface water by stating what it means.
12. Find out the percentage of how groundwater and surface water is used in your state for
the above purpose from the internet.
13. Write the classification of groundwater according to geographical location.

22
 Unit 1 : Water Education
Chapter 4 : Soil and rock type

 Due to the geographical diversity of such layer can be at least five meters to a
India, the land in each region is different. The maximum of thirty five meters thick. Between
soil is found at the top of the earth's surface, two layers of such Black Basalt, reddish-
then after digging the soil layers, first there is brown or rarely greenish-brown layer, with a
muddy soil (loam) and then compact basalt thickness of one to five meters, called "Ocher
rocks beneath it. /Red bole/ Red Layer" is formed. In some
Black Basalt : places, a layer of gray-white ash is formed by
the accumulation of ash in lava eruptions.
In Maharashtra, Black Basalt is mostly
found in the form of layers in horizontal, Although Black Basalt is the major rock
slightly sloped areas. These layers of Black in Maharashtra, the other types of rocks that
Basalt formed as the lava erupted billions of can be seen are the eroded, metamorphic
rocks of this rock. Such as loam, man-
years ago and cooled on the ground.
limestone , sandstone and laterite (Jaambha)
rocks.

Internet My Friend :
Using the internet, collect pictures of
various rocks as above and create an
informative presentation and present it to
the class.

  These types of rocks are very important

in terms of groundwater holding capacity, so
when finding out groundwater, considering
groundwater recharge, a special study of the
porosity and permeability of these rock types
is necessary. The ability to carry fluids( gas
and liquid) through the rocks without any
change in the original form is called
permeability. If a drift is carried through a
rock at a certain time, it is called permeable
rock, and if the amount of fluids( gas and
liquid) carried across is negligible, it is called
impermeable rock.
Rock porosity:
 The porosity of a rock is the proportion
of volume of the cavity in it to the total
1.4.1 Black Basalt volume. The porosity of the rock can be
estimated by examining the rock samples.
 A layer usually has two parts. The first, a While handling the rock samples, it is not
homogeneous Black Basalt, the second
porous, filled with green-white pebbles. Each possible to see the cavities with naked eyes.

23
 Fracture :
 
The cracking properties of the Black
Basalt, the degradation of certain minerals,
the effect of sunlight-cold-rain, the temperature
imbalance, the chemical reaction of water and
the pressure on the ground and the small-large
weatherings caused by the inner cavities, the
1.4.2 Black Basalt combined effect of all these factors is
Porosity Porosity fractures.
Rock Rock
(%) (%)
Soil :
Black Compact 0.14 – 1 Sand 10 -30  
The process by which rocks are
Basalt stone transformed into soil is called weathering of
Vesicular ocher/ rock. Due to the constant changes in air,
Amygdaloidal Red bole/ water, temperature and pressure, rocks and
3-5 35
Basalt Red
(Manjrya) Layer boulders break up, erode and eventually turn
Hard muddy into fine particles and become soil.
1-8 Silt 35
(loam)
Soft muddy Sandy-
2 - 14 45 – 50
(loam) Silt
Limestone 14 Clay 45 – 50
The permeability of the rock :
 In terms of groundwater, it is not enough
just to have porosity in the rocks, but also the
important property required is permeability.
For example, there is a big difference in the
velocity of water flow between clay and silt
with similar porosity. In short, more water
flows through the rocks where the permeability
is higher.
Permeability can be measured by taking a
sample of cylindrical rock 20 mm in diameter
and 40 mm high. When sampling a rock, it
should be taken in one direction only. Fill a
large calibrated container with distilled water
and keep it for 6-8 hours. Then you will see
that the water in the container has decreased
which can be measured on the scale.

More permiability Less permiability

1.4.3 Permiability of rocks 1.4.4 Weathering of rocks
24
 Soil is made up of rocks, gravel, sand,
fine clay, and organic matter. The soil Internet My Friend :
particles vary in size , e.g. Get information about these types of
1. Clay: Smaller than 0.0002 mm. soil like, 1. Silt soil 2. Red soil 3. Black /
2. Silt: 2.022 mm. - 0.05 mm. Regur soil 4. Sandy soil 5. Yellow soil
6. Rocky soil. Explain the relationship
3. Sand: 0.5 mm. - 2 mm.
between fertility and soil type.
4. Stone: Greater than 2 mm.

Try it out : Importance of soil :

1. Observe open terrain in dry river basins, 1. The soil supports the plants.
mining areas, near hills and observe 2. Various minerals, nutrients required for
weathering. plant growth are obtained from soil.
2. Perform experiments to measure their 3. The soil stores the water required for the
porosity and permeability. growth of plants.
4. The soil is also home to a variety of
Humus formation in the soil : microorganisms that are essential for plant
 The remains of plants and animals are growth.
mixed in the soil. The microorganisms in it
cause the decomposition of these remains. It
produces nitrogenous compounds and Can you tell ?
increases soil fertility. The soil formed from 1. What type of rock is there in your
the decomposition of plant and animal taluka-district?
remains is called humus. Soil is a hotbed of 2. Study the soil type in your area.
microorganisms. Numerous types of
microorganisms are found in the soil. It takes 3. Visit the soil testing center in the city.
approximately 800 to 1000 years for a 2.5 cm
thick layer of fertile soil to form naturally.

Exercise

1. How is black basalt formed?

2. What are the main components of black basalt?
3. Explain the main process of erosion.
4. State the types of soil particles?
5. How does soil help land fertility?

25
 Unit 2 : Water Conservation
Chapter 1: Water structure - Well, Lake, etc.
Well
3. Round well - This is the most widespread
The construction of a pit to draw water and visible well. It is circular. The only
from the ground is called a well. The well is difference is in its diameter and in the
one of the most popular structure designed construction material (using stone,
to reach groundwater level and make water bricks, concrete, concrete ring,etc)
available for use. Water from wells is extracted
by electrical equipment or manpower and is
used for domestic use as well as for irrigation.
Structure - First the proper place is selected
and a pit is made there. It leads deep to the
groundwater level. Then the walls of the pit
are constructed with stone / bricks / concrete.
To get the water out, a moat (pulley) or a
pump that works on electricity or other energy
(diesel, solar, etc.) is arranged. The width of
the well depends on how much water is stored.
The structure of a well is generally circular. 2.1.2 Round well
Types of wells
4. Square well - It is square in shape. The
1. Aad (आड) - A well which is narrow and rest of the well is similar to a round well.
often square in shape and deep, is called
an Aad. These wells are found in areas
where groundwater is very deep.
2. Narrow and deep well (कूप) - A deep
well which is narrow is called a coop
(कूप). It is not square in shape. Well and
Aad are similar sources.

2.1.3 Square well

5. Elongated well (िदर्घिका) - As the name

suggests, this well is long. All other
features are similar to round wells.
6. Tube well - In areas where the soil
content is very high, it is very difficult to
2.1.1 Narrow and deep well
dig a well as the soil is constantly falling.
In such places water is made available

26
 8. Barav (बारव)- In some places you can
see large, stepped wells with good
stone construction. It has steps from the
ground to the water. In many places,
side accommodations are also available.
Many baravs also have a moat that can
be used to pull water up.

2.1.4 Tube well

by going to a deep water level using
pipes. This well occupies less space and
less cost. But its storage capacity is less
than that of wells.
7. Pushkarani/Pond (पुष्करणी)- In general,
it is a popular type of pond with steps in
the shape of a square, shaped stones.
Most of the time this structure is built
and maintained in temples, palaces, etc.

2.1.6 Baraw

9. Budki (बुडकी)- A well which has water

only in the rainy season and then dries
up due to lack of living springs is called
Budki. This type of structure is found
in large numbers in the tribal areas in
the hills of the Sahyadri. Generally this
structure is done along a stream or river.

2.1.5 Pushkarani
Do you know ?
Baramoat (बारामोट - well with 12 pulleys)
a historical well at Limb in Satara district is
a marvel of Shivaji maharaj period
architecture. There is also a spacious palace
in the well and tourists always flock to see
this well. 2.1.7 Budki

27
10. Bore well - When ground water level is Pond / Pool
deep, soil layer is low and sloping area A pond is a natural or artificial reservoir
is high, bore well is drilled. In this, by in a shallow part of the land which is given
selecting the right place, digging by a definite shape by the construction of edges,
ridges, sculptures etc. Ponds are usually
smaller in size than lakes and larger than wells.
There are also names like talaaw, Pushkarani,
Vapi, Vapika. Some of these names are
characteristic. For example, a Pushkarani is a
lotus pond. Depending on the size, its subtypes
Sun Pushkarani and the Moon Pushkarani are
found .
Like rivers, ponds have gained religious
significance in India. Ponds, especially
Pushkarani's are found in the premises of
most temples. Areas where large rivers are
less, the number of ponds is high there. It was
customary to build Ghats, pillars for lamps
2.1.8 Bore Well
(Deepmaala), overpasses (Owari), pillars,
machine and going to the reservoir, the large gates etc near these ponds. It was not the
water storage is used. This is a very king's job to supply water in those days, but
useful solution where the groundwater the people were able to meet their water needs
level is very deep. Unfortunately, this by their own efforts. At that time, building a
measure is currently being misused due pond for public use was considered a sacred
to the lure of benefits like low cost, less act according to Dharmashastra. Such ponds
space required and less time, machine
work, etc.
11. Ringwell - This is done using a small
diameter well concrete ring. This
solution works best where the
groundwater level is good and close to
the beach. This well is usually 10 feet to

2.1.9 Ring Well

20 feet deep. This measure is especially
useful when conserving rainwater in
urban areas. 2.1.10 Pond/ Pool

28
were built and offered for public works. We city and government facilities for drinking
can see the record of this in the place of such and drinking water supply. The lakes at
ponds even today. Mumbadevi and Mahalakshmi have recently
The pond has been used since ancient been extinguished.
times for many reasons such as water supply to Farm ponds/Puddle/Lake :
the village, decoration of the temple, religious Farm ponds are constructed on the upper
activities, fire fighting, beautification of the side of the farm to store rainwater. Ponds
temple, facilities for the travellers. If the ponds dug for the availability of water to the crop
are of natural spring or artificially stored when there is a shortage of water, are called
water, their sweetness varies accordingly. It is farm ponds. The farm pond is constructed in
noticed that in the past, water was stored in the barren land, on the sloppy banks of the
dams or dug in the ground to make the ponds stream. Land with low water permeability is
last longer. The construction of the pond can selected. Black soils with high clay content are
be made with stones to prolong the drainage suitable for construction. However, land with
process. loamy, sandy, porous rocks or saline soils is
In historical times, it was customary unsuitable for farming. Farm ponds can be set
to build cold storages, baradari, gardens as up to store runoff water where it is not possible
well as ornate decorations and arches along to dig wells easily.
the embankment of check dam lakes. The There are two types of ponds constructed
Rajsamand of Udaipur (d. 1662–76) and the in such a way that the water enters the farm
Anasagar of Ajmer (12th century) are good pond considering the natural furrows or
examples. In Varanasi, it is said that the three streams. Ponds with water source in natural
rivers Varuna, Assi and Ganga were connected furrows and farms in plain lands.
by a network of lakes in the past. Lakes are
planned in the town planning at Mandavgarh Groundwater in the catchment area is
near Indore. The Jahajamahal (Mandu) area recharged. Water can be made available to
is also famous for its lakes. The 'Golden Lotus the crop when there is a shortage of water.
Lake' at the Meenakshi Temple in Madura is Farm ponds are well used for fish farming,
famous. Legend has it, that Indra bathed in improvement of salty lands and wetlands.
this lake to get rid of the sin of Brahmahatya.
There are large halls and overpasses around
the lake. Bandiyur or Mariyaman Teppakulam
(1645), built by Tirumal Nayak, is considered
to be the largest stone lake in South India. Its
length is 304 x 80 m. width is 289 x 56 m. As
the water is taken from the Vaigai river basin,
the reservoir does not dry. In the center there is
a small island with a small dome and a temple
in the center.
Lakes have also played an important
role in modern urban planning. Gardens by 2.1.11 Farm pond
the lake, baths, ghats etc. are planned. In the
eighteenth-nineteenth centuries, many large
lakes were built in Mumbai. Mahalakshmi,
Gavdevi, Laxminarayan etc. The temples of
the place had large built ponds. Some lakes
were extinguished due to the growth of the

29
Bodi repair: The objectives of Bodis renewal are to
In the districts of Vidarbha, small reservoirs recharge them by interrupting the running
are constructed and water is stored in the water. To provide protective irrigation to the
upper part of the paddy field by earthen check rice crops in case of emergency.
dams. The stored water is fed to the paddy
in the lower part of the reservoir as required.
This small lake is called Bodi in Vidarbha.
Due to the breakage of the pre-built Bodis and
the accumulation of silt in it, it is necessary to
deepen and renew the old Bodis . In Bhandara,
Gondia, Chandrapur and Gadchiroli districts
of East Vidarbha, the old Bodis are renewed
as an effective measure of water conservation.
2.1.12 Bodi

Exercise

1. What is a well? What are the different types of wells?

2. What is a Bodi?
3. Where should a farm pond be built ?
4. What are the uses of the pond / lake?

30
 Unit 2 : Water Conservation
Chapter 2: Concept of Water Conservation
Distribution of rain water Increasing Need of Water Conservation:
In nature, there is the season cycle of Recently the rainfall period and
summer, monsoon and winter. The water simultaneous rainfall have become erratic.
required for life is available to us during the Four months of low but continuous rains
monsoon season. Not all parts of Maharashtra have now become erratic due to climate
receive uniform rainfall. The water that falls change. There are frequent instances where
during the rainy season naturally seeps into the maximum rainfall falls in a short period of
the soil. Some is stored as surface water. In time and the dry period of two rains lasts a long
addition, some of this water evaporates, some time. Eventually, the amount of infiltration of
is used directly by some plants, and the rest is running rain water is declining.
carried away in the form of runoff. A runoff Trees control the speed of rainwater. The
is a stream of water flowing over the surface. roots of the trees carry the water from the
The water sources found in the hills, river surface to the ground. Water is being carried
basins and wells in the form of springs start away from the land rapidly due to the disparity
depleting within a few days after the end of in large scale deforestation and tree planting.
monsoon. At such times water is needed. Some
areas are constantly facing drought conditions.
In such cases, it is necessary to stop this wasted
runoff and collect the maximum amount of
rain water, store it in a suitable place or bury
it in the ground.
What is Water Conservation?
"Water Conservation" is the use of man-
made measures to block, store and intake
the rainwater in an area by constructing
various structures and allowing it to be used
for drinking, consumption, industry and
agriculture until the next monsoon.

2.2.1 Mountain slopes, streams, 2.2.2 Problems arisen due to lack of water
deforestation and water and soil carried conservation.
away due to them.

31
 After building a house in town or village, Rainwater harvesting can be done perfectly
a thick layer of cement and sand is spread in in both cities and villages, and its benefits are
the space around the house. As a result, the well documented.
area and the rate of infiltration of water into Urban Water Conservation:
the soil is greatly reduced.
When it rains in the city, water falls
Water is still available as much as it from the roof of the building. It is carried
used to be available in the past, but water down through the pipes in most places to the
consumption is also increasing due to huge municipal drain. From there it converges and
population growth. The amount of water flows into nearby streams, runnels, rivers,
available from water conservation and the creeks, or seas.
amount of water used is declining drastically.
Considering all these factors, there is a need for Depending on the surface of the land,
water management and water conservation. the amount of water that will be absorbed
and carried is determined. The surface also
Usefulness of water conservation: determines, if the water will be absorbed or
With a view to economic development carried away. If there is open ground or soil,
of rural areas of the state based on public 50% of the falling water settles in the soil. But
participation as well as natural resources, if it is concrete, hardly 10% won't be absorbed,
the following can be achieved through water most of the water is carried away.
conservation:
In the past, there was soil in the premises
Sustainability : If the abstraction/lifting of the buildings. There are lot of grounds
of water from the catchment area is less than and open spaces are available. So the water
the recharge rate and also the reduction in per would first seep into the ground and then come
capita water consumption, water retention will out of the yard. So the water came slowly
occur unknowingly and a sustainable water and it took time to fill the runnels. Now, due
supply can be ensured. to depletion or disappearance of soil, the
Energy conservation: Electricity is used water immediately and completely enters
for water management. 15% electricity is used the runnels and creates flood-like conditions
for this. Reducing water consumption will also in the area. This is currently happening all
save energy and conserve energy. over the cities and there is also negligence in
constructing unauthorized buildings, roads
Habitat Conservation: Reducing the use and sidewalks (where they are), road dividers.
of freshwater will keep freshwater reservoirs This is compounded by irregularities in non-
intact and protect the organisms from drying sanitation or alleged irregularities in waste
out. disposal, etc., and this creates the current dire
Rainwater harvesting: situation.
Rainwater harvesting is the process of Due to concreting of most parts of the
diverting, infiltrating, and making rainwater city, it cannot be used for water infiltration. In
available in the same area, in the right place, addition, it is seen how the rainwater will go
in the right way, for later use. There are two towards the sea as soon as possible. As a result,
types of this, the water content of the soil has decreased.
A. Temporary use: When it is raining, store This leads to flooding in the rainy season and
rainwater (enough for about 4-5 days ) and use it. water scarcity in the summer. This picture can
definitely change if rainwater harvesting is
B. Use after the end of the rainy season:
done in every building. If the wells, borewells,
Store rainwater in tanks, wells, borewells,
etc. in the area are recharged, the life of those
or other places and use it after the end of the
sources will be extended but the picture is not
rainy season.
32
 Seepage pits

ch
ren
ge t
see p a mबांध
Maintenance well t o n e da
S
दगडगोटे
ter
Gut

Recharge
well Collection
tank

2.2.3 Water Conservation

visible as floods in monsoons and scarcity
in summers. And, most importantly, the area
is self-sufficient in water, not completely
dependent on the government for water. Only,
it requires public participation.
Water Conservation in Rural Area:
The water requirement of the village
can be met by diverting, infiltrating and
storing water in the same area. It needs to be
considered not only for drinking but also for
domestic use, for cattle, for other uses, and for
the second and third season crops. 2.2.4 Water storage method
If water conservation is planned and
implemented the village location, the Try this:
population, the water requirement of the 1. Create a table of water conservation
village, the water sources, their capacity, practices in urban and rural areas
water requirement for agriculture, number
of cattle in the village, land type, soil type, 2.
Visit different forts and record
number of layers, depth of the rock , the observations for water conservation
slopes etc., are the factors considered, it is sure structure.
to be successful. If water conservation is to be 3. Carry out water conservation activities
successfully implemented for a long time, it with the help of teachers to retain
requires the participation of local people. rainwater in the school premises.

33
Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting: Historical water conservation structure
1. Existing water sources are strengthened. Whether it is on an ocean island, near the
2. Improves water quality. shore, whether it is a uban fort or a mountain
fort, it is easy to see that rain water was
3. Prolongs the life of a well or borewell. being conserved and the required water was
4. Waterlogging, flooding, etc. can be being made available. On-site structures were
avoided. constructed and maintained with proper care
to ensure adequate water supply to the people
5. The salts in the water of the borewell can
in the area through wells, tanks, lakes, ponds,
be reduced and the water can be made
pushkaranis etc.
drinkable.
Measures taken on sea forts:
6. The journey towards water self-
sufficiency continues. If you observe Colaba, Janjira, Sindhdurg
or any other sea fort, you will notice that
7. No need to rely entirely on the government
despite the salt water all around, all these
for water .
forts have fresh water reserves, in the form
The Department of Water Conservation : of lakes or wells! How was this possible?
It was established by the Government of This is an excellent example of on-site water
Maharashtra on June 5, 1992 . The department conservation. While constructing the ramparts
has been entrusted with the responsibility of the fort, care was taken that rain water
of monitoring important Central and State falling in the vicinity of the fort would not be
sponsored schemes like Water conservation, carried out. A water reservoir was built on the
Soil Conservation, Integrated Watershed fort and then that water was used throughout
Development, Minor Irrigation, Wasteland the year as needed. Many measures were
Development. As on 31st May 2017, the taken in construction and design to reduce the
Department of Water Conservation has been evaporation of that limited water reserve. Care
restructured by the government and a separate was taken to ensure that direct sunlight did not
Department of Soil and Water Conservation reach the water, and that the water remained
has been set up. Its functions are, with minimum clean. All of this is still working properly
land acquisition process, implementation of today.
small and medium scale irrigation projects
at low cost in 1 to 2 years, raising of ground
water level, siltation for large and medium
projects, prevention of soil erosion, creation of
decentralized water reservoirs.
To carry out rapid development and
regulation of watershed and water conservation
works including minor irrigation projects
and to make special provision for related
matters, the Maharashtra Water Conservation
2.2.5 Pond/ lake at Murud Janjira fort
Corporation was established on 22nd August,
2000 and is headquartered at Aurangabad. Water conservation on hill and urban forts:
The department has a 21% share in the total There are many examples of water
generated irrigation capacity of the State. conservation on such forts in almost all

34
parts of the country. Water conservation and
management measures are also used in places
like Naldurg or Onsa on land, most of the
hill forts in Maharashtra as well as sea forts.
Here too, while constructing the ramparts of
the fort, care was taken that the rain water
falling in the vicinity of the fort would not be
carried out. This water was infiltrated into
the area, then used for wells and stored in
ponds or tanks. Even today we see this system
working properly. Using this principle, fresh
water was provided by water conservation and 2.2.6 Lake at Raigad fort
management even on marine forts.

Exercise

1. What is water conservation?

2. Explain the division of rainwater.
3. Why do you think water conservation is needed?
4. In which type of soil, water conservation is done? what care needs to be taken?
5. Explain the usefulness of water conservation.
6. What are the functions of Maharashtra Water Conservation Department?
7. Why are there limitations in rainwater harvesting in urban areas? How can water
conservation be done through public participation?

35
 Unit 2 : Water Conservation
Chapter 3 : Catchment/watershed treatment

Catchment/watershed area level check dam is constructed by connecting

The area from which water naturally flows a level earthen check dam or a slope earthen
and flows through a particular place is called check dam and biological check dam. It is not
the catchment/watershed area of a​​ stream. for storing water but for slowing the moving
Each surface reservoir and each stream has its water. Sloping dams are used to reduce soil
own catchment/watershed area. erosion and to trap groundwater.

Some of the methods used to soak up

rainwater in such catchment/watershed are
called catchment treatment. This method
achieves the objectives of soil conservation
i.e. prevention of soil erosion and protected
irrigation for plant growth.
(A) In-situ treatment
1. Farm bunding:
2.3.2 Sloping or level check dams
3. Bunds:
Water flows very fast on steep slopes. In
such places, sloping lands are converted to
bunds to cultivate and water the soil. From a
long distance, these slopes look like steps on
some hills. It is a field prepared on slopes by
digging some part and filling half part like
steps. Where the soil depth is sufficient and
water is available, the slope is converted to
2.3.1 Check dam
bunds. In the rain-fed region of Maharashtra,
Before sowing, a dam is built in the paddy fields are prepared on hill slopes and
sloping area of ​​the field to prevent the water land is brought under paddy crop. The types of
falling in the field during the rainy season. these bunds are as follows: bunds with plain
A horizontal embankment is called a main
embankment and a vertical embankment is
called a side embankment. When it is raining,
water is pumped out of the field with a large
hose to keep the dam from bursting and soil
erosion.
2. Sloping or level check dams :
Sloping check dams construction work
is carried out in rainfed areas. These check
dams are laid along the fields. Accordingly, a
2.3.3 Bunds

36
fields, bunds sloppy at the inner side and bunds m gap. At the same level dig another trench of
sloppy at the outer side . 20 m.length. Sow 4.80 kg of grass seeds per
4. Contour Trench: hectare at full length of trenches . Eg. Hamata,
Pavana, Marvel, Mountain grass, Madras
Flat trenches are dug in the fallow land on Anjan, Sheda, Nil grass.
the hill slopes. On land with 0 to 33 % slope,
Consecutive contour trenches of this size 0.60
m. wide and 0.30 m. deep as well as 0.60 m.
wide and 0.45 m.deep are dug. Depending on
the slope of the land, the length of the trench
is 833 m. to 2174 m. Normally per thousand
running meters length and 0.30 m. depth, 180
cubic meter and 0.45 m. depth, 270 cubic
meter water is stored.
Contour trenches slow down the rapid
flow of rainwater on the mountain tops and
2.3.5 Deep Continuous Contour Trenches
reduce soil erosion. Trenches, grass or tree
roots slow down the flowing water and it These deep furrows / trenches are very
gets absorbed in the soil. Due to protected useful for retaining the fertile soil layer on the
irrigation, waste land becomes productive and ground and for infiltrating water in the soil. It
this area is brought under cultivation to some prevents soil erosion. Due to the seeped water
extent. in the mountains, the groundwater table lasts
longer. Helps in tree and grass conservation.
(B) Stream control treatment:
A stream is a natural current of water
flowing down a slope or from a flat land.
Brooklets, runnels are included in the stream.
All these are considered while controlling the
flow. These streams flow for some time after
the rain stops. The water in it is conserved for
taking a crop. In this method the following
2.3.4 Contour Trench types of dams are laid on this stream.
5. Deep Continuous Contour Trenches :
1.Rough stone dam / Loose Boulder
Continuous Contour Trenches treatment Structure :
is applied on fallow land which is unsuitable
In the upper part of the catchment area,
for cultivation. 1 m. wide and 1 m. deep
rough stones are used to stop the erosion of
continuous contour trenches are dug. The
the streams. The rough stones are the stones
water flowing down the hill slope is stored in
found in nature. These stones are small and
the trenches and results in good soil and water
large in size. Coarse stone check dams are
conservation. 240 m long, 1 m. wide and 1 m.
laid horizontally on the stream. This increases
deep trenches should be dug per hectare. The
the rate of water retention in the soil. It also
vertical distance between the two trenches
prevents soil erosion.
should be 33 m. And after every 20 m.long
trench, leave a gap of 2 m to remove excess
water and then dig another 20 m. long trench .
While digging the second row, the first trench
must be 10 m long instead of 20 m. Leave a 2
37
 pitching of the gully and backside (tapering
towards the runnel edge) is done. The pitching
width at the runnel banks is equal to the base
width of the gabion structure.
3. Earthen stream (Mati Nala) Dam:
Earthen stream Dam is a treatment
for both flood control and V-shaped valley
control. The purpose and benefits of an earthen
2.3.6 Rough stone dam / Loose Boulder stream dam are as follows. After the formation
Structure of V-shaped valleys (ghal) and stream, rain
water flows through it very fast. As a result,
2. Gabion check dams:
the banks of the stream become eroded and
The gabion dams are the dams built in the stream bed expands and the surrounding
streams / runnels (nala) .They are made up arable land decreases.
of coarse stone embedded in metal meshes.
Gabion-style dams are constructed to conserve
water in areas where the slope of the runnels is
high and the rough stone dams cannot survive
due to excess rainfall. The dam is built into
a stream of water by placing large and small
stones in a galvanized mesh cover. The mesh
is inserted up to 2 m. in the runnel banks, on
both sides.

2.3.8 Earthen check dams

In such a case, if the water is stopped by
constructing a check dam at the right place in
the stream and the excess water is released at
a controlled speed, the day to day expansion of
the stream will be curtailed.
2.3.7 Gabion check dams In drought prone areas, such stopped
water seeps into the soil, helping to increase
During the construction of the dam, the groundwater reserves. The water level of
cavities in the stone are filled with small the wells in the area of influence
​​ of the dam
stones or chips. Care is taken to ensure that the increases. In the case of sure or high rainfall
shape of the dam does not change under any areas, the water stored at the site of stream
circumstances due to floods. The head width check dams can be used during the temporary
of the dam is 0.45 m. The inner and back side drought period to save some of the crops that
of the mesh is lifted and placed at least 15 are drying up due to lack of rainfall.
cm above the head. It is made to overlap and Water is available to the animals for
tied to the head with binding wire. The mesh drinking seasonally. There are different types
is tied tightly by rubbing with the stone check of earthen stream dams depending on the
dam. The hollow on both sides of the mesh is catchment area. Stream dam with catchment
filled with soil and the runnel bank is made as area 10-40 hectares and with catchment area
before. 1 meter long and 1 meter wide stone 40 to 500 hectares.
38
4. Concrete cement stream check dams : 6. Diversion check dam:
The concept of constructing a concrete The cement dam that is built in the stream
cement stream dam came into existence with basin to divert the water flowing from the
a view to infiltrating the rain water on the spot stream to the field through the river is called a
and preventing leakage of water from the dam. diversion dam. In many places of the Konkan
Due to such dams , water storage has increased and Ghat head, water is flowing from the
to a large extent, which has increased the water streams till the month of December / January.
level in many wells as well as the ground water Every year on such streams, the farmers
level. The use of cement concrete instead of irrigate the crops by placing raw earthen
stone construction will increase the quality embankments/ bunds and diverting the water
and the lifespan of the dam. to the fields. The earthen embankments burst
every year. So, if these dams are paved and
the water flowing from the stream is diverted
to the fields and made available to the crops,
the wetlands of the place will increase and
alternatively the yield will increase. The cost
of such a dam is also reduced. In this way
the water is diverted naturally and as long as
the water flows through the stream, 24 hours
running water is available to the crops in the
field. This allows for 1 to 2 guaranteed water

2.3.9 Concrete cement stream check dams

5. Deepening the streams:

Within a few years after the construction
of concrete cement check dams or other types
of check dams, they are filled with rock soil
or accumulated vegetation remains, so in the
rainy season, excess water continues to flow 2.3.10 Diversion check dam
rapidly from nearby fields or filled sreams. As shifts for the crops grown during the rabi
a result, a large amount of soil erosion has been season as well as for stress during the rainy
found in the fields. Therefore, it is necessary season, so this work is in great demand among
to deepen such filled check dams.There are the farmers.
some criteria for deepening the streams. Eg. Precautions to be taken for Catchment/
streams should not be deepened where there is Watershed treatment:
sand storage in the streams basin. These works
1. There are definite benefits if proper water
should be implemented as a priority in highly
conservation measures are taken by
absorbed areas and absorbed catchment
studying the type of soil, slope, thickness
areas. It is not advisable to undertake the
of soil layer, type of soil, geographical
work of deepening the streams in the alluvial conditions etc.
(made up of silt) region as the soil layer is
2. No one can exactly predict the properties,
impermeable due to clay. Therefore, water will
location and capacity of the water source.
not be infiltrated and won't be converted into
It can only be guessed. It is better to
groundwater. However, the "Bazada" part of
have this work done by an expert and
the topography in the silt area is very suitable
experienced officer, so the success rate
for this measure.
increases a lot.
39
3. It is a misconception that if the well gets While removing sludge, maintain the
water then the borewell will also get natural slope of the source. It should not
water. be changed, a 45 degrees slope on both
4. Water conservation work should be done sides must be kept. It brings stability and
on tributaries, streams, springs, etc. before avoids the sides from collapsing.
working on the main river. 6. If you decide to build a check dam, the
5. Before removing the sludge, when plan should be prepared by the officer in
deciding the nature of work, first study charge of the concerned department. In
the surrounding slopes, geographical order to prevent siltation in the dams, there
conditions, speed of water flow, etc. should be ways for sludge to escape. The
and then decide the amount of sludge to type of dam should be selected according
remove. Consult a suitable experienced to the local geographical conditions. No
person. Build at least 2 Gabion dams at dam type should be chosen arbitrarily.
the top of the stream. So the mud will It also risks permanently destroying the
not come back immediately in the rain. resource.

Exercise

1. List the catchment/ watershed treatments in your area.

2. Explain the care to be taken while deepening the streams ?
3. State the main benefits of catchment/watershed treatment.
4. What should be done to prevent check dams from collapsing?

Record observations Visit:

1. Which of the following check 1. Visit the website of the Department
dams would be suitable for water of Soil and Water Conservation.
conservation, a rough stone dam and Understand its functions.
a gabion dam in a rain-fed catchment 2. Observe the condition of dams in your
area? area.
3. Observe the difference between an
2. Does soil erosion hinder water earthen check dam and a cement check
conservation work? Explain your dam.
point.
3. Explain the statement “Farm ponds
with plastic bottoms cannot be part of
water recharge”.
4. Which treatment in the catchment /
watershed area has made it possible to
cultivate in the hills?
5. Would water conservation works be
useful on a flat surface with abundant
rainfall?

40
 Unit 2 : Water Conservation
Chapter 4 : Water Recharge

Groundwater recharge: The need for groundwater recharge

Groundwater recharge is the process of We are surrounded by borewells and wells
infiltrating rainwater into the soil in various without water. The main reason for this is the
ways to increase groundwater storage. Water lowered water level in the soil. This requires
recharge can be done in different ways. Storing a collective effort to recharge the water.
rainwater for a certain period of time. Where water is not available through river the
Groundwater canals, wells, borewells are used. Agricultural
water is also obtained through the borewells.
Groundwater is the water which stored Currently, the water level of these springs is
under land. The rainwater seeps into the soil. about 400 to 500 feet deep. As groundwater
As the upper soil layer becomes saturated, level is declining day by day, wells and
water continues to flow into the lower layer. borewells need to be recharged. Groundwater
This water is absorbed through the loam in is not being recharged in the proportion it is
the soil and the cracks in the rock. The rate at being pumped out, so the groundwater level is
which water seeps into the soil depends on the getting deeper day by day. In order to increase
geological condition of the place. The higher the the ground water level, it is necessary to try
slope, the less water is absorbed. Conversely, to infiltrate rain water wherever possible.
if the slope of the land is low and slow, the rate At the same time, it is also necessary to use
of waterlogging is high. The second factor is the available ground water sparingly and
the porosity of the rocks. Porous soils, jointed scientifically. Groundwater reserves are
rocks, fractured rocks, fused porous rocks, depleted due to various reasons. As a result
and rocks with cavities are more prone to they need to be recharged.
waterlogging. Naturally, more groundwater
reserves are formed. This groundwater is used
for drinking and agriculture.

l
ana
r
Recharge valleys
g ec l
ve ar na
Ri ec
h
yc
a
R Well l
pp
Su
Groundwater level
Soil / C
lay
Free aquifer
Captive aq Gravel / Stones
uifer
Entry portion

2.4.1 Groundwater Recharge

41
Efforts are made to infiltrate rainwater by In short, the most important and necessary
digging ditches, absorption pits, in different thing is to try to get water throughout the year,
places in the soil and at different distances, in efforts must be made in the rainy season. The
different layers of the soil. Attempts are made most important and necessary thing to do is to
to restore groundwater levels by storing as take measures according to the location so that
much groundwater as possible. At present, due the available water can be used after the end of
to depletion of open space and soil in urban the rainy season by properly reciprocating the
areas and significant increase in the amount available water. It needs to be done with the
of concrete or pavement, the natural recharge guidance of the right expert and experienced
is very low and we are beginning to feel the person. Doing so will create a year-round
loss. For this, there is an urgent need to study source of water and groundwater.
the scientific method of how to absorb the Groundwater recharge and rain:
maximum amount of rain water in the ground
and to take measures according to the location Before adopting various methods of
and with the participation of local people. groundwater recharge, you need to know the
amount of rainfall in the area. The amount of
Care to be taken while recharging water that can accumulate in the area can be
groundwater: calculated based on the amount of rainfall.
Appropriate care should be taken when Rainwater Mathematics:
recharging groundwater or using rainwater for
it. When infiltrating water in any place, it is Area of ​​the premises = 500 square meters
very important to filter the rain water through Roof area of ​​the building = 100 square meters
a proper filtration system. Rainwater may be
Total annual rainfall = 2.2 m
acidic sometimes or the roof surface may be
unclean. Therefore, after the onset of rains, Total amount of water = Area of the
​​
the first one or two rainwater recharges should surrounding × Total rainfall
be avoided. We can purify the polluted water For 500 square meters = 500 × 2.2
on the ground. But if the groundwater source = 1100 cubic meters (11,00,000 liters)
is contaminated, it is impossible to purify the
water in it. Assuming we only take 60% of the water,
Infiltration of water in the ground alone Water content = 11,00,000 × 0.6
is not enough. When borewells are drilled, = 6,60,000 liters
every borewell must be refilled. Due to the Water on the roof of the building = 100 × 2.2
characteristic structure of the groundwater = 220 cubic meters (220,000 liters)
you have, if you do not refill, it can dry out
If 80% of this water is taken,
suddenly at any time.
Water content = 2,20,000 × 0.8
Recharging groundwater and sources not
= 1,76,000 liters.
only increases their water holding capacity,
but also has the added benefit for urban areas. Generally, one person needs 10 liters of
If rainwater is diverted to groundwater or water a day. So, if you think about the above
sources, there will never be water logging or mathematics, that water will be enough for
flooding in the area. about 50 people to drink only for a year.

42
 The amount of rainfall varies according to Different types of filtration devices:
the geographical conditions and the amount of You can't use rainwater directly from the
water in each place will change accordingly. roof. It has to be filtered. For that you have
Filtration system required for filtration of to prepare a filter. When preparing it, their
rainwater: size and the proportions of the components in
An important part of the rainwater it, it is decided on the amount of water to be
filtration system is the suction pit. For recharge recharged. According to the components in the
of water in sources like well or borewell, the filtration system, following types are found-
suction pit acts as a filter. Also, if you want to 1. Sand filter : A container of suitable size has
recharge the source with your roof water, there layers of fine sand and gravel on top of each
are different filtration systems. other. On one side there is a layer of porous
Suction pit design: material. On top of that there is a layer of
To absorb the water, a pit is dug at that medium sized gravel. Then there is a layer
place in which the water is to be recharged. The of fine sand. The topmost layer is of gravel.
size of the suction pit is decided on the basis The water to be recharged is released from
of component (well, bore well, roof water) to this layer and the water is filtered out of the
be recharged. The proportion of elements in porous layer. Its structure is shown in the
the suction pit, i.e. stone, sand is also taken figure below.
according to the size of the pit. At the bottom
is a pipe of three or four inches in diameter,
20cm thick sand
carrying the filtered water. The filtered water
from this pipe goes to wells, borewells and
underground. The pit is divided into three to Sand 30cm
four sections with large stones at the bottom.
Then small stones of the same type are thrown.
20cm thick sand
Above this layer, is a layer of thick sand and at
Porous bottom
the top, a very fine layer of sand. Rainwater or
the water (free from silt or other components) Base
from the source is released on this fine sand
layer. This water is filtered through these 2.4.3 Sand filter
three-four layers. This water accumulates in
the soil, wells and borewells.
Cement
Passage for construction
rainwater
Platform / 0.15 m
plinth
0.30 m

15% thick sand

25% 20mm metal

50% 40mm metal

2.4.2 Absorption pit

43
2. Coal filter: It is similar in structure to sand After the various filtration components,
filter but on the top there is a layer of fine we will study the different methods of water
coal as shown in the figure. Recharge water recharge.
is released from this top layer. The water is Roof rainwater recharge:
filtered and can be taken from the bottom
layer for use. Its structure is shown in the Rainwater is first considered through
figure below. both reuse and recharge. Rainwater harvesting
is the process of recharging with rainwater.
There are different types. In the first type,
Coarse sand layer
10 cm rainwater is stored in a tank and is used for
Coal layer 10 cm drinking or other purposes. The second type
is that the rain water is infiltered in the soil
Sand layer 25 cm
through the suction pit. Such water becomes
part of the groundwater.
Coarse sand layer
25 cm 1. Storing rainwater in the tank:
For the purpose of saving water and in
2.4.4 Coal filter
places where drinking water is not available,
3. Filter in Pipes: The filter shown in the figure rain water falling on the roof can be stored
below is made in a plastic pipe. The pipe in a closed tank for drinking purposes. After
is approximately 140 mm in diameter and cleaning the roof with a couple of showers,
1.2 m in length. There are three layers of the rain water should be collected through a
fine to large gravel. The first layer is made channel / pipe (panhali), filtered and stored
of gravel of size 2-6 mm. The second layer in a tank. A special type of filter is used for
is a layer of gravel 6-12 mm thick and the this. Water should not be used without filtering
third layer is a layer of 12-20 mm thickness. through the filter. Use the recommended
The water to be recharged is released from amount of liquid chlorine or tablets when
the side with the fine gravel and the filtered drinking water.
water recharges the water source as it
flows out from the other side. The wells
are recharged with this filter. This filter
has been constructed by Rural Engineering
Channel
Services Devas (Madhya Pradesh). That is
why it is called a "Devas" filter.
Jet pipe
A
To the Storage
D M T2 F Filter tank
storage tank
B
T1 V2 T2
C 2.4.6 Rainwater harvesting
PVC pipe with PVC pipe with
60mm diameter 140mm diameter PVC mesh

2-6mm 6-12mm 12-20mm

boulders boulders boulders

2.4.5 Filter in a pipe

44
2. Recharge of Soil with Rainwater:
Raising groundwater level is a need of 30 cm thick sand
the hour. For this, recharge of rain water is Small boulders

2m
important. Rainwater is collected from the 50 cm
roof and allowed to pass through a mesh, Large boulders 1 m
leaving mulch or other elements trapped. The
PVC pipe 12 mm hole
filtered water is discharged into the suction pit.
Thatch
100mm pipe
Concrete lid 2.4.9 bore well structure
Thick sand
water that goes down through the filtration
Small boulders
Large boulders
Soil in the upper part process becomes part of the groundwater.
Porous layer 4. Recharge of wells with rain water:
1 to 2 meters
Two separate pits of three meters and two
Groundwater level
meters length are dug between the well and the
2.4.7 Absorption Pit stream.
For this proper type of suction pit is dug. Its The first pit is dug three meters long, three
structure is shown in the accompanying figure. meters wide and one meter deep. The second
pit is dug at a distance of three meters from the
3. Recharge of borewell with rainwater:
first pit. The second pit is dug two meters long,
This type of refill is used for dry borewell 1.5 meters wide and two meters deep. Taking
in farms, villages or in the vicinity of large a horizontal hole in the center of the first pit,
housing societies. In order to recharge the this pit is connected to the second pit by a six
borewell in the field, the water of the runnel inch PVC pipe. The first pit is filled with
or stream is diverted as the source. The roof stones. The bottom of the second pit is filled
water is diverted to the suction pit to recharge with a 0.45 m thick layer of gravel. A 0.45 m
the household or village borewell. A pit, two thick layer of sand is applied on that layer.
meters wide and two meters deep is dug around Then it is filled with a 0.45 m thick layer of
the borewell or a pit of suitable size is dug. In fine sand and a 0.15 m thick layer of coal is
the area of ​​the casing pipe of borewell, holes of spread on it. The pit is connected to the well by
specific diameter are drilled at a distance of 1-2 a four-inch PVC pipe from the bottom. The
cms on all sides. Coconut strings (kaathyaa) mulch, waste, etc. from the river water will
are wrapped tightly or a plastic mesh is placed settle in the first pit and the water without
on these holes as a filter. The pit is divided into particles will go through the pipe to the second
four sections, filled with rocks at the bottom, pit. The clean water filtered from the second
gravel above it, then coarse sand, and fine pit will go through the well pipe and recharge
sand at the top. The water from the source is the well.
released at the top as shown in the figure. The
Incoming water
Thatch

100mm pipe
9 feet height

To the pump

Concrete lid
Direction of flow

Gravel cover
Coal
Thick sand Fine sand
Small boulders Soil in the upper part Plastic mesh
Large boulders Small Gravel 1 foot
Medium Gravel 1 foot
100mm pipe Porous layer Gravel
1 to 2 Large Gravel 1 foot
meters Groundwater level
5.3 feet 4.3 feet
2.4.8 Recharge of the bore well 2.4.10 Recharge of wells
45
Precautions to be taken while filling well
groundwater survey and development
and borewell:
systems have been set up in every state and
1. The water coming to the stream should be union territory in addition to the Geological
free from salts and chemicals. Survey of India. Groundwater Survey and
2. Water should be piped to the bottom of the Development Agency was established on
well. 16th July 1971 in Maharashtra also. The
function of this organization is to conduct
3. There should be two filter pits before groundwater survey, research, groundwater
refilling. assessment, development, monitoring,
4. Remove the sludge from the well before management for drinking water, agricultural
refilling. and industrial needs as well as survey and
research for groundwater emergence.
5. Recharge should be done with filtered and
clean water only.
Internet my friend :
6. Water on the area where salt has spilled i.e. https://gsda.maharashtra.gov.in/index.
salts have accumulated, should not be used php/GWRechargePriorityMap
to recharge wells. The above site belongs to Maharashtra
7. The filter made up of sand and gravel should Groundwater Development Authority. A
be cleaned once before the rainy season. map of your village and maps of artificial
water recharge priority maps are also
available to raise the groundwater table of
Do You Know ?
your village on this site.
In 1946, the ‘Department of Your village is guided through a variety
Engineering Geology and Groundwater’ of colors as to what type of artificial water
was set up independently at the Geological recharge works are expected to be done in
Survey of India. An agreement on technical which area. With that, we can undertake
cooperation was signed between India and the task of artificial water recharge.
the United States after independence.
In the scheme prepared under the
agreement following were the aims - Government Departments and Symbols:
Near about 2650 tube wells and
borewells would be dug in the Ganga river
basin from Punjab to Bihar. Underground
geological information would be obtained.
Sample wells would be drilled and future
action plans would be planned. Currently,

Exercise

1. What are the methods of water conservation?

2. Explain the need of water recharge in brief.
3. Explain the importance of suction pits in the process of water recharge.
4. What care should be taken while recharging a well or borewell ?
5. Explain with reason the most useful method of water filtration in your area.

46
 Unit 3 : Water Management
Chapter 1 : Water is the basis of life
Water and living things:
The earth is described as ‘Bahuratna
Vasundhara’. Water is one of the most
important natural resources among the many
gems on earth. All living things on earth
are made of water. The source of life for
plants and animals is water. From ancient
times the development of human beings can
be seen in the places where water is
available, i.e. rivers and reservoirs. History
tells us that the ancient cultures of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Harappa were
formed on the banks of rivers. Therefore,
careful use of water is very important and
it is the responsibility of all of us.

3.1.1 Concept picture - Earth 3.1.2 Some examples of water scarcity

Water scarcity in Maharashtra : for consumption, so our state is a region of
According to the Falcon criteria, the water scarcity. If the availability of water is
region is considered to be in good water reduced to such an extent of 500 cubic meters,
condition only if more than 1700 cubic meters it will fit into a very difficult for human life.
of water is available per capita per year. If the Drought man-made or natural?
annual per capita availability of water is less
Maharashtra has been suffering from
than 1000 cubic meters, then the scarcity of
drought for thousands of years. Even today,
water adversely affects the living standard of
there is a shortage of water everywhere.
the people. If the per capita annual availability
Maharashtra has sufficient rainfall as well as
of this water is less than 500 cubic meters, it is
the number of dams. What is the reason for the
also a problem for the animals. Considering
shortage of drinking water despite the huge
the present state of Maharashtra, only 788 cubic
increase in the number of dams? On the one
meters of water per capita per year is available

47
hand there is a wet drought and on the other wells more than 400-500 feet deep are being
hand there is no water to drink. On the one dug and water is being pumped out of the
hand, there are sugarcane plantations, and ground. In our country, 65% of the water used
miraculous conditions like tankers in the same for irrigation and 3% of the water used for
village. As per the total availability of water in domestic use is drawn from wells. Groundwater
Maharashtra, the need and the actual drought reserves are rapidly declining due to the
situation, the reasons for the disparity are depletion of such abdundant water for
natural or man-made? irrigation. Decreasing ground water levels is a
matter of concern.
Ground water abstraction/lifting :
River system : dilapidation/be spoiled
 In our country, farmers traditionally draw
water from wells to irrigate their crops and   Rivers are of paramount importance in
irrigate the entire farmland. every country. Many cities, industrial projects
and factories are located on the banks of big
rivers. As a result, a large amount of water has
been polluted in the river. The health of the
rivers has deteriorated due to sewage and
waste from the factories. The springs of the
rivers have been closed. The river has stopped
flowing due to extreme ground water
abstraction. It is imperative to revive such
polluted rivers and improve their health.

Observe
Visit river, wells, tube wells and other
3.1.3 Groundwater obstraction/lifting reservoirs the surrounding and observe the
So water is wasted and excessive use of status of water consumption. Also study
water decreases groundwater level. Now, tube the causes of pollution.

Exercise

1. Explain the relationship between water and living organisms.

2. How is water scarcity intensity divided according to Falcon criteria?
3. Give an example of unequal availability of water for use despite the same rainfall.
4. Why is groundwater depleted?
5. What is the relationship between river health and urbanization?

48
 Unit 3 : Water Management
Chapter 2 : Our water consumption
Consumption of water
The water available on the Earth is used
for many purposes. In this chapter we will
learn more about water consumption.
Domestic water consumption :
In addition to drinking water, humans
need water for cooking, bathing, washing
clothes, washing cars, toilets use and cleaning,
etc. The role of water is important from such 3.2.2 Water use for agriculture
basic human needs to industrial processes. according to the principle “water is needed for
the crop, not for the whole land.” There is a
Mouth need to adopt a technological approach. Water
wash 1% Washing
dishes 2% is widely used for agro-based industries such as
Other use
4% Toilet sugar factories, fruit processing and non-
Tap/Faucet 24 % agricultural industries such as dams, roads,
leak 12% colonies, various factories etc.
 Power Generatoin :
Many dams in the country generate
electricity. The water from the dam is used for
Bathing
20%
Cooking
20%
Washing
cloths 17%
3.2.1 Domestic water consumption ratio

Water use for agricultural irrigation and

industry :
3.2.3 Koyna dam
Considering the factor of water in rural
areas, the farmer is the center point of that hydroelectric power generation. The water
factor. Crops are irrigated through the flow in the dam is released rapidly from the
irrigation system. Economic development also height, so the generator rotates and electricity
depends on the availability of that water. is generated. In Maharashtra there are
Therefore, Water Use Organizations have hydroelectric power generation projects like
been formed and water distribution has been Koyna, Pophali, Bhira, Bhivapuri, Khopoli,
done with the idea that water for agriculture Warna, Vaitarna etc.
should be properly managed, it should be Fishing and fisheries :
managed and all farmers should get justice. Fishing is practiced extensively in seas,
Every crop needs water differently. Modern creeks, dams, rivers, lakes and various
irrigation is done as per crop requirement reservoirs.
49
 Visakhapatnam, Chennai etc. The North
Atlantic, Suez Canal, Panama Canal are the
major waterways of the world.
Tourism business :
Tourism in India is important for the
country's economy. So it is important for the
tourist to have other facilities including water
in that place.

3.2.4 Fishing and Fisheries

The business generates huge financial
turnover on the coast as well as in many port
areas. In Maharashtra, fishing is done by
producing fish seeds/eggs in small and big
dams. Also, as a supplementary business to
agriculture, fish farming is practiced in farm
puddle/lake/pond and small ponds. It is
generating huge economic output.
Shipping :
3.2.6 Tourist places
Today there are many options available
for transportation. In this the cheapest option
Sanitation, all amenities, attractive
is shipping. There are some major shipping
gardens, swimming pools, accommodation
ports in India. E.g. Kandla, Mumbai, Cochin,
and, most importantly, abundance of water are
important tourist destination. Musical
fountains of water can be seen in tourist places.
In Maharashtra, Aurangabad - Jayakwadi
project, Dnyaneshwar Udyan in Paithan,
Anand Sagar in Shegaon and in some other
places artificial waterfalls a breathtaking view
are developed. Many migratory birds from
other countries come to the reservoir. E.g.
Bharatpur, (Rajasthan), Ujani Dam - Reservoir
(Maharashtra)
3.2.5 Shipping launch
50
Water for environmental protection :
All living organisms need water to drink,
as well as crops, forests and various plants
also need water. Soil and rock formations are
also affected by water. After all, there is no
life without water. Water alone maintains the
balance of all the organic-inorganic elements
in nature and water helps to protect the food
chains in nature including plants, animals,
birds, insects.

3.2.7 Environmental imbalance

Try this:
1. Make a table of how many liters of water normally consumes per day by a person.
2. Make a list of differences between use of water in urban and rural areas.

Exercise

1. State the total types of water consumption.

2. How do we use water for domestic purposes?
3. How water is used for agriculture?
4. Which area needs maximum water?
5. Explain the relationship between environmental protection and water.
6. State the commercial uses of water.

51
 Unit 3 : Water Management

Chapter 3 : The journey of water : Dam to house

Water is supplied through water taps, The location of the dam is determined by
pipes in urban areas. Even when tap water is considering the right catchment area/watershed
not available in summer, water is supplied area, at the right place. Water requirement,
using tankers. So many of us would love to rainfall and watershed capacity are also taken
know how this water reaches us from the dam into account. Water supply start after
and what processes are done on it. completion of the dam and development of all
Sources of the water water distribution and utilization systems.
The existence of water on the planet Dam to Water Treatment Plant/Water
Earth is one of the most important miracles in purification center
the universe. About 71% of the Earth surface Water is first brought to the water
is covered by water. There are many sources treatment plant through dams using energy or
of water on earth. The journey of rain water using slope.
on the earth is mainly after it rains and this Canal: A canal is a channel constructed
journey, depending on the local geographical to carry water or to supply water from dam to
conditions. The journey of rain water is as per the desire location.
following way mountainhead-brooklets- Sub-canals: A sub-canal is a canal built
springs, streams, runnels-rivers to wells, to carry water or supply water to a farm by
borewells, seas, oceans. connecting it to a main canal.
Dams, check dams, lake
Many rivers have small and large
capacity dams. There are approximately
45000 large dams in the world. Of that,
22,000 are in China. There are 4200 dams
built in India. Maharashtra has 40 of the
largest dams in India. In addition, there are
many types of lakes useful for rainwater store.
Some of these are made naturally, while
many are man-made. The purpose is to retain
water for use after monsoon.

3.3.2 Canal
During monsoons, water from brooklets
(Ohol), runnels (Nale), rivulets (Odhe),
streams and rivers is stored in the dam. As it
flows over different land surfaces, it contains
many kinds of impurities. Therefore, water
from natural water sources is not always
drinkable. The place where various processes
are carried out to make the water drinkable
which stored in the dam is called a water
3.3.1 Dam purification center/water treatment plant.
52
 Water lifting station (उपादान/उपसा केंद्र)..... pumps are kept than required. This means
The construction which is done to take that even if there is a breakdown or
out water from rivers, streams, canals, ponds, malfunction, the water supply can be
reservoirs, etc. for purification is called water maintained without disturbing the work.
lifting station. Depending on the location of Water supply planning -
the water source, different methods have to be The following methods are adopted while
constructed for water lifting station. The planning the water supply of large cities. (1)
method of water lifting station construction Selecting the source of water by getting basic
on the river is different from the method of information about water supply. When
water lifting station construction on the choosing a source, it is important to check the
reservoir. Also the water lifting station on the quantity and properties of the water. (2)
canal is different. Water is discharged from Estimating the future population and
the water lifting station tower through a tap in determining the total demand for water per
a small well. The water is pumped out of the person per day. This should include the
well and sent for purification. Generally, the demand for water for industry and firefighting.
water treatment plant is far away from the (3) Observing and measuring the entire city,
water lifting station. So to send the water its water source and its catchment area and
taken out of the water lifting station to the taking notice of all landforms. (4) To think
treatment plant, a water transmission system how to bring water from the place of origin to
has to be considered. A pump or sloped ground the place of purification. (5) Determining the
(if possible) is used to carry the water. While purification process by checking the properties
choosing a site following factors are of the water and determining the locations
considered, (1) The properties of water should and levels of the components of this process
not be affected, (2) water distribution system by making an illustrated plan. Arrangement
should be simplified, (3) availability of for storage of water after purification and
electricity or similar energy, (4) safety from transport to storage tanks. (6) To plan for
crises like flood, fire etc. Similarly, it is collection tanks and pipelines to be used for
important to decide the type of pump to use. water distribution and to determine the
Although low cost is the main principle, it pressure in it.
should also be seen that there should be After considering more than one
reliable working pumps. Normally more alternative plan for all the above factors, their
cost is determined, and a plan that is least
costly and acceptable is chosen. In this way,
when the plan is ready, the technical inspection
has to be done by the governmental
department. If the scheme is very large, all of
the above can be done by the public health
department of the state government. The first
phase water supply scheme is planned in
such a way that a second and third phase can
be added at any time. Therefore, if it becomes
difficult to get the financial support required
for the entire scheme at once, it can be
increased as the finance is available.
Cities usually have to fetch water from
far distances as they require more water.
Mumbai has to fetch water from distant lakes
3.3.3 Upadaan like Tansa-Vaitarna etc.
53
 3.3.5 Water tank
3.3.6 Water Purification centre
Cities that are close to the seashore (e.g.,
Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta, etc.) no longer Process of water purification -
have a choice but to supply water by distilling At the water treatment plant, it is churned
seawater in case of water shortage. Currently, after mixing chemicals. The water is filtered
such cities have to rely on distant lakes. As after the sludge settles down. To remove
these cities are ports, their population and unwanted gases (CO2, H2S), substances that
industries are increasing. Therefore, more give water a foul and unpleasant taste, water
attention has to be paid to the water supply of volatile substances (eg. chloroform) and
such cities. reduced compounds of iron and manganese
What is water purification ? in water, aeration is carried out. This process
The extent to which the water is purified is mainly used to purify groundwater. This
depends on its use. E.g. water for domestic process is also used to increase the amount of
use should be colorless, odorless, good in dissolved oxygen in groundwater. Removal of
taste and hygienically safe. Water for carbon dioxide from water reduces the amount
industrial use should not contain substances of metal corrosion in contact with water. It is
that adversely affect the production system then purified using disinfectant. The quality
and spoil the finished product. Water used for of purified water is tested by various tests.
agriculture should not contain substances that This pure water is stored in storage tanks
are harmful to soil and crops. Reservoir water mounted at high altitudes. These tanks are
contains a wide variety of minerals, carbon used to reach every house through main
compounds, salts, larvae, microorganisms, aqueduct, sub-aqueduct, plumbing.
viruses, various plants, etc. These substances As the rivers flow through the cities like
are soluble or suspended (hanging). This can Delhi, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Solapur, Pune in
lead to contamination of water and spread of the interior of the country, the source of water
many diseases. Also, this water is used in is the river and the dam on it, but due to the
various factories. To produce good products, possibility of discharge of dirt and sewage in
water of certain quality is required. So water the same river, care must be taken while
purification is very much essential. Chemicals locating the water lifting station. It is also
in water have adverse effects on the body. important to take proper care of disinfection.
Water with high levels of fluoride adversely Such cities are also more likely to get water by
affects the teeth of young children. For all digging wells.
these reasons, water is purified to make it as
clean, healthy and drinkable as possible.
54
 Primary process (water filtration) To pump

Water
Water storage Chemical
storage
Sand filter component
Chlorination

Water infiltration process

Stabilization

Florination- fluorine mixing Water tank

Chlorination
To pump
Water storage
House

Water storage Distribution

3.3.7 Process of Water purification
Maintenance Management:
all the chemicals are being applied properly
The responsibility of the water supply
and whether the stock of chlorine and
system is usually with the government till the
coagulants is adequate. Because it is important
completion of construction as per the cost of
to be aware that, if there are not enough
the scheme. But after completion of all the
stocks, people's health is likely to be
work it is handed over to the gram panchayat,
endangered until they are available. Also, at
municipality or corporation. In this system, it
least one standby machine, pump etc.must be
is more difficult to manage the water supply
ready. They are used when a faulty device or
of a big city than a small village. The
pump is being repaired. It is the job of the
management includes maintenance of various
chief manager to get the pump driver, chemist,
machines and instruments used. Eg. repairing
mechanic, technician to do the job properly.
a broken faucet or leaking pipelines, delivering
There should be a laboratory near the water
the water with the right amount of pressure
purification center in the city so that there is a
everywhere. Every day it is necessary to
possibility of experimenting with new types
examine the water coming from the source,
of discoveries or doing some new basic
the water coming out of the sedimentation
research.
tanks and filters, and the water available for
direct drinking at all such stages, to ensure Try this:
that the purification process is carried out Visit the nearest water treatment plant/
properly. It is also important to check whether water purification plant and observe the
purification process.

Exercise

1. Describe the stages of water flow from the dam to the house
2. What is water purification?
3. Briefly describe the process of water purification.
4. How is the water purification project maintenance system works?

55
 Unit 3 : Water Management
Chapter 4: What is water management?

What is management?
Observe and discuss.
Take an example of a small family. While Consider the concept of management
running a family, tasks need to be shared and note the highlights of your day-to-day
according to the needs, income, arrangements dealings.
and strengths of each member. Now, just as it
is possible for a big or small family, to live The need of water management
in an environment where the needs and Considering this element of water from
incomes are more or less dependent on the ancient times till now, many changes have
environment, it is necessary to make taken place in its use. Man in the early days
arrangements accordingly. The key to was using water for drinking and to fulfill his
ensuring a happy family life is the habit of own needs. After the discovery of agriculture,
keeping the needs to a minimum, a disciplined he started using water for agriculture. After
effort for a sufficient income, adequate the Industrial Revolution the use of water for
education to carry out one's role properly and industry and other ancillary businesses
then honest work on it. But if family members increased. The policy of storing water from
have no idea about the total household small and big dams on the river has been
income, will they limit their needs? Won't all adopted, which has resulted in the availability
planning go wrong? If the management is of some amount of water. But with the
required, good, then the habit of keeping increasing appetite for human development in
inward and outward accounts is important. the modern era, these natural resources have
Management is important in everyone's been greatly depleted and now the condition
life. Management is the condition available to of water supply in the world as a whole is
complete the task, action, planned use of the becoming more and more worrisome.
convenience, human and material resources The coming period will be difficult
etc. Water use is an integral part of daily life. considering the overall situation of population
So everyone needs to know about water growth, living standards and agricultural
management and its importance. practices. The water problem is one of the

Improper and
Control excessive use
Encouragement Supervision of water Civilization
Inadequate and increasing
utilization of demand of
irrigation water
capacity Water
Management condition in Lack of
Administration Guidance
Drought state planning
crisis

Unequal Water
distribution pollution
Planning Co-ordination of water
Organization resources

3.4.1 Management a mechanism 3.4.2 Challenges facing Maharashtra

56
biggest problems facing the world.
Unfortunately, this issue is still not taken
seriously. Water management is the policy of
allocating water on the principle of equal
justice for all, taking into account all the
problems in the three areas of drinking water
for a certain population, water for agriculture
and water for industry.
How will be the water management ?
For this, it is necessary to calculate the
total need of your water use, the exact
availability of water and the actual use of
water. If this calculation goes wrong, there 3.4.4 Water conservation
will be a problem of equitable water
2. Groundwater Recharge: Groundwater
distribution due to lack of planning despite
recharge not only increases the ground
water availability. The situation in the state is
water level but also allows proper use of
getting more serious day by day and further
rainwater. The government, NGOs and
measures are needed to reduce the severity of
all of us need to take the initiative to
the problem.
recharge the wells and tube wells to
effectively increase the groundwater
level.

3.4.3 Water management in ancient period 3.4.5 Recharge of tube well

1. Water Conservation : It is considered 3. To stop water pollution : Citizens should
as a permanent solution to the drought not perform rituals in rivers, streams,
situation. Water conservation through springs, wells, tube wells etc. or in the flow
water can slove the water problem of drinking water and should not immerse
permanently. Every drop of rain can be the objects obtained through it. Water
used if water conservation works are should be used sparingly. Disposal of
carried out in different parts of the state. substances like waste discharged from
If the policy of recharging of wells, factories , hazardous chemicals, hazardous
deepening and widening of runnels liquids, sewage etc. should be done in such
(nallas), diversion of water using small a way that it does not harm the environment.
dams in some places is implemented, Polluted water should be treated and
the problem of water can be solved reused.
permanently.
57
 3.4.6 Water pollution
4. Economical use of water in agriculture:
Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, micro
irrigation methods should be adopted to 3.4.8 Public participation for water
avoid wastage of water in agriculture. For management
this, along with orchards, government benefit area development, groundwater
subsidy of 75% to 100 % of the cost should recharge, farms, puddles/ponds seepage
be provided to the farmers for drip ponds, etc. Only then will water be used
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and micro properly, economically and in a planned
irrigation as per the requirement of all manner. For this, it is necessary to create
types of crops. Use vegetative or polythene awareness on a large scale through
cover around the fruit trees to prevent newspapers, radio and television. Along
wastage of water through evaporation. with this, there is a need to launch a
Also, in times of scarcity, the number of campaign like Tanker Mukti (freedom
branches and leaves of the tree should be from tankers ) and Jalsamriddh Gram
limited so that orchards will be able to (water rich villages) on the lines of Sant
withstand less water as evaporation Gadgebaba Gram Swachhta (cleaning
decreases. villages) and Hagandari Mukta (Free of
open defecation ) Abhiyan .
6. Sewage Recycling : Sewage can be
recycled by processing it in the same way
as paper, plastic, metal. About 21% (13.7
TMC) of the water available in Israel
comes from wastewater and wastewater
recycling. This water is used for agriculture.
In the same way, it is possible to recycle
water from the state, urban areas as well
as from industrial use, but for this, the
3.4.7 Sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation

5. Enhancing Public Participation: Due to

lack of public participation, despite
spending thousands of crores of rupees on
irrigation, there has not been much progress
in irrigation resources and irrigation sector
in the state. It is essential to increase public
participation in all these projects by
emphasizing and raising awareness about
the importance of water conservation,
3.4.9 Sewage purification project
58
 government and local self-governing instead of canals and sub-canals, large
bodies need to set up a competent system. wastage of water due to stagnation is
7. Full utilization of irrigation capacity: In stoped. Automatic gates should be installed
order to make full use of the constructed to prevent wastage of water at the time of
capacity of all the developed projects in the opening and closing of gates of canals and
storage capacity of the state, it is necessary sub-canals, thus saving water.
to reduce the gap between the constructed 8. Water audit: In order to use water
irrigation capacity and the actual irrigated carefully, tap water meters should be
area by giving priority to the incomplete installed in urban areas and water bills
works of canals and distribution. Apart should be charged according to meters so
from this, if the obligation to complete the that people can use water carefully like
irrigation project within the stipulated time electricity. Also, higher water users should
is imposed on the contractors, the concerned be taxed at a higher rate and wastewater
contractor should be fined and his license treatment systems should be set up from
should be revoked if necessary. Apart from the available funds. Apart from this, water
this, instead of discharging water from audit should be made mandatory for all
reservoirs into river basins on rainy days, it irrigation projects and water supply
should be stored in canals through ponds, agencies should be provided with cubic
percolation tanks / ponds, small and meter measuring devices, so that water
medium irrigation projects for water can be used carefully.
scarcity. Water is released from the dam 9. Water literacy: Considering the
into the main canal. At that time, thousands availability and need of water, the
of liters of water from the main canal flows knowledge and actual action to use the
into the soil on both sides and from the water available in the area carefully and
bottom. The main canals and sub-canals properly can be called water literacy. Now
need to be well cemented to prevent water this needs to be a mentality in the society
infiltration. Timely maintenance of canals that, saving water is the greatest asset.
and sub-canals can prevent wastage of Because only a water literate society can
water. If cement pipe or iron pipe is used take a leap towards development in the

Rain
Vapour

Pond Forest
Industry

Runoff
Spring
Vapour River

House Farm perculation

Hand pump
perculation Well

Soil layer

Aquifer
Free
groundwater
3.4.10 Water plan (source, uses, etc)

59
 future. But for that, along with the house, bikes, cars should not be washed
government, NGOs, media, various with water, wipe them with a damp cloth.
organizations and associations need to take The water tank in the house often overflows,
steps towards water literacy. an automatic switch off mechanism must
10. At the domestic level: Water saving needs be fitted there. Use water carefully and
to be done collectively as well as at encourage others to do the same.
individual level. It needs to be done from
your own home. By saving the water in our
daily work, we can help to reduce the water Try this:
scarcity crisis in the country / states. Now 1. List the ways in which we can save
days adopting some easy ways to save water in the home and the society.
water at home is needed. Take a small
2. Make rules to save water and put it in
amount of drinking water in a glass / as per
the front of the home and society.
need, it save water. Water the garden or
field before sunrise and after sunset to 3. If you see a leaking pipe or a broken
reduce water evaporation and save water. pipeline in a public place, immediately
Sewage water should be used for garden bring it to the notice of elders and try
plants. When washing, vegetables, fruits to fix it.
take water in a bucket and do not wash
them under the tap, it save water. In the
morning, while washing your face avoid Observe
wastage of water. While shaving, using a 1. Write briefly few incidents of water
mug instead of running tap water saves a wastage in your area ?
lot of water. Take a bath with a bucket of
water. Do not use a shower or running tap. 2. What are the habits to be adopted to
When washing utensils, take water in a avoid wastage of water in the house?
bucket and wash it. Don't wash utensils 3.
How water can save in society/
under the faucet. The tiles and stairs in the residential colony?

Exercise

1. What is management explain with an example.

2. Explain the need for water management.
3. What are the problems encountered in water management?
4. What are the important activities for water management?
5. How to save water in rural and urban areas?

60
 Unit 4 : Water Quality
Chapter 1 : Water Quality and Criteria 

Water quality
We have a glass of water in front of us. How does water get polluted?
Can we say for sure if it is drinkable or not?
 
Water is polluted both by nature and
The answer is ‘no’. It may contain metals,
humans. We get water because of rain. We
salts, chemicals or some organic matter. Some
have already understood how it rains through
of these are visible and some are invisible.
the water cycle. Due to heat the sea water
Some of them change color, taste and smell
evaporate, forming clouds of vapor, which
of water. If it is visible to the eye, it is easy to
are turned to land due to the wind and rain
estimate the quality of the water. But if they
falls. This rain water is pure. But when this
are not visible, then the quality cannot be
water travels from the highlands to the plane
checked by looking at the water alone.
grounds, it keeps coming in contact with
What exactly is water quality? various objects. Water keeps accepting good
 Water quality depends on the percentage and equally bad things. This can lead to
of dissolved physical and chemical substances pollution. Not only that, when it seeps in the
in the water. Water quality is considered to be ground, it goes through soil, loam, rocks.
degraded when these substances are mixed in They contain traces of minerals, salts and
more than a certain amount of water. Water chemicals. In Bangladesh and in our country,
quality does not need to be the same for all some regions like Kokan, arsenic has found
uses (such as water used for agriculture, in large quantity in the soil. As arsenic is a
factory, drinking water). Since man is a toxic chemical. So when this water is taken
sensitive animal, the quality of water he needs out of the ground and used for drinking
should be higher. Like that plants and land without purifying it, it goes into the human
also needs pure water. Polluted water spreads body and he has to suffer the consequences.
the contamination to grains and vegetables,
Like nature, human are also responsible
and as human use these, eventually humans
for increasing water pollution. Water pollution
will be harmed by it. Water supplied to the
has also been exacerbated by domestic
machines can be used even though it is of
sewage, water contaminated by chemical
comparatively low quality. The wastewater
fertilizers and pesticides, and water containing
from the city of Nagpur is purified and used
a mixture of chemicals and minerals from
to keep the machinery cool at the 'Koradi
factories. We get water from three sources
power plant' in Nagpur. This use is called
namely rivers, lakes and ground. Of these, the
water recycling. Reuse of the same water
river water flows and is oxygenated, and most
naturally reduces the demand for water.
of the water is pure, but the stagnant lake
Quality water is useful for the proper water and groundwater do not have such a
growth of human beings, animals and plants. process, so it is difficult to remove the
It is unfortunate that approximately 29% of pollution.
the world's population today does not have
access to safe drinking water. Consumption In our country, sewage generated in
of such water leads to various ailments. Water homes, farms and factories is discharged into
quality can be enhanced by natural and the drains without being treated. These runnels
chemical action. flow into the river. As a result, all the rivers
in our country are polluted. Bathing in the
61
water of some rivers can have adverse effects pH of some substances are as follows :
on your body. Water resources are already
limited and if there is pollution, the availability Apple Juice : 3
of water is further reduced. For example, Orange Juice : 3.5
Powai Lake in Mumbai- despite having such Coffee : 5.5
a large reservoir in the center of the city, its Milk : 6.2
water is polluted and cannot be used for Soap Water : 10
drinking. So we have to fetch water from a Solution of bleaching powder : 12
distance of more than 100 km. Disolved Oxygen :
 
The most important factor in water
Water is always classified into surface
quality is the dissolved oxygen in the water.
water and groundwater. If surface water is
Fish and other living things in water need
to be purified, it can be easily purified. But oxygen to survive. Due to the movement of
if unclean/polluted water seeps into the air, oxygen enters from the surface of the
ground, it is extremely difficult to purify it. water and exists in a dissolved state. Oxygen
So seepage of this unclean/polluted water formed during the photosynthesis process of
into the ground must not be there. We aquatic plants, in wetlands or in mud is also
always have to be aware of that. soluble in water. This oxygen is useful for
fish and other living things to breathe. The
amount of oxygen in flowing and turbulent
Water quality Important concepts
water of streams or rivers is higher than that
pH (Potential of Hydrogen) of water : of stagnant lake water. This dissolution
 Depending on the amount of acidic or continues until saturation occurs.
alkaline substances mixed in the water, we There is a correlation between the
have a measure of pH. Universal indicator is temperature of water and the dissolved
use for measurement of pH. oxygen. It is lower in hot water and higher in
The numbers of 0 to 14 on the given cold water. The amount of dissolved oxygen
scale are indicated by different coloured can be increased by creating artificial
marks. It indicate the amount of acidic turbulence in the water or by exposing the
substances decreases from 0 to 7 and increases oxygen to the water. In short, the amount of
alkaline substances from 7 to 14 and 7 number dissolved oxygen depends on temperature, air
indicates neutral pH e.g. Rainwater. Running pressure, and salinity of the water. The oxygen
water pH levels are generally 6.5 to 8.5. level is higher on the surface of the water, it
lowers as you go deep into the water. The
Groundwater pH levels, however, range reason for this is that the amount of oxygen
from 6.0 to 8.5. The higher the level of ions of naturally decreases as the aquatic life uses it.
iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc in the
water, that water is more acidic in nature. Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) :
Such water causes rust on metals, stains on The bacteria that maintain the quality of
clothes, its consumption harms human health. the water must get the required amount of
Conversely, an increase in calcium carbonate oxygen dissolved in water. If it is reduced, the
leads to an increase in salinity. bacteria will not be able to survive. Nature is
constantly supplying oxygen to the flowing
water. When water and oxygen come in
contact, the oxygen dissolves in it. Standards
have been set for how much it should be.

62
 If this amount is 1 to 2 mg per liter, then in the air. It affected the rain and the raindrops
water is considered to be very good. turned green.
It is considered satisfactory if it is 3 to 5 When there is first rainfall in Pune, it’s
mg. If it is 6 to 9 mg, it is considered to pH is 4 to 6. For this reason, when the roof
contain polluting organic matter. As the water is used for recharge, it is said that the
proportion increases, so does the pollution. first rain water should not seep into the
BOD levels of water required for ground.
agriculture and industry are also higher. Do you know
Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.) : Experiment of New Water in Singapore :
 
The chemical oxygen requirement of  Singapore is considered to be one of
water is examined from the point of view of the most advanced nations in the world.
checking the efficiency of the sewage The water problem of this country is very
treatment plant. If the COD of water is high, acute. Despite the good rains, the problem
it is considered to be harmful to aquatic is compounded by the fact that there are
organisms. If more organic matter is dissolved very few dams, rivers and streams in the
in water, then COD is higher. A mechanism is country and there is not enough space to
set up to reduce it. With the help of this store water. Therefore, this country imports
system, it is beneficial to reduce the COD in water from Malaysia to solve the water
the wastewater and then dump it in the river. problem. Water is imported through a long-
Most cities do not have such systems. That is term agreement with that country. But the
why the rivers of our country are found to be country is in a crisis of high demand and
in the grip of pollution. COD in water should limited supply. With a lot of research, this
not exceed 250 mg per liter. country has come up with the right answer
Is it must the Rainwater Be Pure? to the question. For this, they used two
 
Rainwater is pure because the water ways. The first way is to desalinate
evaporates due to heat, creating clouds and seawater. Seawater is made potable by
water droplets. In the past, distilled water was setting up big factories. In this way they
needed for injections. For fulfilling this need complete country's 35 % need of water.
of water they collect the rain water in rainy In spite of this, unable to fulfill the
days and consider that the water is pure. demand, they did another experiment. The
But one thing is not taken into wastewater generated in the cities is purified
consideration. When it starts to rain, the water to such an extent, that it is also used for
droplets travel from the clouds to the ground. drinking. For this 47 different tests are done
It is also important to consider how clean is and only then the water is used. This water
the air in the atmosphere. Soil particles in the is called New Water. Initially, the public
air, microscopic chemicals contained in the strongly opposed to use this water. But
smoke are polluting these raindrops and when through government efforts and with the
this drop falls on the ground, there is no help of media, they were convinced that the
guarantee that the water in it will be pure. In water was pure. Now the fears in the minds
Dombivali, an industrial estate in Mumbai's of the people have completely disappeared
suburbs, has received green rain. When this and it is being used for drinking water. In
was studied, it was found that there were this way 35% need completed. Gradually,
some chemical industries in this colony, the the water supply will be increased to such
chemicals were released in the form of vapor an extent that the country will not even
have to import water from Malaysia.

63
 Turbidity caused by small sand or mud
Let's Tell particles in the water and odor caused by
If you decide to reuse wastewater substances like hydrogen sulfide can affect
from your town or village, write down the the acceptability of water. All these offensive
plan for uses of that water. elements are reduced when water is filtered
properly. When water comes in contact with
 When considering water quality, one has clean air and sunlight the odor is reduced
to consider the purpose for which the water Following things are necessary to make
will be used. Water is used for various water drinkable :
purposes like drinking, domestic use,
1. The water should be good in taste. It should
swimming, agriculture, industries etc.
not be brackish, salty or oily.
Accordingly the required quality of water
changes. The amount of physical, chemical 2. It should be crystal clear, colorless and
and biological elements in water is the quality transparent (showing bottom).
of water. Water is a universal solvent. Water 3. The water should not have odor, no algae
has the capacity to absorb and dissolve as or oily layer.
many components as possible. According to
the standards set by the Indian Standards 4. Harmful chemicals should not be overdosed
Organization (ISO) for drinking water quality, or not at all.
water is said to be contaminated if one or 5. It should not contain harmful bacteria or
more components are found to exceed the viruses.
ceiling. This contaminated water is detrimental
6. The pH of water should be 6.5 to 8.5.
to the proper growth of living organisms i.e.
humans, animals and plants. Groundwater 7. Water should be stored in a clean, covered
quality is being affected by the increase in and convenient container.
total population, changing lifestyles,
increasing use of groundwater in rural and
urban areas, as well as the use of factories
and their wastewater, agriculture and its
fertilizers and pesticides.

4.1.2 Water quality testing machine

 Our body definitely needs certain amounts
of elements like iron, calcium, magnesium.
But if their amount in water increases, they
can be dangerous to all living organisms
including human beings. In addition, metals
4.1.1 Water Testing like arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium,
and lead from man-made substances can be
Although the taste, smell, color and
dissolved in water .
cleanliness of water are all indicators of water
quality, to determine its safety for drinking, it
is necessary to carry out physical, chemical
and biological testing of drinking water.
64
 Maximum limits of vital properties (or proportion of constituents) of water taken as per
Indian standards (Central Public Health Engineering Code of Practice) given in chart.

Water Quality Standards

Water Components Standards Permisibile Value

pH of Water 6.5-8.5 8.5

Hardness of water (CaCO3) 300 mg/liter 600 mg/liter

Chloride (Cl-) 250 mg/liter 1000 mg/liter

Sulphate (SO42-) 200 mg/liter 400 mg/liter

Florides (F-) 1.0 mg/liter 1.5 mg/liter

Nitrates (NO3-) 45 mg/liter 45 mg/liter

Calcium (Ca2+) 75 mg/liter 200 mg/liter

Iron (Fe2+) 0.3 mg/liter 0.3 mg/liter

Mangenese (Mn2+) 0.1 mg/liter 0.3 mg/liter

Copper (Cu2+) 0.05 mg/liter 1.5 mg/liter

Zink (Zn 2+) 5.0 mg/liter 15 mg/liter

Arcenic (As3+), Chromium (Cr2+),

0.05 mg/liter Not more than 0.05 mg/liter
Lead (Pb2+)

Cadmium (Cd2+) 0.01 mg/liter Not more than 0.01 mg/liter

Mercury (Hg2+) 0.001 mg/liter Not more than 0.001 mg/liter

TDS 500 mg/liter 2000 mg/liter

Microbes - The highest probability index 100 ml. The maximum limits of these
of Coliform species should be zero or less substances are mentioned. In addition, these
than one in 100 ml. Also the highest probability standards should include maximum limits on
index of the total number of microorganisms the amount of viruses, asbestos and chlorinated
in any sample should not be more than 10 in carbonaceous substances.

65
  The effects of harmful substances in water

Sr.No. Substances Consequences of crossing the limits

Due to turbidity, there is room for growth of pathogens

1. Turbidity in the water. People will not use muddy water for
drinking as it does not look attractive or clean.

If the concentration is less than 7 or more than 8.5, the

2. pH biochemical activities/processes in the body are not
carried out properly.

It takes time to cook food, soap does not foam, stains on

3. Heaviness (due to salts)
clothes and utensils, etc.

4. Iron and manganese In rare cases it can cause gastric ulcer.

More than 1000 mg per liter of chloride makes water

5. Chloride salty and people do not use it for drinking. Also, chloride
in water is an indicator of fecal contamination.

If the fluoride level is less than 1 mg per liter, spots will

6. Fluoride appear on the teeth. Fluoride levels greater than 1.5 mg
per liter cause bone diseases.

Helps to grow of algae and other aquatic plants and

7. Phosphate
water quality deteriorates.

8. Nitrate A life-threatening circulatory disease like 'Blue Baby'

Arsenic poisoning can cause skin damage, muscle

9. Arsenic weakness, and prolonged drinking of this water can lead
to skin or lung cancer.

Diseases like typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea, cholera,

10. Bacteria and viruses jaundice, polio, scabies are caused by pathogenic
bacteria and viruses in the water.

Diseases like stomach worms, malaria, filariasis etc. can

11. Worms and germs
be caused.

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In short, water quality is a very important as for drinking water for domestic use, water
factor in water use. That is, water quality is suitable for agriculture as well as water that
also an important factor in determining water can be used for factories. Of course, the
type associated with use. Roughly speaking, quality of drinking water must be highest in
there are various types of water quality such all these.

Exercise

1. Explain the concept of : BOD and COD‍.

2. Get more information about the New Water experiment and present it to the class.
3. Write any four criteria for drinking water quality.
4. Briefly describe the consequences of exceeding the quality limit.
5. Write a definition of contaminated water.
6. With the help of elders in the house, check the quality of water coming into your house
from the inspection center provided by the water supply department.
7. Inspect the pH of various water sources in the village or surrounding area.

67
 Unit 4 : Water Quality
Chapter 2 : How to maintain the quality of water?

As it flows over the soil, the substances

Let's Tell
on it enter the water. Water which seeps into
the soil, dissolves the organic and inorganic
What are the available sources of water?
substances in the soil in it.

The available sources of water can be Maintain quality of water

stated as follows. Water is classified by considering all the
1. Running water in a river or canal, rivulet factors. The water that comes to you is
purified as follows.
2. Water in dam
1. Removing floating substances
3. Water from natural ponds
2. Settling down the sludge
4. Groundwater
3. Softening the water if necessary
Many substances are mixed in the water
available in nature. Eg. Before reaching the 4. Filtration
ground, rainwater mixes with solids such as 5. Sterilize with chlorine gas.
dust, bacteria, pollen and gases like carbon
dioxide, oxygen etc.

Coagulants
Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentataion

Pre-
processed
water

Disinfection

Distribution

Consumption Processed water storage Filtration

4.2.1 Purification of water

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   Clear-looking water can contain invisible Bleaching powder with no chlorine is
pathogens. Water can be contaminated by inadvertently used for disinfection, but the
bacteria, germs and viruses. Drinking expected purification does not take place.
contaminated water can cause different That is why O.T. test is to be done.
diseases. Diseases like typhoid, cholera, [Orthotolidine (OT) test. The test needs to be
jaundice, dysentery, diarrhea, gastroenteritis done after a regular period. If the O.T. test is
are on the rise, so the water must be pure. For positive, well water or hand pump water
this, regular disinfection of water is essential. purification has the expected benefit of such
Chlorination is an easy way to disinfect. bleaching powder. However, special care has
Chlorination in the form of bleaching powder to be taken to maintain the quality of sterilized
is also done. This kills germs and viruses and water from time to time and prevent water
makes pure water easily available. Bleaching pollution.
powder (Also known as TCL powder) is After the supply of pure water to the
manufactured by mixing chlorine gas in lime houses, it is necessary to store that water
by machine. Fresh bleaching powder should properly. Proper handling of water stored at
contain more than 33% chlorine. To maintain home level is essential. Failure to do so would
this amount of chlorine, it is essential to keep affect the quality of the water and invite
bleaching powder in a sealed container, in a disease. Household storage utensils should be
closed bag but in a dry place. If this type of cleaned daily, must be kept in a clean place,
care is not taken properly, the chlorine gas in on a high level out of reach of children. Stored
the bleaching powder is released into the air water should be properly covered so that it is
over time and the disinfection power of the not contaminated by outside dust and debris.
powder weakens.

4.2.2 Stock making of drinking water

69
  Care should be taken not to touch pure Outbreaks of epidemic diseases exacerbate
water by hands as much as possible, for this during this time. Therefore, special care
use a water dispenser with a long rod. Never should be taken for disinfection on such days.
put the water pot in the ground. We see a pit In such cases, the amount of bleaching powder
dug in the ground and an earthen pot placed should be increased for disinfection. O.T.
in it. They do this to keep the water cool. Tests must be done regularly.
However, the water in such pots can be Water is aerated, drained, disinfected to
detrimental to health. If you use a glass for remove water color, odor, taste and all kinds
drinking water, it is not necessary to drink of bacteria. Alum, ferric chloride, ferrous
water by touching it to the mouth. It is sulphate are used to coagulate or flocculate
necessary to get in the habit of drinking water the suspended particles and clean the water
without touching the glass to the mouth. This effectively. Aeration is used to remove gases
will save water by reducing the amount of such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and
glass washing each time and will make it to increase the amount of dissolved oxygen in
easier to maintain purity. the water, as well as to separate the compounds
Surface and groundwater areas are more of dissolved iron and manganese..
likely to be polluted during monsoons.

Exercise

1. Which steps are used in purification of water ?

2. How to maintain the quality of water?
3. Take turbid water and roll a piece of alum in it and observe the effect on the water.
4. Prepare slogans on the topic of 'pure drinking water for health'.

70
 Unit 4 : Water Quality
Chapter 3 : Water pollution : Causes, Effects and Remedies

Humans have been using natural resources

Let's Tell
for various purposes. Considering the
available natural resources, at present many 1. Where does your household waste
problems are created in front of human beings. water go?
2. In your village, where waste water is
mixed, what substances are seen to
Think about it have accumulated ?
 There are two forms of river in the 3. Where do all these substances come
picture. A river flowing through nature from?
and a river flowing through human
Water pollutants :
habitat. What is the difference between
the two rivers? Discuss this. What do you  Water-pollutants are useless solid, liquid,
think what is the reason for the change in gaseous wastes (harm to living things) that
the river? mix with natural water.
Sources of water pollutants :
Water pollution is caused by natural
processes or human actions, are called
source of water pollutant
1. Household discharge - water coming out of
the safety tank, human urine in the urinals,
bath water, Animal excrement.
2. Substances from industrial premises- Oil,
grease released from washing vehicles
mixed with water
3. Agricultural Factors - Pesticides or
chemical fertilizers are given to the crops.
These chemicals get mixed in the river due
to the excess water given to the crops after
application.
4. Sewage, minerals and chemical wastes
coming out of the factory.
5. Sewage sludge and watershed sludge.
4.3.1 Observe
6. Hot water released after processing in a
Water pollution :
factory boiler.
 
The natural quality of water changes Think about it
directly and indirectly due to human action or
Check out the two scenes below.
other causes and water becomes unusable for
Make a list of things you need to do to
any purpose. This is called water pollution. prevent this from happening.

71
 Diseases caused by aquatic microorganisms:

Sr. Pathogenic micro Disease

no. organisms in water caused

1 Entamoeba histolytica Dysentery

2 Salmonella typhi Typhoid

3 Vibrio cholerae Cholera

4 Hepatitis (A, B, C, D, E) Jaundice

Plasmodium species
Through Anopheles
5 Malaria
mosquitoes (laying eggs
on contaminated water)

Do you know ?
 
We read news about river pollution
everywhere, but there is a river called
Umangot, about 95 km from Shillong, the
4.3.2 Water pollution capital of Meghalaya. This river is near a
small town Doki in Meghalaya. This city is
Observe above photograph : What are famous due to Umangot river. This city is
the possible consequences of this situation? near the border of Bangaladesh. This river
Enter their information in the table below. originates from Doki, Darang and shenang
village. The water of Umangot river is so
Factors Regarding Change observed clean, that the bottom of the river is visible.
Polluted Water due to pollution The vegetation at the bottom of the water is
Drinking ability covered with stones, pebbles, etc. The water
Colour looks like glass. The reflection of the boat
Smell running on the water seems to be lying at the
bottom of the river. The water of this river is
Fishes in the water
rich in fish. The river is always cleaned and
Aquatic vegetation no pollution is allowed. A large number of
Minerals in the tourists come to see the river. Tourists can
water take a boat tour of the river. However, keep
Diseases caused due in mind that if you pollute the river, you have
to water to pay a fine.
Effect on Let's Tell
groundwater 1. In what ways does sea pollution
occur?
Internet my friend : 2. Is the intensity of pollution is higher
on beach or in sea ?
Get information about polluted rivers
in the country from the internet. 3. Describe the accidents related to
pollution in the sea.

72
Marine oil spills and environmental stick. But when the bird comes in contact with
pollution : the spilled oil, the oil quickly penetrates into
There are mineral oil reserves in the sea their wings which affects its function and
and they are brought to the surface. In such making it impossible for it to fly. They become
cases oil spills in the sea due to human error. heavy and drown in the sea.
While oil is being traded from the Gulf to
other countries, the ships crashed, and millions Internet my friend :
of tons of oil spill on seawater. When this oil Find out information about the
reaches the coastal areas, it causes a lot of
pollution caused by oil spills in the sea
damage to the environment.
from the internet.
Do You Know ? Water Reservoirs and their pollution :
In August 2010, MSC Chitra and MV
Khalija-3 collided in the Arabian Sea near Collect the information
Mumbai. The collision caused a huge oil 1. Ask your grandparents about the lake in
spill in the sea. About 800 tones of oil the village.
spilled into the sea and spilled over a
2. Is the water of the lake in the city or in
distance of 100 to 120 km off the coast.
the village drinkable? Be aware of this.
Second incident happen in January
2017 near Kamraj port in Chennai. About
60 tons of oil spilled from the collision of Lakes :
the two ships.
In the past, lakes existed according to the
availability of water in each village. Some
towns were famous for lakes. Today there are
Just Think few lakes left in such villages or towns. Why
would this have happened? You can see that
Oil spills caused by shipwrecks, spill the water in the village or in the city is
over into coastal areas due to high tides contaminated by mixing with the sewage. In
and strong winds. All that time, there is a some religious occasions, people leave oil
lot of damage to the aquatic life on the lamps, Idol immersion, Nirmalya immersion
beach. It causes harm to Oysters those in the pool. The oil affects the eggs of the
sticking to the rocks on the shore harm. fishes. The eggs are destroyed. Also, some
Animals like crabs that live in burrows substances are added to fish as food. Their
are die. They can't breathe because of the decomposition increases the amount of
oil sticking to their bodies, so they die. carbon dioxide in lake water, and affects
aquatic life. Living things die because they do
    Oil spill also affects mangroves. The not get enough oxygen. The process of
roots of the mangroves are on the ground. decomposition in water produces hydrogen
Once the oil coats on the roots, the biological sulfide gas which results in bad odor in the
breathing process by the roots stops and the water. Increasing urbanization has led to the
mangroves dry up. Due to the oil layer on the addition of waste to the lakes, reducing the
leaves, the leaves turn yellow and then fall size of the lakes. In some villages, the whole
off. Birds are most affected. Their wings have lakes themselves have been destroyed. Either
a natural thin oil layer, so that water does not buildings or grounds are seen there.

73
 3. Establishment of boards for prevention and
Collect the information control of water pollution.
1. Make a chart of the number and names
Departments have been set up at the level
of lakes in different cities/towns of
of Central and State Governments for the
Maharashtra.
implementation of this Act. The Central
2. Find out the number of lakes that Pollution Control Board (PCB) and the State
existed in the past and the number of Pollution Control Board (SPCB) are
lakes that exist now. responsible for controlling water pollution.
Functions of Maharashtra Pollution
Wetlands : Control Board :
 Have you noticed that there are wetlands 1. Planning of comprehensive programs for
in various places around you? Observe the pollution prevention and control.
plants growing there. Observe the birds that
come there. They have become extinct due to 2. Inspection of sewage or industrial
encroachment of structures on the wetlands wastewater recycling reaction, waste
and mixed sewage. A variety of birds are disposal facilities.
found in the wetlands. Wetlands are home to 3. Cooperation and promotion of ecofriendly
birds. programs like pollution control, reusing
and recycling of waste materials.
Do you know? 4. Educate and guide new entrepreneurs by
explaining appropriate technology and
A conference was held on the
methods of pollution control.
importance of Ramsar, an urban wetland
on the Caspian Sea in Iran. February 2 is 5. To create awareness among the people for
celebrated as World Wetlands Day to a clean and healthy environment as well
promote the importance of wetlands in as to address pollution related complaints.
human life and protect them from Powers of Maharashtra Pollution Control
pollution. The first day was celebrated in Board :
1997.
1. Enforcement of Environment Act and
Pollution Control Act.
 The Central Government has issued laws
and guidelines for the prevention and control 2. Determining pollution standards and
of pollution. Some laws have been enacted checking their compliance.
for this purpose. Let us take a look at these 3. Monitoring and controlling all sources of
laws. pollution.
Water (Pollution Prevention and Control) 4. To fulfill the legal requirements by giving
Act 1974 : instructions within the prescribed period.
 
The Water Act has laid down some 5. Resolving worrying cases violating
guidelines for determining water pollution pollution regulations.
and water quality values. It determines
6. To sue in a court of law in a matter of
punitive action for water pollution or for
concern.
non-compliance with these principles.
Features of Water Pollution Act :
1. Prevention and control of water pollution.
2. Water conservation or restoration.

74
 Exercise

1. If there is water pollution in your area, write a report and submit it to the class.
2. Write down the factors that cause water pollution.
3. Explain with the example how the oil spill in the sea harms the environment.
4. Prepare and present to the class what planning needs to be done at the village / city
level to prevent water pollution caused by sewage in your village or city.

75
Notes

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