Periodic Table

Updated as of OCT 2020

CHEMISTRY

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Periodic Table

Periodic Classification
 Johan Dobereiner grouped the elements in such a way that elements having similar
properties reappear at a regular interval.

 He noticed that the middle element of each of the Triads had an atomic weight
about half way between the atomic weights of the other two.

 Dobereiner’s Triads: Li, Na, K and Ca, Sr, Ba, And Cl, Br, I.

 John Alexander Newlands profounded the Law of Octaves.

 He arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic weights and noted that
every eighth element had properties similar to the first element.

 Newland’s octaves: Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Na.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

 Mendeleev stated that the properties of elements are the periodic function of their
atomic masses or atomic weights.

 Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns, which were
called Periods and Groups respectively. There were 8 groups and 7 periods in this
table.

 In this table Mendeleev left some space for the elements which were not discovered
at that time e.g. Eka-boron, eka-aluminum and eka-silicon.

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Limitations of Mendeleev’s table:

 The place of Hydrogen was not fixed.

 Isotopes of all elements also posed challenge to this table.

 Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner when we go from one element
to another.

 Metals and non-metals were not placed separately in this table.

Modern Periodic Table

 It was given by Moseley.

 According to this the physical and chemical properties of the elements are the
periodic function of their atomic numbers.

 The horizontal rows were called periods and the vertical columns are called groups.

 There are 18 groups and 7 periods in modern periodic table.

 The first period contains 2 elements and the subsequent period consists of 8, 8, 18,
18, 32 elements respectively and the seventh period is incomplete.

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Characteristics of Periods
Valency
 On moving from left to right in each short period, the valency of elements increases
from 1 to 4 and then decrease to 0 (Zero).

 Elements in the same period have different valencies.

 The valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons

present in the atom of the element.

 The number of electrons lost or gained by one of an element to achieve the nearest
inert gas electron configuration, gives us the valency of the element.

Valence Electrons
 On moving from left to right in a period, the number of valence electrons in elements
increases from 1 to 8.

 The first element in every period has 1 valence electron and the last element in
every period has 8 valence electrons.

 The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.

Size of Atoms
 On moving from left to right in a period of the periodic table, the size of atoms
decreases or we can say that atomic size (Atomic radius) decreases.

 In the third period Sodium atom is the biggest whereas chlorine atom is the smallest
in size.

 As we move from left to right, the atomic number increases (Number of protons and
electrons increases). Due to large positive charge on the nucleus, the electrons are
pulled in more close to the nucleus and the size of atom decreases.

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Metallic Character
 On moving from left to right in a period, the metallic character if elements decreases
(but the non-metallic character increases).

 The greatest metallic character is found in the elements on the extreme left side of a
period and the greatest non-metallic character is found in the elements on the right
side of a period.

 Metals lose electrons and form positive ions, so metals are also called
electropositive elements. And on the other hand non-metals are called
electronegative elements.

 On moving from left to right in a period, the electropositive character of elements

decreases, but the electronegative character increases.

Chemical Reactivity
 On moving from left to right in a period, the chemical reactivity of elements first
decreases and then increases.

 In the third period, we see Sodium is very reactive but magnesium is less reactive.

 In the third period, the first element, sodium has 1 valence electron which it can lose
easily, so it is very reactive. But as we move to right side the reactivity decreases to
silicon, but after that from phosphorus it again increases.

Nature of Oxides
 On moving from left to right in a period, the basic nature of oxides decreases and
the acidic nature of oxides increases.

 As we take example of third period, Sodium is highly basic, whereas calcium is

highly acidic.

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Characteristics of Groups
Valency
 Since the number of valence electrons is same in a group, all elements have the
same valency.

 The valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons

present in the atom of the element.

 The number of electrons lost or gained by one of an element to achieve the nearest
inert gas electron configuration, gives us the valency of the element.

Valence Electrons
 All the elements of a group have the same number of valence electrons.

 Group 1 elements (Li, Na, K) are monovalent i.e. having one valence electron.

 All the elements in group 2 have 2 valence electrons and so on. Group 13 have 3
valence electrons and similarly group 14, 15, 16, 17.

 All the elements in group 18 have 8 valence electrons (except helium- 2 valence
electrons), and are called inert gases.

Size of Atoms
 On going down in a group of the periodic table, the size of atoms increases.

 The smallest atomic size is found at the top of the group whereas the largest atomic
size is found in the lowest part of the group.

 When we move from top to bottom in a group, a new shell of electrons is added to
the atoms, due to this the size of the atom also increases.

 In group 17 of Halogens, the atomic size increases on going down from fluorine to
iodine.

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Metallic Character
 On going down in a group of the periodic table, the metallic character of elements
increases.

 Metals lose electrons and form positive ions, so metals are also called
electropositive elements. And on the other hand non-metals are called
electronegative elements.

 On moving down in a group, the electropositive character of elements increases, but

the electronegative character (non-metallic) decreases.

Chemical Reactivity
 All the elements in a group have similar electronic configuration, so all the elements
of a group show similar chemical properties.

 The chemical reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group of the periodic
table.

 The chemical reactivity of non-metals decreases on going down in a group of the

periodic table. Example: The chemical reactivity in group 17, decreases from fluorine
to iodine.

Nature of Oxides
 On going down in a group of periodic table, there is no change in the nature of
oxides of elements.

Types of Elements
 Depending upon the type of orbital receiving the valence electrons, the elements
can be classified into four following blocks:

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s- Block Elements
 In these elements, valence electron enters in s-orbital.

 The elements of Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) which
have ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic configuration belong to the s-Block
Elements.

 They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.

 These elements are soft metals, electropositive and form basic oxides.

 Because of high reactivity they are never found pure in nature.

 The compounds of the s-block elements, with the exception of those of lithium.

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p-Block Elements
 Valence electron enters in p-orbital.

 The p-Block Elements comprise those belonging to Group 13 to 18 and these

together with the s-Block Elements are called the Representative Elements or Main
Group Elements.

 The outer electronic configuration of these elements is ns2 np1.

 It is interesting to note that the non-metals and metalloids exist only in the p-block of
the periodic table.

 The non-metallic character of elements decreases down the group. In fact the
heaviest element in each p-block group is the most metallic in nature.

 At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell ns2np6
configuration.

d-Block Elements
 These elements are called transition elements.

 In d-block elements, valence electron enters in d-orbital.

 Valence shell electronic configuration is (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2.

 This block contains the elements of group 3 to 12 of the periodic table.

 The three series of transition metals are known 3d series, 4d series and 5d series.

f-Block Elements
 The f-block consists of two series lanthanides and actinides of the periodic table.

 Electronic configuration of actinides are irregular.

 Electronic configuration of lanthanides is 6s25d0-24f1-14.

 Elements of this block are also called inner-transition elements.

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Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids

Metals
 Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left side
of the Periodic Table.

 Metals are usually solids at room temperature, and have high melting and boiling
points. They conduct heat and electricity.

 They are malleable (Can be flattened into thin sheets) and ductile (Can be drawn
into long wires).

 Exception:

1. Mercury is a metal that is liquid at room temperature.

2. Gallium and cesium have very low melting points (303K and 302K,
respectively).

Non - Metals
 Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.

 In a horizontal row, the property of elements change from metallic on the left to non-
metallic on the right.

 Non-metals are usually solids or gases at room temperature with low melting and
boiling points.

 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Most non-metallic solids are brittle
and are neither malleable nor ductile.

 The nonmetallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the
Periodic Table. The only liquid non-metal is Bromine.

 Exception:

1. Boron and carbon has high melting points

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Metalloids
 These elements show properties that are characteristic of both metals and
nonmetals are called Semi-metals or Metalloid.

 There are 7 metalloids i.e. Boron, Silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium
and polonium.

 From left to right the order of increasing metallic character is: P<Si<Be<Mg<Na.

Halogens
 The general electronic configuration of halogens is ns2np5.

 Being highly reactive, these elements always occur in combined form, these are all
colored elements as they absorb visible light.

Fluorine (F):

 It is a pale yellow gas, it is the most reactive element in halogens. It is the most
electronegative element.

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Chlorine (Cl):

 It is also called Oxymuriatic acid. It can be manufactured by the electrolysis of Brine.

 It is a greenish yellow gas with pungent and suffocating odour. It is soluble in water
and is heavier than air.

 It is used in making bleaching powder (CaOCl2), extraction of gold and platinum,

making of poisonous gases such as phosgene, tear gas, mustard gas etc.

 It is also used in making dyes, drugs, compounds such as CCl4 (Tetra

chloromethane), DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) etc.

Bromine (Br):

 It is a reddish brown liquid, it is found in sea water (nearly 0.068%).

 In India, it is found in Rann of Kutch (Gujarat) in the form of brine.

 It acts as an oxidizing agent and bleaching agent, it is used in the manufacturing of

bromide, bromate etc.

 AgBr (Silver Bromide) is used in photography, KBr (Potassium Bromide) is used in

sleeping drugs, and pain reliever, it is also used in making tear gas.

Iodine (I):

 It is found in seawater and seaweeds as iodides, it is non-metallic shining solid.

 In human body it exists in the form of thyroxine, which is secreted through thyroid
gland.

 It is used in laboratory reagent, as disinfectant and in antiseptic medicines.

Nobel Gases
 Group 18 of the modern periodic table consists of noble gases.

 Examples: Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

 These gases are inert under normal conditions and that’s why are called Noble
gases.

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 The valence shell of the inert gases is completely filled that’s why they do not react
with any element.

Helium (He):

 The main source of He is natural gas. Helium and neon are found in minerals of
radioactive origin.

 It is non-inflammable, non-volatile light gas, so it is used in filling balloons and in

aircraft tyres.

 Liquid He is used in maintaining very low temperature in research. Mixture of

Hydrogen and Helium is used by divers for respiration as helium is soluble in blood
at very high temperature.

Neon (Ne):

 It is used in discharge tubes and fluorescent bulbs for advertisement display

purpose, neon gas is used in green houses.

 It is also used in neon lamp which are used to give symbolic indication to the
aircrafts pilot at the airport.

Argon (Ar):

 It is used to provide inert atmosphere in high temperature metallurgical process, arc

welding of the alloys and for filling electric bulbs.

Krypton (Kr):

 It produces characteristic lines in the yellow and green region of the spectrum, it is
used at airport runway and approach light.

Xenon (Xe):

 Xe-Kr is used in high intensity photographic flash tubes.

Radon (Re):

 Radon is a radioactive noble gas, which is used for the treatment of cancer.

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Periodic Trends in Physical Properties

Atomic Radius
 Atomic radius of an atom is defined as the distance between the centre of its
nucleus and the outermost shell containing the valence electron.

 It is not possible to measure the radius of an atom directly.

Covalent Radius
 It is one-half of the inter-nuclear distance between two identical atoms linked
together by a single covalent bond.

 The formation of covalent bond involves the overlapping of atomic orbitals and it
reduces the expected inter-nuclear distance. Therefore covalent radius is always
shorter than the actual atomic radius.

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Ionic Radius
 It is defined as the distance from the centre of nucleus of the ion up to which it
exerts its influence on the electron cloud of the ion.

 Ions are formed when an atom loses or gains electrons.

 When an atom loses an electron it becomes cation and when it accepts an electron
it becomes anion.

Ionization Energy
 It is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely
bound electron from the valence shell of the isolated neutral gaseous atom in the
isolated neutral gaseous atom in its ground state.

 It generally increases along a period from left to right due to increase in effective
nuclear charge.

 The Ionization energy decreases along a group on moving downwards due to

increase in atomic size.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

 It is defined as the enthalpy change accompanying the process when an extra
electron is added to neutral gaseous atom to convert it into an anion.

 The energy released during the process is called electron affinity (EA).

 EA increases across a period from left to right but EA of group-2, group-0 and group
-15 is zero or positive.

 EA decreases on moving down the group, it is highest for chlorine.

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Electronegativity
 It is defined as the relative tendency of an element present in a covalently bonded
molecule, to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself.

 It is not a measurable quantity.

Variation of Electronegativity in a Group

 The electronegativity generally decreases down a group. As we move down in a
group the atomic radius increases and the nuclear attractive force on the valence
electron decreases, hence the electronegativity decreases.

 Noble gases are assigned zero electronegativity.

Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

Valence or Oxidation States
 The valence of an atom is the combining capacity relative to hydrogen atom.

 It is generally equal to the total number of electrons in the valence shell or equal to
eight minus the number of valence electrons.

Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States

 The valence of an atom primarily depends on the number of electrons in the valence
shell.

 As the number of valence electrons remains same for the elements in same group,
the maximum valence also remains the same.

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Properties of Second Period Elements

 The elements of the second period have only four orbitals (2s & 2p) in the valence
shell and have a maximum co-valence of 4, whereas the other members of the
subsequent periods have more orbitals in their valence shell and shows higher
valences.

 On moving diagonally across the periodic table, the second and third period
elements show certain similarities.

Periodic trends and Chemical Reactivity

 The physical and chemical properties of elements depend on the valence shell.

 The elements on the left side of the periodic table have less ionization energy and
readily lose their valence electrons.

 The elements on the right side of the periodic table have high electron affinity and
readily accept electrons.

 As a consequence of this, elements of these extreme ends show high reactivity

when compared to the elements present in the middle.

 The noble gases having completely filled electronic configuration neither accept nor
lose their electron readily and hence they are chemically inert in nature.

Hydrogen
Position of Hydrogen in Periodic Table
 Hydrogen element has been placed at the top of group 1, above the alkali metals
because the electronic configuration of hydrogen is similar to those of alkali metals.

 Both hydrogen and alkali metals have 1 valence electron.

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 Since hydrogen atom is very small in size, many properties of hydrogen are different
from those of alkali metals. Therefore, while discussing the alkali metals of group 1,
hydrogen is never included.

 Hydrogen resembles with alkali metals as well as with halogens in some properties,
so it is best placed separately in the periodic table.

Isotopes of Hydrogen
 Hydrogen has three isotopes, namely Protium, Deuterium, Tritium.

Preparation of Hydrogen
 High purity hydrogen is obtained by the electrolysis of water containing traces of
acid and alkali or the electrolysis of aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide using a nickel anode and iron cathode.

 Hydrogen can be prepared in laboratory by the reaction of metals, such as zinc, iron,
tin with dilute acid.

Properties of Hydrogen
1. Physical properties:

 Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, lightest and highly flammable

gas.

 It can be liquefied under low temperature and high pressure, hydrogen is a

good reducing agent.

2. Chemical properties:

 Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to give water. Hydrogen itself acts as a reducing
agent.

 Hydrogen reacts with halogens to give halides.

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Uses of Hydrogen
 Majorly hydrogen is used in synthetic application, one such process is Haber
process which is used to synthetic ammonia in large scales.

 Ammonia is used for the manufacture of chemicals such as nitric acid, fertilizers and
explosives.

 Liquid Hydrogen is used in rocket fuel.

 Hydrogen is also used in fuel cells for generating electrical energy. The reversible
uptake of hydrogen in metals is also attractive for rechargeable metal hydride
battery.

Points to Remember
 Only 63 elements were discovered at the time of Mendeleev when he was
composing the periodic table.
 Inert gases were not found at Mendeleev’s time.
 Hydrogen is the only element which exists without neutrons.
 Hydrogen is very light gas and is not held by the earth’s gravity. Thus no free
hydrogen is present on earth.
 Solar energy of sun is due to the conversion of hydrogen into helium.
 Hydrogen is not used in balloons as it is inflammable.
 Majority of elements in periodic table are metals.
 There are 7 periods and 18 groups in modern periodic table.
 Group 18 elements are called noble gases.

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