Understanding Self

inward, and analyze the true nature and values

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE that are guiding your life.
- He added self-knowledge would open your
- Philosophy employs the inquisitive mind to
eyes to your true nature, which contrary to pop
discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and
culture, is not about what you own, how many
principles of everything.
“Likes” you get in your social media posts, or
- It goes beyond scientific investigation by
how successful you are in your career.
exploring all areas of knowledge such as
- In fact, yourself is not even your body.
religion, psychology, politics, physics, and
According to Socrates, the state of your inner
even medicine.
being (soul/body) determines the quality of
- The etymological definition of philosophy
your life.
“love of wisdom” could pertain to the desire
for truth by formulating never ending Socrates said existence is of two kinds:
questions to provide answers to every inquiry 1. The visible – existence changes
about the nature of human existence 2. The invisible – remains constant.
- The nature of the self is a topic of interest - The body, which is visible, changes; the
among philosophers. other part, the kind that is invisible to
humans yet sensed andunderstood by the
SOCRATES – an unexamined life is not worth
mind remains constant.
living
- “When the soul and body are together nature
- Self is synonymous with the soul. assigns our body to be slave and to be ruled
- Full power of reason on the human self: who and the soul tobe ruler and master”
we are, who we should be, and who we will (Hamilton et al., 1961; Organ, 1986).
become. - However, Socrates said that the body was a
reluctant slave, and the soul gets dragged
Two Dichotomous Realms:
toward what isalways changing. This would
1. Physical – changeable, transient, imperfect =
leave the soul confused (Organ, 1986).
BODY
2. Ideal – unchanging, eternal, immortal = SOUL - The core of Socratic ethics is the concept of
virtue and knowledge.
- Man must live an examined life and a life of
- Virtue is the deepest and most basic
purpose and value.
propensity of man.
- Socratic method: introspection, a method of
- Knowing one’s own virtue is necessary
carefully examining one’s thoughts and
and can be learned.
emotions to gain self-knowledge.
- Since virtue is innate in the mind and self-
Socrates believed that philosophy had a very knowledge is the source of all wisdom, an
important role to play in the lives of the people. individual may gainpossession of oneself
- According to him, self-knowledge or the and be one’s own master through
examination of oneself, as well as the question knowledge.
about how one ought to live one’s life, are very
important concerns because only by knowing PLATO – the self is an immortal soul
yourself can you hope to improve your life,
Three-Part Soul/Self:
(Rappe, 1995).
1. Reason – divine essence that enables us to
- He believed that you as a person should
think deeply, make wise choices.
consciously contemplate, turn your gaze
2. Physical Appetite – basic biological needs.

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3. Spirit/Passion – basic emotions (love, anger, emotions.
empathy) 3. Rational – intellect to know and understand
- The three elements of our selves are in a things.
dynamic relationship with one another, - The rational nature of the is to lead a good,
sometimes in conflict. flourishing and fulfilling life (self-
- When conflict occurs, Plato believes it is the actualization).
responsibility of Reason to sort things out and
- Aristotle’s discussion about the self-centers
exert control,restoring a harmonious
on the kinds of soul possessed by man. He
relationship among the three elements of our
introduces threekinds of soul:
selves.
1. Vegetative soul includes the physical body
- Plato believes that genuine happiness can
that can grow.
only be achieved by people who consistently
2. Sentient soul includes sensual desires,
make sure thattheir Reason is in control of
their Spirits and Appetites. feelings, and emotions.
- The harmonious integration under the control 3. Rational soul is what makes man human.
of Reason is the essence of Plato’s concept of - It includes the intellect that allows man to
justice. know and understand things
- If man lives in accordance to his nature, then - He suggests that the rational nature of the
he is giving justice to his existence. self is to lead a good, flourishing, and
fulfilling life (self-actualization).
Theory of Forms - The pursuit of happiness is a search for a
1. World of Forms (non-physical ideas) – real, good life that includes doing virtuous actions.
permanent. - In saying this, he posits that part of the
2. World of Sense (reality) – temporary, only a rational soul is characterized by moral
replica of the ideal world. virtues such as justice andcourage.
- Man should give more importance to it than
the physical body which resides in the world of ST. AGUSTINE – the self has an immortal soul.
sense.
- Plato claims that the sensible world is - The physical body is different from and
dependent on the ideal world where the inferior to the immortal soul.
concept of the soulbelongs. - The body is the “spouse” of the soul, both
- Since the soul is regarded as something attached to one another by a “natural
permanent, man should give more appetite”.
importance to it than thephysical body - The soul is what governs and defines man.
which resides in the world of sense. - Humankind is created in the image and
likeness of God: therefore, the human
ARISTOTLE – the soul is the essence of the self. person is always gearedtowards the good.
- Soul: a set of defining features and does not - The self is known only through knowing
consider the body and soul as separate God.
entities. - For him, “Knowledge can only come by
- Anything with life has a soul. seeing the truth that dwells within us”.
- Humans differ from other living things - God is transcendent and the self seeks to be
because of their capacity of rational thinking. united with God through faith and reason.
In his mission to discover the truth on the existence
Three Kinds of Soul
of God, Augustine develops the fundamental
1. Vegetative – physical body.
conceptof the human person,
2. Sentient – sensual desires, feelings, and

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 - and thus provides the philosophical (or soul) as non-material, immortal,
principle, “I am doubting; therefore, I am”. conscious being, andindependent of the
- St. Augustine believes that the body is united physical laws of the universe.
with the soul, so that man may be entire and - In contrast, the physical body is a material,
complete. mortal, non-thinking entity, fully governed
- As a religious philosopher, he by the physicallaws of nature.
contemplates on the nature of man with - The soul and body are independent of one
emphasis on the soul as animportant another, and each can exist and function
element of man. without the other.
- Augustine espouses the significance of - The essential self- the self as a thinking entity-
reflection, as well as the importance of is distinct from the self as a physical body.
prayers and confessionsto arrive at a - Simply put, the thinking self can exist
justification for the existence of God. independently of the physical body.

RENE DESCARTES – I think therefore I am. JOHN LOCKE – the self is consciousness.
“cogito ergo sum”.
- “tabula rasa” a blank slate.
- The act of thinking about self of being self- - The self is constructed primarily from sense
conscious is proof that there is a self. experience.
- Essence of the human self a thinking entity that - Conscious awareness and memory of previous
doubts, understands, analyzes, questions and experiences are keys to understanding the self.
reasons. - Using the power of reason and introspection
Two Dimensions of the Human Self enables one to understand and achieve
1. Thinking Entity – soul, non-material, immortal; accurate conclusionsabout the self (personal
conscious being. entity).
2. Physical Body – material, non-thinking entity. - Locke believes that the essence of the self is
(The soul and body are independent of one another; each its conscious awareness of itself as thinking,
can function without the other.) reasoning, andreflecting identity.
- The Latin phrase Cogito ergo sum- I think - He contends that consciousness accompanies
therefore I am” is the keystone of Descartes’ thinking and makes possible the concept
concept of self. people have of aself.
- For him, the act of thinking about the self-of - Self-consciousness is necessary to have a
being self-conscious is in itself proof that there coherent personal (self) identity or
is a self. knowledge of the self as aperson.
- He is confident that no rational person will - Consciousness is what makes identity of a
doubt his or her own existence as a conscious person similar in different situations.
thinking entity-while we are aware of - Locke is proposing that people could use the
thinking about ourselves. power of reason to gain knowledge and
- For Descartes, this is the essence of the consequently usethis knowledge to
human self- a thinking entity that doubts, understand experiences.
understands, analyzes,questions, and reasons. - Knowledge is based on careful observation of
- He contends further that if man reflects experiences.
thoughtfully, he will realize that there are two - Reason plays an important role in helping to
dimensions of thehuman self: a thinking figure out significance of sense experience
entity and a physical body. and to reachintelligent conclusions.
- He introduces the idea of the thinking self

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- Thus, using the power of reason and individualimpression that they can call the
introspection enables one to understand and self where the self is the totality of a person’s
achieve accurateconclusions about the self conscious life.
(or personal identity). - Subsequently, the idea of personal identity is a
result of imagination.
DAVID HUME – there is no self.
IMMANUEL KANT – we construct the self.
- What people experience is just a bundle or
collection of different perceptions. -Transcendental deduction of categories:
Distinct Identities: the self, in the form of consciousness,
1. Impressions – basic sensations of people’s utilizes conceptualcategories to construct
experience, vivid perceptions. and orderly and objective world.
- The self is an organizing principle that makes
2. Ideas – thoughts and images from a unified and intelligible experience possible.
impressions, less lively and vivid. - The self-constructs its own reality, creating a
- “Different sensations are in a constant world that is most significantly “mine”.
continuum that is invariable and not - For Kant, it is the self that makes experiencing
constant, it cannot be fromany of these an intelligible world possible because it is the
impressions that the idea of self is derived self that is actively organizing and
and consequently, there is not self”. synthesizing all of our thoughts and
- The idea of personal identity is a result of perceptions.
imagination. - The self, in the form of consciousness,
utilizes, conceptual categories which he calls
- Hume suggests that if people carefully
transcendental deduction of categories, to
examine their sense experience through the
construct an orderly and objective world that is
process ofintrospection, they will discover
stable and can be investigatedscientifically.
that there is no self. - Kant believes that the self is an organizing
- According to him, what people experience is principle that makes a unified and intelligible
just a bundle or collection of different experience possible.
perceptions. - It metaphorically above or behind sense
- He maintains that if people carefully examine experience, and it uses the categories of our
the contents of their experience, they will mind to filter, order, relate, organize, and
find that thereare only distinct entities: synthesize sensations into a unified whole.
impressions and ideas. - In other words, the self-constructs its own
- Impressions are the basic sensations of reality, actively creating a world that is
people’s experience such as hate, love, joy, familiar, predictable, and most significantly,
grief, pain, cold, andheat. They are vivid mine.
- The self is the product of reason, a regulative
perceptions and are strong and lively.
principle, because the self regulates
- Ideas are thought and images from
experience by making unified experiences
impressions so they are less lively and vivid. possible.
- Hume further posits that different - The self transcends experience because the
sensations are in a constant continuum that mind can grasp aspects of reality which are not
is invariable and notconstant. limited to thesenses.
- He argues that it cannot be from any of these - Through rationality, people are able to
impressions that the idea of self is derived and understand certain abstract ideas that have no
consequently,there is no self. corresponding physical object or sensory
- Hume skeptical claim on this issue is that experience.
people have no experience of a simple and

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SIGMUND FREUD – the self is multilayered. The mind expresses the entire system of
-
thoughts, emotions, and actions that make up
- Three Layers of the Self: the human self.
1. Conscious – “reality principle”, - Gilbert Ryle believes that the self is best
organized in ways that are rational, understood as a pattern of behavior, the
practical and appropriate to the tendency or dispositionof a person to
environment. behave in a certain way in certain
2. Unconscious – “pleasure principle”, circumstances.
basic instinctual drives, traumatic - Ryle’s concept of the human self thus
memories, unfulfilled wishes and provides the philosophical principle, “I act;
childhood fantasies, thoughts and therefore, I am.”
feelings considered taboo. - He considers the mind and body to be
3. Preconscious – contains material that is intrinsically linked in complex and intimate
not threatening, easily brought to mind. ways. In short, theself is the same as bodily
- The conscious self is governed by the “reality behavior.
principle.” - He concludes that the mind is the totality of
- The conscious part of the self is organized in human dispositions that is known through
ways that are rational, practical, and
the way peoplebehave.
appropriate to the environment. - Nevertheless, Ryle is convinced that the
- The conscious self usually takes into account
mind expresses the entire system of
the realistic demands of the situation, the
thoughts, emotions, andactions that make up
consequences of various actions, and the
the human self.
overriding need to preserve the equilibrium
of the entire psychodynamic system of the
PAUL CHURCHLAND – the self is the brain.
self.
- The unconscious part of the self contains the - Eliminative materialism: the self is
basic instinctual drives including sexuality, inseparable from the brain and the physiology
aggressiveness, and self-destruction; of the body.
traumatic, memories; unfulfilled wishes and - If the brain is gone, there is no self.
childhood fantasies; and thoughts and - The physical brain, not the imaginary mind,
feelings that would be considered socially gives people the sense of the self.
taboo. - Paul Churchland advocates the idea of
- The unconscious level is characterized by the eliminative materialism or the idea that the
most primitive level of human motivation self is inseparablefrom the brain and the
and human functioning which is governed by physiology of the body.
the “pleasure principle.” - All person has the brain, and so if the brain is
- Freud argues that much of the self is gone, there is no self.
determined by the unconscious. - For Churchland, the physical brain and not the
- The preconscious self contains material that is imaginary mind, gives people the sense of self.
not threatening and is easily brought to mind. - The mind does not really exist because it
- According to Freud, the preconscious part is cannot be experienced by the senses.
located between the conscious and the - To prove his point, Churchland pointed out
unconscious parts ofthe self. that in mental conditions, such as
depression, it is technically wrong to say
GILBERT RYLE – the self is the way people that the person is “out of his mind”
behave. because neuroscientists have found that
- The self is best understood a pattern of brain activity, and even brain shape,
behavior; “I act; therefore, I am”. appears to be associated with severe mood
- The mind is the totality of human dispositions disorders.
that is known through the way people behave.

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 - Moreover, he pointed out that in a severe PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
head injury, the victim’s personality THE SELF
changes occur.
- He pointed out that if the mind were a Theory on the Self:
separate entity, then the victim should William James, 1890
have retained his/her personality despite • The self “I” (the knower)
the damage to the brain, - awareness, current knowledge, subjective
- Thus, Churchland asserted the sense of • The self as “me” (the known)
“self” originated from the brain itself, and - objective sense of self
that this “self” is a product of • Defined self-related behavior as self-seeking
electrochemical signals produced by the or self-preserving
brain.
Three constituent selves defined in descending
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY – the self is order of importance:
embodied subjectivity. 1. Spiritual me (values, attitudes)
2. Social me (all relationships)
- All knowledge about the self is based on the
3. Material me (all possessions & your body)
“phenomena” of experience.
- The “I” is a single integrated core identity, • Multiple selves compete for a limited resource
a combination of the mental, physical, and (you)
emotionalstructures around a core identity of • William James divided an individual's
the self. perception of the self into two categories: (1)
- Phenomenology of Perception – everything Me (2) l
that people are aware of is contained within • For James, a human being has the capacity to
theconsciousness.
be a thinking subject and the object of his or
- Perception is not merely a consequence of
her thinking at the same time.
sensory experience; rather, it is a conscious
• As a thinking subject, an individual is both
experience. Thus,the self is embodied
subjectivity. conscious of his or her environment and
- Maurice Merleau-Ponty further articulates conscious of his or her existence.
that when people examine the self at the • The continuous stream of consciousness
fundamental level ofdirect human experience, internal to an individual constitutes awareness
people will discover that the mind and body possible.
are unified, not separate. • An individual turns himself or herself into a
- He notes in his book, Phenomenology of Me when he or she makes himself or herself
Perception, that everything that people are the object of his or her own thinking.
aware of itscontained within the
• James claims that in understanding the self,
consciousness.
- Consciousness is a dynamic form the self can be contextualized in three
responsible for actively structuring categories:
conscious ideas and physicalbehavior. - The constituents of the self - refer to the
- He is convinced that consciousness, the further sub-categories of the self-including the
world, and the human body are intricately material self, social self, spiritual self, and
pure ego
intertwined inperceiving the world.
- For him, perception is not merely a - The feelings and emotions they arouse (self-
consequence of sensory experience; rather, it feelings) - refer to the feelings and emotions
is a consciousexperience. Thus, the self is aroused in the individual because of his or her
embodied subjectivity. knowledge and appraisal of his or her
empirical existence in the world.

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- The actions they prompt (self-seeking) -
refers to the actions the self-prompts- the
effort of every individual to preserve and
improve oneself based on one's self-
knowledge and resulting self- feelings.
• Simply put, the self is an object to be reflected
upon, an object that is capable of arousing
emotions and prompting actions. • It is the self that feels most natural,
• In the constituents of the self, the material self comfortable, and true to what and who one
consists of one's body, clothes, family, home, really is.
and other material possessions that he or she • It is the self that one continuously needs to
values and regards as his or her own. accept, takes care of, and improves.
• The social self connotes the image of an • Despite the difficulty of an individual to truly
individual in the eyes of the people around him know how others see him or her, his or her real
or her which determines his or her reputation self can still be possibly seen.
in society. • One's significant other may tell almost exactly
• The spiritual self includes one's thoughts, his or her real self.
beliefs, and feelings.
• The pure ego is the "most puzzling aspect of
the self" according to James.
• It is conceived by understanding that it
can recognize its own thoughts and that
these
• According to James, the sub-categories are
related in a hierarchical way, with material
self at the bottom, the spiritual at the top,
and the social self in between.
• Together, they constitute what lames calls • Our ideal self is essential in guiding and
the empirical self (Zhao, 2014). motivating us to behave in a way that would
lead us to the best version of who we want to
Carl Rogers be.
• People shape themselves through freedom of • The ideal self can be a helpful motivation in
choice and action guiding the real self to strive and continue
• Carl Rogers believes that the self does not • You have already have an idea of your ideal
exist at birth; it is developed gradually during and real self.
• Looking into your ideal and real self, how
childhood wherein one differentiates the self
aligned are they?
from non- self. • According to Rogers, the congruence or
• He proposed that by means of free choice and incongruence between the ideal and real self
action, one can shape himself or herself based has effects on our self-esteem.
on what he or she wants to be.
• Rogers considered the self as the center of • When we feel good about ourselves, it is said
that there is congruence or alignment or there
experience.
is small gap between our self and ideal self.
• According to him, the self in one's ongoing • This gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a
sense of who and what he or she is and why he sense of self-actualization or fulfillment
or she responds to the environment. leading to a high self-esteem.
• The choices an individual makes are based on
his or her set of values.
• Roger's theory focuses on the nature of the self
and the conditions that allow the self to freely
develop (Rathus, 2014).

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