CHAPTER 2 TWO WAYS to describe elements

Set builder Roster Method

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE &
notation
SYMBOLS
- Given by a - Elements
2.2 SETS defining are listed
property down
 SET OPERATIONS AND VENN - EX. { x | x - EX. { 1, 2,
DIAGRAMS is a natural 3… }
no. }

Null set or empty set, ∅

 A set which has no

elements/members at all.

Singleton Set

 A set with only ONE

member.

Cardinal Number (cardinality)

 The number of elements in

the set.
 EX. |A| or n(A)

Universal set, U

 The set of all possible

elements in the involved
sets.

2. Subset
 A set (say, A) is a subset of
another set (say, B) written
as A ⊆ B , if only if, every
element of A is also an
element of B.
 Alternative way: A is
 DEFINITION OF TERMS contained in B or B
contains A
1. Set  Number of subsets of B is
 A well-defined collection of 2n where n is the cardinal number
of set B
objects.
Proper subset, ⊂

 Def’n: A ⊂ B = { x | ((x ∈ A)
→ (x ∈ B) ∧ (A ≠ B) }
 Subset, ⊆ + ¿|−2< x<5 }¿
3) {x ∈ Z = {1, 2, 3, 4}

 Def’n: A ⊆ B = { x | ((x ∈ A)
→ (x ∈ B) ∧ (A may be = B) 4) {x ∈ R|−2< x <5 } =
}
( )
EX 1. List all possible subsets of of
set D = { 1, 2, 3 }

 How many subsets are -2 -5

there in all?
 There should be 8 OR, in interval notation: (-2, 5)
SUBSETS in all, namely: 5)
∅ or { } {1} {2} {3} {n∈ Z |n=2 p , for some integer p } = {
{1, 2} {1, 3} {2, 3} {1, 2, 3} …, -4,
-2, 0, 2, 4, …}
EX 2. Refer to EX. 1. Which 6) {x ∈ Z+ ¿|x is odd∧x<20 }¿ =
subsets of D are PROPER? {1, 3, 5, … , 17, 19}

EX 3. If set F contains 5 elements,  COMMON SET NOTATIONS

how many subsets, should it have?
Symbol Read as Given Ex.
EX 4. Refer to EX 3. How many of
the subsets are proper? ∈ Element of Let A
= {0, 2∈ A
 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT SETS 2, 4, 6,
8}
Natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, …}
Whole numbers W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} ∉ Not an 1∉ A
element of
Integers Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
…} ⊆ Subset of {2 , 4 }⊆ A
Positive integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …}
⊈ Not subset {2 , 5 }⊈ A
Rational p of
numbers Q={ = p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z,
q
and q ≠ 0 } ∩ Intersection Let B
= {1,
Real numbers R 2, 3,
Positive real R+ 4}
numbers
Complex C
∪ Union
numbers ‘ Complement

∅ Empty
ACTIVITY 1: Find the following.
Minus or
1) The set of all odd integers = {…, symmetric
-3, -1, 1, 3, … } \ difference
2) { x ∈ Z|−2< x< 5} = { -1, 0, 1, 2,
3, 4}
 4) Difference of 2 sets: A – B = A\B =
{x ∈U |x ∈ A ∧x ∉ B }

Given Ex.

Let A = {0, 2, 4,
6, 8} 2∈ A
1∉ A 4. Cartesian Product of sets

{2 , 4 }⊆ A For 2 sets, A and B, the cartesian

product is A and B is
{2 , 5 }⊈ A
Let B = {1, 2, 3, A ∩ B={2 , 4 } A x B = the set of ALL ordered pairs
4} (x, y) such that x comes from set A
and y comes from set B
A ∪ B={0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4,6 , 8 }
If universal set, A’ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} For 3 sets, A, B and C:
U = {0, 1, 2, …,
9} A x B x C = they set of ALL ordered
triples (x, y, z) such that x comes
Let C = {5, 7} B∩ C=¿ { } or ∅ from set A, y comes from set B, and
z comes from set C
A\B = {0, 6, 8} ;
ACTIVITY 3
B\A = {1, 3}
Given: Let A = {a, b}, B = {0, 1, 2}, C = {x}

3. Set Operations 1) A x B = {(a, 0), (a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 0),
(b, 1), (b, 2)}
Let A and B be subsets of a 2) B x A = {(0, a), (1, a), (2, a), (0, b),
universal set U. (1, b), (2, b)}
3) B x A x C = {(0, a, x), {0, b, x), (1, a,
a. Complement of a set: Ac x), (1, b, x), (2, a, x), (2, b, x)}
b. Union of 2 sets: A U B 4) | B x A x C | = |B| x |A| x |C| = 3 x 2
x1=6
c. Intersection of 2 sets:
5) Is B x A x C = C x A x B? No!
A∩B
Because they don’t the same
d. Difference of 2 sets: A – B or
ordered pairs.
A\B
6) How do you find C x C x C? Find
Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. |C x C x C|
C x C x C = C3 = {(x, x, x)} ;
1) Complement of a set: Ac = |C x C x C| = 1
{x ∈U |x ∈ A }
2) Union of 2 sets:
A ∪B { x|x ∈ A∨x ∈ B } 5. Power sets
3) Intersection of sets:
The power set of a set A denoted by
A ∩ B {x|x ∈ A∨x ∈ B }
 P ( A )∨ p ( A ) is the set of all d. X ∩U =X
subsets of set A. 6) Complement Laws
a. X ∪ X '=U
EX. Let A = {a, b} b. (X ') '=X
c. X ∩ X '=∅
Subsets of A = ?
d. X −Y = X ∩Y '
∅ , { a } , { b } ,{a , b }
7) De Morgan’s Law
a. (X ∪Y )' =X ' ∩Y '
So p ( A ) = ? b. (X ∩Y )' = X ' ∪ Y '

{∅ , { a } , { b } ,{a , b }

TRUE OR FALSE?

1) a∈ A TRUE
2) a ⊆ A TRUE
3) a ∈ p (A) FALSE
4) ∅ ⊆ A TRUE
5) ∅ ∉ A FALSE
6) ∅ ∈ p(A) TRUE
7) ∅ ⊆ p (A) TRUE

SET-THEORETIC EQUALITIES

For any sets X, Y, Z:

1) Idempotent Laws
a. X ∪ X =X
b. X ∩ X =X
2) Commutative Laws
a. X ∪ Y =Y ∪ X
b. X ∩Y =Y ∩ X
3) Associative Laws
a.
( X ∪Y ) ∪ Z= X ∪ (Y ∪ Z)
b. ( X ∩Y ) ∩Z =X ∩(Y ∩ Z)
4) Distributive Laws
a.
X ∪(Y ∩ Z)=(X ∪ Y )∩( X ∪ Z)
b.
X ∩(Y ∪ Z)=(X ∩Y ) ∪( X ∩ Z)
5) Identity Laws
a. X ∪∅= X
b. X ∪ U=U
c. X ∩ ∅=∅
 Displaying RELATION as a…

 Set of ordered pairs

o {(2, 3), (-1, 5), (4, -2), (9, 9),
(0, -6)}

Domain: {2, -1, 4, 9, 0}

Ranger: {3, 5, -2, 9, -6}

 Table

x y

2 3
-1 5
4 -2
CHAPTER 2 9 9
0 -6
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE &
SYMBOLS
2.3 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS  Mapping
Relation

 A relationship between two sets of

information.
 It may be viewed as a set of
ordered pairs, (x,y)
o x-values are INPUT,
independent variable,
DOMAIN
o y-values are OUTPUT,
dependent variable,  Equation
RANGE o f ( x )∨ y =x 2+1
 Sentence
Ways of Illustrating a Relation
o Faculty vs subjects taught
Mapping design
 Graph
Table

Graph

Equation

Written in sentences
 only one y-value that
corresponds to it.
o If the set of ordered pairs
has same x-coordinates, it
is NOT a FUNCTION.
o y-coordinates have NO
BEARING in determining
functions. y-values CAN be
repeated.
 EX 1. {(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2),
(4, -1), (5, 0)}
o Relation? Yes
o Function? Yes
Function  EX 2. {(-1, -7), (1, 0), (2, -3), (0, -8),
(0, 5), (-2, -1)}
 It is a relation in which every input
o Relation? Yes
has exactly one output.
o Function? No

Pre-Image and Image

 In an ordered pair (x, y)

o x is the pre-image of y
o y is the image of x
 EX 3. {(BJ, 5’6”), (Dan, 5’3”), (Robb,
5’5”), (Tom, 5’6”)}
When is a RELATION a FUNCTION?
o Pre-image of 5’6” = BJ
 Focus on the x-coordinates, when
o Pre-image of 5’3” = Dan
given a relation.
o Image of Robb = 5’5”
o If the set of ordered pairs
o Image of BJ = 5’6”
has different x-coordinates,
it is a FUNCTION. Relation as an Equation
Elements of the domain (x-
 EX 4. g(t) = 10t – 3
values) DO NOT repeat. So
Find:
for every x-value there is
o g(0)
 o g(2)
o Function?
 EX 5. f(x) = x2
Find:
o f(0)
o f(-1)
o f(1)
o f(10)
o Function?

 EX 6. f ( x )= √ x
Find:
DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS
o f(0)
FUNCTIONS
o f(4)
o Function? Discrete

Vertical Line Test  x takes on specific values; has gaps

on values it can assume
 A relation is a function if a vertical
 EX. Number of daily admissions to
line drawn through its graph,
a hospital
passes through only one point.
 a.k.a The Pencil Test
o Take a pencil and move it
Continuous
from left to right (-x to x); if
it crosses more than one  y takes any value within a specified

point, it is not a function. relevant interval

 EX 1. Function? Yes  EX. Weight of a person

Is the following function DISCRETE or

CONTINUOUS? What is the domain?
What is the range?

 EX 1.

 EX 2. Function? No
 Type: Discrete
Domain: {-7, 1, 5, 7, 8, 10}
Range: {1, 0, -7, 5, 2, 8}
 EX 2.

Type: Continuous
Domain: [-8, 8]
Range: [-6, 6]

Operations

Composition of Functions
  Given two functions f and g where x
is in the domain of g and g(x) is in
the domain of f then,
 ( f ∘ g )( x )=f ( g ( x ) )
and
 ( g ∘ f )( x )=g ( f ( x ) )
Composition of Functions on an Infinite
Set

 IF f : R → R , R is the set of all real

numbers is given by f ( x )=2 x +4
and g : R → R , R is given by

g ( x )=x 3, then:
 ( f ∘ g )( x )=f ( g ( x ) ) =f ( x 3 )=¿
2 ( x )+ 4=2 x + 4
3 3

Composition of Functions on a Finite Set  ( g ∘ f )( x )=g ( f ( x ) ) =g ( 2 x +4 )=¿

¿
 If f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 2)}
and g = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 2)}  EX 1. ( f ∘ g )( 0 ) =4

 then  EX 2. ( g ∘ f )( 1 ) =216

g ∘ f ={ ( 1, 2 ) , (2 , 3 ) , ( 3 ,1 ) , ( 4 , 2 ) }
as shown in the figure
 EX. If an airplane’s altitude at time t
is a(t), and the air pressure at
altitude x is p(x), then ( p ∘a ) (t) is
the pressure around the plane at
time t.

ONE TO ONE AND ONTO FUNCTIONS

 A function f from X (the domain) to

Y (the range) is:
o One-to-one (injective) – if
each element of the domain
pairs to exactly one
UNIQUE element of the
range
o Onto (surjective) – if each
element of the range
corresponds to an element
of the domain
o Bijective/Bijection – if a
function is both one-to-one
and onto More EXAMPLES

Are the following functions ONTO, ONE-

TO-ONE, BOTH OR NEITHER?
 Reflexive
 A relation R on a set S is called
reflexive if ( a , a ) ∈ R for every
element a ∈ S
 EX 1. R1 = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2,
2)} on S = {0, 1, 2} is reflexive
since ordered pairs (0, 0) (1, 1), &
(2, 2) ∈ R
 EX 2. R2 = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 1)} on S
= {0, 1, 2} is not reflexive since
ordered pairs (1, 1) & (2, 2) ∉ R

Symmetric

 A relation R on a set S is called

symmetric if (b, a) ∈ R whenever

Relations and their Properties (a, b) ∈ R , for all a, b ∈ S

 EX 1. R3 = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2,
Binary Relation
1)} on S = {0, 1, 2} is symmetric.
 Let A, B be any sets. A binary Why?
relation R from A to B, written as R:  EX 2. R4 = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2,
AxB, is a subset of the set A x B. 2) on S = {0, 1, 2} is not symmetric
 EX. A = {1, 2}, B = {0, 2} because (1, 2) ∈ R but (2, 1) ∉ R
A x B = {(1, 0), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2,
2)} Antisymmetric

Say, (subset of A x B) R = {(1,  A relation R on a set S is

2), (2, 2)}
antisymmetric if for every (a, b), we
Give other binary R’s.
Is R = { } a binary relation? do not have a (b, a), or if for every
(a, b) ∈ R & (b, a) ∈ R then a = b.
Inverse Relation
 EX 1. R5 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} on
 Let R be the binary relation from A
S = {1, 2, 3, 4} is antisymmetric
to B. Then, the inverse of R,
because for every (a, b) we don’t
−1
R ={(b , a)∨(a , b)∈ R } have (b, a)
 EX. Refer to the R above.  EX 2. R6 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4,
−1
R =? {( 2 , 1 ) ,(2 ,2)} 4)} on S = {1, 2, 3, 4} is
antisymmetric
Properties of a Relation
  EX 3. R7 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2,
2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} on S = {1, 2, 3, 4} ( 3 , 3 ) ∧( 3 , 2 ) → ( 3 , 2 ) ∈ R
is not antisymmetric because we
( 3 , 3 )∧( 3 , 4 ) → ( 3 , 4 ) ∈ R
have (1, 2) and (2, 1)

Transitive ( 3 , 4 )∧( 4 , ? ) → stop ; (3 , 4 ) is in

 A relation R on a set S is called

transitive if whenever (a, b) ∈ R
and (b, c) ∈ R , then (a, c) ∈ R , for
all a, b, c, ∈ S
 EX 1. {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)} is not
transitive because (1, 2) & (2, 3)
∈ R but (1, 3) ∉ R
 EX 2. {(2, 4), (4, 2)} is not transitive
because (2, 2) and (4, 4) are
missing in R.
 EX 3. {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3,
3), (3, 4)} is transitive. Why?

WHY is {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3),
(3, 4)} TRANSITIVE?

( 2 , 2 )∧( 2 ,3 ) → ( 2, 3 ) ∈ R
( 2 , 2 )∧( 2 , 4 ) → ( 2 , 4 ) ∈ R

( 2 , 3 )∧( 3 , 2 ) → ( 2 ,2 ) ∈ R
( 2 , 3 )∧( 3 , 3 ) → ( 2 , 3 ) ∈ R
( 2 , 3 )∧( 3 , 4 ) → ( 2 , 4 ) ∈ R

( 2 , 4 )∧( 4 ,? ) → stop ; ( 2,4 ) is in

( 3 , 2 )∧( 2 , 2 ) → ( 3 ,2 ) ∈ R
( 3 , 2 )∧( 2 , 3 ) → ( 3 , 3 ) ∈ R
( 3 , 2 )∧( 2 , 4 ) → ( 3 , 4 ) ∈ R
 2.4 BINARY OPERATIONS

“Mathematics cannot be learned without

being understood… but of acquiring a
capacity for systematic thought.”

8 + 2 = 16106

5 + 4 = 2091

9 + 6 = 54153

What’s happening here? The answers

became like those since they had
undergone three operations: multiplication,
addition, and subtraction. Meaning the
addition sign ‘+’ could be anything.

Binary Operations

 The word “binary” means

composed of two pieces.
 A binary operation on a set is a
rule or calculation involving two
elements of the set to produce
another element of the set.
 The most widely known binary
operations are those learned in
elementary school: addition,
subtraction, multiplication and
division on various sets of numbers
 EX 1. Let the symbol * be defined
as follows: a * b = 3a + b where a,
b are real numbers.
a) What is 5 * 3?
5 * 3 = 3(5) + 3 = 18
−1∗1
b) What is ?
2
−1∗1 1 1
=3 (−1 ) + =−2
2 2 2
CHAPTER 2
c) Is a * b commutative?
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE & (HINT: Commutative IF a * b =
SYMBOLS b * a)
 d) Is a * b associative? a a b c d
(HINT: Associative IF (a * b) * c b b c d a
= a * (b * c)
c c d a b
 EX 2. Let binary operation, *, be
d d a b c
defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4} as
follows?

* 1 2 3 4 GIVEN the binary table, what is the identity

element? a
1 4 3 2 1

2 3 1 4 2

3 2 4 1 3  The identity element for the

4 1 2 3 4 operation * is that single element
that will return the original value.
a) What is 2 * 3? 4  Based on the given table, the
What is 3 * 2? 4 identity element is a. WHY?
What is 4 * 2? 2
It’s because a*a=a
What is 2 * 4? 4
b*a=b
b) Is * commutative?
c*a=c
c) What is the identity
d*a=d
* a b c
 Checking for the identity element:
a a c b
you will know the identity element
b a b b
when you see it, because ALL of
c b a c the values in its row OR column are
element for the operation? the same as the row or column
d) Is * associative for these headings.
values?
On Identity Elements (Does identity
“Identify element” element exist?)

* a b c d 1)

* 0 1 2 3

0 0 1 2 3

b 1 2 3 0 2)

c 2 3 0 1

d 3 0 1 2
 line. IF the table is symmetric the
operation * is commutative.

ACTIVITY
Which are binary operations and WHY?

1) For a , b ∈ R , a∗b=a+ b
2) For a , b ∈ N , a∗b=a−b
3) For a , b ∈W , a∗b=a−b
a
4) For a , b ∈ N , a∗b=
b
DEFINE a * b = max (a, b), where 5) For a , b ∈ Z , a∗b=ab

a , b ∈ {1 , 2 ,3 } 6) For a , b ∈ Z , a∗b=max ⁡(a , b)

Complete the following binary table: Coincidence or Not???

IF…
* 1 2 3
AB CDEFGHIJ
KL 1 1 2 3 MNOPQRS
TU 2 2 2 3 VWXYZ

3
EQUALS…

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Is there an identity element for *?
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Is * commutative?
THEN…
How to see * is commutative?
K+N+O+W+L+E+D+G+E = 96%

H+A+R+D+W+O+R+K = 98%

Both are important, but fall short of

100%

BUT…

A+T+T+I+T+U+D+E = 100%

 Simply draw a diagonal line from

top left to bottom right, and see if
the table is symmetric about this
mmn