CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter 1:
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS
Every science has its own unique vocabulary associated with it. Precise
definition of basic concepts forms a sound foundation for development of a
science and prevents possible misunderstandings. Careful study of these
concepts is essential for a good understanding of topics in thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfers and its effect on the
physical properties of substances. It is based upon observations of common
experience which have been formulated into thermodynamic laws. These laws
govern the principles of energy conservation. The applications of the
thermodynamic laws and principles are found in all fields of energy technology,
notably in steam and nuclear power plants, internal combustion engines, gas
turbines, air conditioning, refrigeration, gas dynamics, jet propulsion,
compressors, chemical process plants, and direct energy conversion devices.

CONTENT:
1. Basic Principles, Concepts and Definition
2. Thermodynamic System
3. Thermodynamic Properties

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and
work of a system. It was born in the 19th century as scientists were first
discovering how to build and operate steam engines. It came from the words
Therme meaning heat and Dynamis meaning power. Thermodynamics deals with
the large scale response of a system which we can observe and measure in
experiments. Small scale gas interactions are described by the kinetic theory of
gases. The methods complement each other; some principles are more easily

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

understood in terms of thermodynamics and some principles are more easily

explained by kinetic theory.
• 1st law of thermodynamics ( Law of Conservation of Energy)
States that states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an
isolated system.
• 2nd law of thermodynamics
States that the state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated
system, will always increase over time. It also state that the changes in
entropy in a universe cannot be negative.
• 3rd law of thermodynamics
States that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as
the temperature approaches absolute zero.

2. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in
space upon which attention is concentrated in the analysis of the problem.
Everything external to the system is called the surroundings or the environment.
The system is separated from the surroundings by the system boundary. The
boundary may be either fixed or moving. A system and its surroundings
together compromise a universe.

SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM

BOUNDARY

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

There are three classes of systems: (a) closed system, (b) open system, and
(c) isolated system. The closed system is a system of fixed mass. There is no mass
transfer across the system boundary. There may be energy transfer into or out of
the system. A certain quantity of fluid in a cylinder bounded by a piston
constitutes a closed system. The open system is one in which matter crosses the
boundary of the system. There may be energy transfer also. Example of an open
systems is an air compressor in which air enters at low pressure and leaves at
high pressure and there are energy transfers across the system boundary. The
isolated system is one in which there is no interaction between the system and
the surrounding. It is of fixed mass and energy, and there is no mass or energy
transfer across the system boundary.

3. THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical condition
may be described, e.g., volume, temperature, pressure, etc. Such properties are
called properties of the sytem.
Properties may be of two types. Intensive properties are independent of
the mass in the system, e.g., pressure, temperature, etc. Extensive properties are
related to mass, e.g., volume, energy, etc. If mass is increased, the values of the
extensive properties also increase. Specific extensive properties, i.e., extensive
properties per unit mass, are intensive properties, e.g., specific volume, specific
energy, density, etc.

A. Temperature
Temperature (T) is the measure of the average kinetic energy associated
with the chaotic microscopic motion of atoms and molecules within a substance.
It is the measure of the intensity of the heat. The temperature of an object
determines the sensation of warmth or coldness felt from contact with it. The
same temperature relates to the same average kinetic energy in a substance.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

It is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of

hot and cold; something that is hotter generally has a greater temperature.
Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be calibrated to a
variety of temperature scales.
Common temperature scales are Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C). They are
defined by using the point at which ice melts and water boils at the standard
atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius scale, the interval between the ice point
and boiling point of water are divided into 100 equal parts. The Celsius ice point
is at 0 and the boiling point is at 100. (Actually, on the Celsius scale the boiling
point of water at standard atmospheric pressure is 99.975°C in contrast to the 100
degrees defined by the Centigrade scale.) The Fahrenheit ice point is at 32 and
the boiling point is at 212.
The Kelvin (K) scale has its zero point at -273.15°C and theRankine
(R)temperature scale has its zero point at -459.67°F. Therefore, the ice point of
water occurs at 273 K and 460 R. The degree sign (°) is not customarily used
when expressing temperature on the Kelvin and Rankine scales. Some
engineering fields in the U.S. express thermodynamic temperature using the
Rankine scale, but in scientific fields the Kelvin scale is used exclusively.

B. Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Pressure can be considered as
measure of the intensity of a force at any given point on the contact surface. For
pressures exerted by the force and exerted by the fluid on a container, it is
assumed that the force is evenly distributed over a given area. Hence the
pressure at any point on the contact surface can be calculated by dividing the
total force exerted by the total area over which the force is applied.
Mathematically, it is:
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Where: P=pressure
F=force
A=area
Often it will be important to distinguish between absolute pressure,
atmospheric pressure, and gauge pressure.
Absolute Pressure. When pressure is measured relative to a perfect
vacuum, it is called absolute pressure (psia). Pounds per square inch absolute (psia)
is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a vacuum rather than the
ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around
101.3 kPa (14.7 psi), this will be added to any pressure reading made in air at sea
level.
Gauge Pressure. When pressure is measured relative to atmospheric
pressure (14.7 psi), it is called gauge pressure (psig). The term gauge pressure is
applied when the pressure in the system is greater than the local atmospheric
pressure, patm. The latter pressure scale was developed because almost all
pressure gauges register zero when open to the atmosphere. Gauge pressures are
positive if they are above atmospheric pressure and negative if they are below
atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure in the
surrounding air at – or “close” to – the surface of the earth. The atmospheric
pressure varies with temperature and altitude above sea level. The Standard
Atmospheric Pressure approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the
latitude 45° N.
Negative Gauge Pressure – Vacuum Pressure. When the local atmospheric
pressure is greater than the pressure in the system, the term vacuum pressure is
used. A perfect vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure. It is
certainly possible to have a negative gauge pressure, but not possible to have a
negative absolute pressure.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

C. Density
Mass density (ρ) of a substance is the mass per unit volume. Density is
expressed in units of pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) or kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m3).
In words, the density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that
substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance. The
standard SI unit is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). The Standard English unit
is pounds mass per cubic foot (lbm/ft3).

Density of common substances

The figure shows the densities of common substances, including several
gases, liquids, and solids. Density is a measure of the amount of mass contained
in a unit of volume. The general trend is that most gases are less dense than
liquids, which are in turn less dense than solids, but there are numerous
exceptions. For this reason, the table lists density from lowest to highest and
includes the state of matter.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Pure water has its highest density 1000 kg/m3 at temperature 3.98°C
(39.2°F). Water differs from most liquids in that it becomes less dense as it
freezes. It has a maximum of density at 3.98°C (1000 kg/m3), whereas the
density of ice is 917 kg/m3. It differs by about 9% and therefore ice floats on
liquid water. It must be noted, the change in density is not linear with
temperature, because the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient for water is
not constant over the temperature range.

D. Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it. The mass of a
body remains the same regardless of its location in the universe.
The term weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force applied to a body
and its magnitude is determined from the formula of the force, W = mg, where m
is the mass of the body and is g is the local gravitational acceleration.

E. Heat
Heat is the agitation or motion of atoms and molecules. It is thermal
energy in motion. Heat always flows from a substance at a higher temperature to
the substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of the lower
temperature substance and lowering the temperature of the higher temperature
substance.
Quantity of heat (Q) is measured in British thermal units and joules. In
scientific terms, the British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 lb (0.45 kg) of water from 59.5°F (15.3°C) to
60.5°F (15.8°C) at constant pressure of standard atmosphere pressure. In broad
terms, one Btu is about the amount of heat given off by the combustion of one
wooden match. The Btu is equivalent to 1055 joules (J). A Btu is equivalent to
0.293 watt-hour (W-hr). Relationships are as follows:
1 Btu = 1055 joules (J)

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

= 0.293 watt-hour (W-hr)

= 252 calories (c)
= 0.252 kilocalories (C)
1 Joule = 0.00095 Btu
= 0.239 calories (c)
1 watt-hour (W-hr) = 3.413 Btu
1 kilocalorie (C) = 1000 calories
The heating (calorific) value of a fuel, including food, is the quantity of
heat produced by its combustion under specified conditions. It is the energy
released as heat when it undergoes complete combustion with oxygen.

F. Specific Heat
Specific heat (c) is defined scientifically as the amount of heat that must be
added or removed from one pound of substance to change its temperature by
one degree. The unit of specific heat in the engineering system is Btu per pound
per degree temperature change (Btu/lb °F) or Joules per pound per degree
temperature change (J/kg °C). In equation form:
ΔT = Q/cM
Q = cM ΔT
where ΔT equals the change in temperature, M equals the mass of the substance
in lb or kg, Q equals the amount of heat removed or added in Btu or J, and c
equals specific heat of the substance in Btu/lb °F or J/kg °C.

G. Specific Heat Capacity

The property of specific heat capacity is similar to specific heat, except that
it is expressed with volume rather than weight.
Specific heat capacity (C) is defined as the amount of heat required to
change the temperature of a specific volume of substance one degree. The

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

property of specific heat capacity of a substance is measured in Btu per cubic foot
per degree temperature change (Btu/ft3 °F).

H. Sensible & Latent Heating

Sensible heat is the heat associated with change in temperature of a
substance. It appears that the addition or removal of heat from a substance
changes its temperature in proportion to the heat added or removed; that is, as
heat is added to a substance its temperature typically increases, and when heat is
removed the temperature of the substance typically decreases. This phenomenon
is referred to as sensible heating. It is “sensible” because it can be observed by
the sense of touch. Sensible heating does not occur when the substance
undergoes a change in state from a solid to a liquid, a liquid to a gas, or vice
versa. Materials exist in three states: as solids, liquids, and gases. When heat is
added to a substance, it may change its state from a solid to a liquid or from a
liquid to a gas. It may change from a gas to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid
when heat is removed. A change of state is commonly referred to as a phase
change. Heat is stored or released whenever a substance changes phase. Latent
heat is the release or storage of heat associated with change in phase of a
substance, without a change in the substance’s temperature. It is the “hidden”
quantity of heat absorbed or released when a material changes phase without a
change in temperature. For example, when a container of water is heated, the
temperature of the water will increase until it reaches its boiling point. With
additional heating, the water begins to go through a phase change from liquid
water to water vapor. As heat continues to be added, more of the liquid water is
changed to water vapor. There is no increase in temperature. The water remains
at the boiling temperature. Heat is required to cause the liquid water to undergo
a phase change from a liquid to a gas. Heat absorbed by the water that causes
this phase change is latent heat.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Latent heat of vaporization is required when a substance changes from a

liquid to a gaseous state. It is released when the substance changes from a
gaseous to a liquid state. The latent heat of vaporization of water is about 970
Btu/lb. As water vaporizes from a liquid to a gas, it absorbs 970 Btu/lb.
Conversely, when water condenses from a gas to a liquid, it releases 970 Btu/lb
of heat. Latent heat of fusion occurs when a substance is converted from a liquid
to a solid state. For water, the latent heat of fusion is 144 Btu/lb. As one pound of
water is changed to ice, 144 Btu are released. When ice changes back to a liquid,
an equivalent amount of heat is absorbed.
I. Power
Power is defined as the measure of energy consumed over a period of
time. When energy is extracted, converted into a useful form, and used in an
application, power is the result. The amount of energy delivered by a furnace
firing at maximum capacity is its output power rating. A furnace power rating
depends upon how fast the energy is converted, which means time must be
considered. The unit used to define power in the customary system is Btu per
hour (Btu/hr). When referring to electricity, the watt (W) is used to define
power. Oftentimes the watt is written with a prefix K that is equal to a kilowatt
(kW) or one thousand watts. In addition, horsepower (hp) may be used as a unit
of power. The watt, Btu/hr, and horsepower are interrelated because they refer
to power:
1 W = 3.413 Btu/hr
1 hp = 745.7 W
1 hp = 2544.3 Btu/hr

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Sample Problems:

1. The temperature of a body is 50°F. Find its temperature in °C, K, and R.

2. A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia.
Find the absolute pressure in psia and kPa.

3. The specific heat of water is 1.0 Btu/lb °F and its density is 62.4 lb/ft3.
Determine the specific heat capacity of water.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

4. The specific heat of concrete is 0.27 Btu/lb · °F and its density is 140.0 lb/ft3.
Determine the specific heat capacity of concrete.

5. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia, make these conversions:

a. 80 psig to psia
b. 20 in Hg vacuum to in Hg abs
c. 10 psia to psi vacuum
d. 15 in Hg gage to psia to torrs

6. A boiler used to heat a school building is rated at 8 000 000 Btu/hr. Determine
its rating in kW.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

7. A furnace used to heat a home is rated at 30 kW. Determine its rating in

Btu/hr

8. Convert a temperature of 80°F to:

a. °C
b. R
c. K

9. Convert a temperature of 22°C to:

a. °F
b. R
c. K

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

10. The height of the water from the base of the rectangular tank is 1.5m. The
base measures 100cm by 80cm. Compute:
a. The weight of the water in the tank.
b. The pressure exerted by the water at the base of the tank.

11. A pressure gauge connected to the pressure vessel reads 110kPa. Compute for
the absolute pressure. Assume the local atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

12. The gauge on a closed container indicates 90kPa. What is the absolute
pressure?

13. A 2m diameter by 6m height vertical tank is receiving water at a rate of

300GPM and is discharging through a 15cm ID line with a constant speed of
2m/s. At a given instant, the tank is half full. Find the water level in the tank
5mins later.

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

Problem Set #1 : Basic Principles of Thermodynamics

1. Calculate in kg/m3 the density of 3.5L solution weighing 7kg.

2. Calculate the absolute pressure for the system, given a gauge pressure of 1.5
MPa and a barometric pressure (atmospheric pressure) 104 kPa.

3. A piston weighs 4.3 kgs and has a cross sectional area of 450 mm2. Determine
the pressure that is exerted by this piston on the gas in the chamber. Assume
gravitational acceleration ‘g’ to be 9.81 m/sec2.

4. The boiling temperature of liquid oxygen (O2) is -297.3˚F. Convert this

temperature to Celsius degrees and Kelvin.
5. Air pressure is approximately 100,000 Pascals. What force is exerted on this book
when it is sitting flat on a desk? The area of the book’s cover is 0.035 m2.

6. A fisherman with a mass of 75kg falls asleep on his four-legged chair of mass 5
kg. If each leg of the chair has a surface area of 2.5×10-4 m2 in contact with the
ground, what is the average pressure exerted by the fisherman and chair on the
ground?

7. A rotary comedy with power of 300 watts and period 7 minutes rotates 6 rounds.
Calculate the amount of energy it uses.

8. A 765 W consumer coffee maker can make 10 cups (1.75 liters) of 80 °C coffee
from 20 °C tap water in 10 minutes. What percentage of the electrical energy
consumed actually makes it to the coffee?

9. A liquid that has a mass of 300 grams and fits in a container that is 30 by 10 by

6.0 centimeters cubed. What is the density of the liquid?

10. Mass of object is 316 grams, placed in a container as shown in figure. What is
the density of the object?

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CHAPTER 1: BASIC PRICIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS

11. The volume of an object is 8 cm3 and mass of an object is 84 gram. What is the
density of the object in g/mL?

12. If a 0.2 kg metal rod is heated 180℃ with 2 Btu. Determine its specific heat.

13. A metal ball is heated 210℃ with 2 200 J energy, if its specific heat measures
79.58 J/kg℃. Determine the mass of the ball.

14. It takes 487.5 J to heat 25 grams of copper from 25 °C to 75 °C. What is the
specific heat in Joules/g°C?

15. “Room temperature” is generally defined in physics to be 25°C. (a) What is

room temperature in °F? (b) What is it in K?

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

Chapter 2 :
BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEMS
Plumbing can be well defined as the art and technique of installing pipes,
fixtures, and other apparatuses in buildings for bringing in the supply of liquids,
study of waste and hazardous substances and/or ingredients and techniques of
removing them thus, improving health, sanitation, life and property. All pipes and
fixtures after installation will be called as Plumbing system.
In prehistoric time, thousands of years ago, man left traces of plumbing
works. These primitive water supply and waste disposal methods offered proof
that even early man realizes the importance of plumbing. Indeed, these crude
devices were considered as the forerunners of modern day plumbing.
In today’s living, plumbing is not only limited in building scope. Many
aircraft and offshore vessels all do have their own plumbing system to
accommodate the sanitation within their scope and the study of plumbing is a
broad knowledge that is needed by an engineer to maintain the convenience living
in dwelling area or system.
The scope of this chapter is to give the reader an overview and introduction
of those plumbing system used in the field and develop student’s understanding
for use in future career.
CONTENT:
1. Modern Plumbing Systems
2. Water: The Substance
3. Water Supply
4. Components of a Plumbing System
5. Plumbing Materials
6. Fittings and Valves
7. Plumbing Fixtures

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

1. MODERN PLUMBING SYSTEMS

Modern cities have sophisticated water delivery and wastewater
treatment systems. In buildings, the plumbing system performs two primary
functions: water supply and waste disposal. A complete plumbing
arrangement/system consists of a water supply system, a sanitary drainage
system, and plumbing fixtures.

2. WATER: THE SUBSTANCE

Any study of a plumbing system must begin with the substance it carries,
water. Water is the name given to the liquid compound H2O. A molecule of
water is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. In a pure state,
it is tasteless and odorless.
Under standard atmospheric pressure, the boiling point temperature of
water is 212°F (100°C). The temperature at which water boils decreases with
lower atmospheric or system pressure and increases at higher pressures. Thus,
the temperature at which water boils decreases with elevation increase. For
example, at standard atmospheric conditions at an elevation of 5000 ft (1524 m)
above sea level, water boils at 202.4°F (94.7°C). It boils at 193.2°F (89.6°C) at 10
000 ft (3048 m) above sea level. The freezing point of water is 32°F (0°C).

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
Several fundamental units describe the properties and behavior of water
in building plumbing systems. The following are definitions of the fundamental
units.

a. Specific Weight (Density)

Specific weight (w) or density is weight per unit volume. Water density
varies with temperature; it is most dense at 39°F (4°C). Below this temperature,
crystals begin to form, increasing its volume and therefore decreasing its density.

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

Water attains a specific weight of 62.42 lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) at a temperature of

39°F (4°C). Above and below 39°F, water is less dense; for example, the specific
weight of water at 80°F (27°C) is 62.2 lb/ft3 (0.996 kg/L). A specific weight of
62.4 lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) is c ommonly used for liquid water in engineering
computations.

b. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (s.g.) of a fluid or solid is the ratio of the specific
weight of the fluid or solid to the specific weight of water at a temperature of
39°F (4°C), the temperature at which water is most dense (62.42 lb/ft3 or 1.00
kg/L). It is a comparison of its weight with the weight of an equal volume of
water. Materials with a specific gravity less than 1.0 are less dense than water
(e.g., oil) and will float on pure water; substances with a specific gravity more
than 1.0 are denser than water and will sink. The specific gravity of water is
assumed to be 1.0 at common plumbing system temperatures.

c. Volume
Volume (V) is the amount of space occupied by a substance. Water
volume is typically expressed in cubic inches (in3) or cubic feet (ft3) in the
customary system, and in cubic meters (m3) or liters (L) in the SI system. In
plumbing system design, volume is commonly expressed in gallons (g or gal).
There are 7.48 gallons in a cubic foot (ft3). A gallon is approximately 3.8 L.

d. Volumetric Flow Rate

Volumetric flow rate (Q), frequently called the flow rate, is the volume of
a substance that passes a point in a system per unit of time. Flow rate is usually
expressed in liters per second (L/s), liters per minute (L/min), or cubic meters
per second (m3/s) in the SI system. In the customary system, volumetric flow
rate is expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs or ft3/s), cubic feet per minute (cfm

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

or ft3/min), gal per second (gps or g/s), and gal per minute (gpm or g/min).
Volumetric flow rate (Q) may be determined with volume (V) and time:
Q = V/time

e. Velocity
Velocity is the rate of linear motion of a substance in one direction. The
magnitude of velocity, known as speed, is usually expressed in terms of distance
covered per unit of time. In the customary system of weights and measures,
velocity is expressed in inches per second (in/s) or feet per second (ft/s). In the
international system of measure (the SI system), velocity is expressed in meters
per second (m/s). In a fluidic system such as a plumbing system, water velocity
is expressed as an average velocity because water molecules each have different
speeds and directions of travel; that is, water molecules flowing in the center of a
pipe tend to travel faster than water molecules at or near the inner wall of the
pipe. Average velocity (v) of a fluid (such as water) flowing through a pipe may
be found by the following equations based upon average volumetric flow rate
(Q) and cross-sectional area (A) or inside diameter (Di). Units must be consistent
in these equations (e.g., volume, area, and diameter must be expressed in units of
in, ft, m, and so on).
v = Q/A = 4Q/π Di2
The following equation, in customary units, is useful in plumbing system
design. It may be used to find the average velocity (v) of a fluid flowing through
a pipe, in ft/s, based on the volumetric flow rate (Q), in gpm, and an inside
diameter (Di) of the pipe, in inches:
v = 0.409Q/Di2

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Raw sewage is found to weigh 60.5 lb/ft3. Determine its specific gravity.

2. Determine the volumetric flow rate, in gpm, for water flowing out of a
faucet based on 25m3 in 28 s.

3. Determine the volumetric flow rate, in L/s, for water flowing out of a
faucet based on 6 gal in 8 s.

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

4. Determine the average velocity for water flow in a pipe under the
following conditions:
a. A 3⁄4 in diameter, Type L copper tube (0.875 in outside diameter and
0.785 in inside diameter) carrying water at a volumetric flow rate of 10
gpm.
b. A 2 in diameter, Schedule 40 chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
pipe (2.375 in outside diameter and 2.047 in inside diameter) carrying cold
water at a volumetric flow rate of 40 gpm.

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

3. WATER SUPPLY
A supply of good water is more important to human survival than food.
Potable is clean water that is suitable for human drinking. It must be available for
drinking,cooking,and cleaning. Nonpotable water may be used for flushing
water closets (toilets), irrigating grass and gardens,washing cars,and for any use
other than drinking, cooking, or cleaning. Rain and snowmelt are the sources of
most of the water available for our use. When it rains or a snowfield melts, water
flows into streams and rivers or soaks into the ground. By definition, surface
water is the rain that runs off the surface of the ground into streams, rivers, and
lakes. (See figure 3.1.) Groundwater is water found below the surface of the
earth. It is water that has percolated through porous soil until it reaches an
impervious stratum, upon which it collects. (See figure 3.2.)

FIGURE 3.1 A cistern is a reservoir that holds drinking water.

Surface water can be collected in a storage tank called a
cistern. A cistern can fill with rainwater as it drains from the
roof of a building or a more elaborate collection system.
Collected water is then pumped into the supply line of the
building for use.

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

FIGURE 3.2 Groundwater can be captured at many levels below a building site.A
saturated permeable stratum capable of holding a usable supply of water is known as an
aquifer.

4. COMPONENTS OF A PLUMBING SYSTEM

Plumbing system includes all potable water supply and distribution pipes,
all plumbing fixtures and traps; all sanitary and storm drainage system; vent
pipes, roof drains, leaders and downspouts, and all building drains and sewers,
including their respective joints and connections; devices, receptacles, and
appurtenances within the property; water lines in the premises; potable, tap, hot
and chilled equipment; fuel gas piping; water heaters and vents for same.

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

Fig. 4.1. The water cycle of the plumbing system

The system constitute the following:

➢ Water supply system
o Carries water from the source, main street or a pump, to the building and
to various points of use
➢ Sanitary drainage system
o The piping network within the building which conveys from the plumbing
fixtures all wastes and rainwater to a treatment facility and point of
disposal.
o Also called as DWV (drain, waste and vent system)
➢ Plumbing fixtures
o The receptacles that receive the supplied water and allow the building
occupants to avail and use the water.

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

5. PLUMBING MATERIALS
There are numerous kind of materials available for plumbing installation
but so far, the most popular and commonly used are:
o Cast iron soil pipe
o Acid resistant cast iron pipe
o Asbestos pipe
o Bituminous fiber sewer pipe
o Vitrified clay pipe
o Lead pipe
o Galvanized steel pipe
o Brass pipe
o Copper pipe
o Plastic or synthetic pipe
o Stainless steel pipe
Not all of these materials enumerated however, will be used in one
plumbing system installation. The choice of the kind of pipe to be installed
depends upon the following considerations:
o Quality and durability
o Resistance to external and internal contact with foreign matters
o Resistance to acid waste and other chemical elements that will pass into it
o Cost of materials and labor
Sometimes, a combination of two or more types of plumbing materials are
used to suit the purpose intended for the installation, while availing of the
advantages it offers to plumbing.

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

6. FITTINGS AND VALVES

FITTINGS
A variety of fittings must be used to connect pipe lengths and make all the
pipe turns, branch lines, couplings that join the straight runs, and stops at the
end of the runs. Below are the general categories of fittings.
o Elbow – Change the flow direction of certain piping line

450 Street Elbow Reducer Elbow 900 Street Elbow

o Reducer – diverge/converge the cross section of piping connection

Reducer
o Tee type – provide a single tap line in straight piping network where
needed

Tee
o Cross type – Provide a multiple/crossed tap line in a piping network where
needed

Cross Tee

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

o Coupling – Used to connect same or different piping material where

needed

Coupling Socket
o Unions – employ to easily disengaged the piping network where needed.
It allows also for easy installation of a piping network

Union
o Adaptors – Same function as a coupling but used as per need of a semi-
permanent piping connection.

Male Adaptor Female Adaptor

o Olet - Olets are used when there are standard sizes of fittings are not
suitable for our requirement.

Types of Olets

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

o Plug – Plugs are commonly used to closed a female end of piping network.

Threaded Plug
o Cap – Same function as plug. Only, cap is used to closed a male end of
piping network.

Threaded Cap

VALVES
Valves are used to control flow of the water throughout the system.
Proper location of valves simplifies repairs to the system, fixtures, or equipment
being serviced. Valves also regulate flow to deliver the appropriate quantity of
water and reduce water consumption. In building plumbing systems, there are
usually valves at risers (vertical pipe serving the building), branches (horizontal
pipe serving the fixtures), and pipes to individual fixtures or equipment. The
inner workings of most valves are generally accessible for repairs. Valves
generally fall into four categories: gate, globe, check and angle. These are
described below.

GATE VALVE
The gate valve is a manual valve that has a wedge-shaped leaf that, when
closed, seals tightly against two metal seats that are set at slight angles. (See
Figure 6.1.) This type of valve is usually used where the flow of the water is left

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

either completely opened or closed for most of the time. Because the flow of
water passes straight through the valve, there is very little water pressure lost to
friction. The gate valve is not used to regulate flow of water. Instead, it is used to
shut off the flow of water such as to fixtures and equipment when repairs or
replacement must be made.

FIGURE 6.1 A cross-section of a gate valve

GLOBE VALVES
The globe valve is a manual, compression-type valve, commonly used
where there is occasional or periodic use, such as lavatories (faucets) and hose
connections (called hose bibbs). This type of valve regulates the flow of water.
Design of the globe valve is such that the water passing through is forced to
make two 90° turns, which greatly increases the friction loss in this valve
compared with that in a gate valve. (See Figure 6.2.)

FIGURE 6.2 A cross-section of a globe valve.

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

ANGLE VALVES
The angle valve is a manual valve similar in operation to the globe valve,
utilizing the same principle of compressing a washer against a metal seat to cut
the flow of water. It is commonly used for outside hose bibbs. (See Figure 6.3.)
The angle valve has a much higher friction loss than the gate valve and about
half the friction loss of the globe valve.

FIGURE 6.3 A cross-section of an angle valve

CHECK VALVES
The check valve opens to allow the flow of water in the direction desired
and prevents flow in the other direction. There are two types of check valves,
swing types and spring types. In the swing check valve design, the pressure of
the water forces the valve gate to swing open, but once the flow stops, gravity
causes the gate to fall closed, preventing a reversal of the flow. This type of valve
must be mounted vertically or horizontally to work properly. (See Figure 6.4.) In
contrast, the gate in a spring check valve is spring loaded. Water pressure forces
the gate open much like the swing type, but when the flow stops, a spring (not
gravity) forces the gate closed. This enables the valve to be mounted in any
position and at any angle. This valve is used in such places as the water feed line
to a boiler (heating unit) where the water from the boiler might pollute the
system if it backed up.

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

FIGURE 6.4 A cross-section of a check valve

7. PLUMBING FIXTURES
A plumbing fixture is an approved receptacle, device, or appliance that
uses water and discharges wastewater such as a water closet, urinal, faucet,
shower, dishwasher, drinking fountain, hose connection,hose bibb,water
heater,water softener,underground sprinkler, hot tub, spa, and clothes washer.
They must be made of dense,durable,nonabsorbent materials with smooth,
impermeable surfaces. Plumbing fixtures are the only part of the plumbing
system that the owners or occupants of the building will see regularly, because
most of the plumbing piping is concealed in walls and floors.
Plumbing fixtures are classified according to their use. Groups of two or
more like fixtures that are served by a common drainage branch are known as a
group of fixtures. Types of plumbing fixtures and related design concerns are as
follows.

1. WATER CLOSET
A water closet is a plumbing fixture that serves as an indoor receptacle
and removal system for human waste. Although this fixture is commonly called
a toilet or commode, the building code specifically refers to it as a water closet.

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

Flush Tank Water Closet

Flush Valve Water Closet

2. URINALS
Urinals are plumbing fixtures that are commonly used in public restrooms
where it is desirable to reduce possible contamination of the water closet seats.

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

3. BIDETS
Bidets are personal hygiene plumbing fixtures used for genital and
perineal cleanliness. It is typically used after using the water closet

A Bidet

4. BATHTUBS
Bathtubs are plumbing fixtures used for bathing.

A bathtub for a master bathroom

5. SHOWERS
A showerhead is an overhead nozzle that sprays water down on the bather.

A Showerhead

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

6. LAVATORIES
A lavatory is a bathroom basin or sink used for personal hygiene.

Types of Lavatory

7. SINKS
Kitchen sinks are most commonly made of enameled cast iron or stainless
steel. Sinks are usually available in a single- or a double-bowl arrangement; some
even have a third bowl, which is much smaller.

A stainless Kitchen Sink

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 CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

8. DRINKING SYTEMS
Drinking fountains offer users a limitless supply of drinking water at any
location where water and sanitary drainage are readily available.

9. MISCELLANEOUS PLUMBING FIXTURES

Miscellaneous plumbing fixture includes all components that are not
common and occasionally used. Examples are: (1) Emergency fixtures such as eye-
face washes, drench showers, decontamination units, portables, and accessories
designed for use wherever hazardous substances are present. Other types of
fixtures include baptisteries, ornamental ponds, fountains, and aquariums (2)
Laundry tubs and trays and other fixtures.

8. PIPING SYMBOLS
There are lot of piping, plumbing and fitting symbol used in actual field,
included in this section are the most commonly used symbol. Other symbol may
be left as future research for the student since it is not possible to include all those
symbols as one pack. To summarize, see below figures:

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CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

38
CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

39
CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

40
CHAPTER 2: BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM

Problem Set #2 : Building Plumbing System

1. A liquid is moving through a tube at 18 m/s, the tube has a transverse area of
0.6 m2. The density of the liquid is ρ = 62.4 kg/m3. What is the amount of mass
flowing through the tube?

2. Water is flowing through a pipe that has a radius of 0.0600 m. The velocity of
the water is 2.50 m/s. What is the flow rate of the water in m3/s?

3. Determine the average velocity in ft/s for water flow in a pipe with an outside
diameter of 0.875 in and 0.785 in inside diameter carrying water at a volumetric
flow rate of 10 gpm.

4. Determine the average velocity in ft/s for water flow in a chlorinated polyvinyl
chloride pipe with an outside diameter of 2.375 in and 2.047 in inside diameter
carrying cold water at a volumetric flow rate of 40 gpm.

5. Water travels through a hose at 0.8 meters per second. If the cross-sectional area
of the exit nozzle is one-fifth that of the hose, at what speed does water exit the
hose?

6. A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 380-mm, 300-mm, and 250-mm pipe. With
a continuous flow through the line of 250 Lit/sec of water, compute the mean velocity in
each size of pipe.

7. You have a sample of granite with density of 844.9 lbs/ft3. The density of water

is 62.4 lbs/ft3. Determine its specific gravity.

41
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Chapter 3:
DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
As per R.A. 1378, below are the provided clauses in the design,
installation and maintenance of a water distribution systems:
1. Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be supplied with water in
sufficient volume and pressure adequate to function satisfactorily and without undue
noise.
2. Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water
consistent with proper performance and cleaning.
3. Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and installed as to
prevent dangers from explosion through overheating.
The first and second clause implies that there should be an adequate
supply for water demand of a certain building or dwelling unit. To do this,
necessary engineering methodology and computation should be introduced in
order to meet the desired output of a plumbing system. In relation with the
safety operation, clause no. 3 provide so.
Although design and theoretical computation, in several scenarios, cannot
be met in actual construction for a reason of unexpected variables, it provides a
room for constructing an engineering decision to be applied and a pattern if
there will be any necessary changes to be implemented during the project. Thus,
theoretical consideration shall be applied to determine the specifications of a
plumbing system. These will be discussed in this chapter.

CONTENT:
1. Hydrodynamics
2. Pipes and Fittings Head Loss Calculation
3. Pump Power Sizing Calculation
4. Pump Laws and Cavitation

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

1. HYDRODYNAMICS
Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion. The blood in our body,
the wind, and the water in pipelines are examples of moving fluids.
In the study of fluids in motion, the following assumptions shall be made.
(1) The fluid is ideal; that is, it is incompressible and has no or negligible
viscosity or fluid friction. (2) The flow is steady. The path followed by succeeding
particle is called a streamline. A bundle of such streamlines is called a tube of flow.
In addition, the flow is laminar (or steady) when the velocity of flow is
relatively small. However, if the velocity is gradually increased until above
critical value, the flow becomes turbulent. In a turbulent flow, there are no
streamlines but whirlpools or eddy currents.
The flow of an ideal fluid is governed by two equations: the continuity
equation and Bernoulli’s equation.
A. CONTINUITY EQUATION
The continuity equation is an expression of the conservation of mass. The
mass of a fluid passing through one section of a pipe at a given time interval Δt
must pass through any section of the pipe in the same interval.
Consider two sections of a pipe A and B. The continuity equation states
that the mass of a fluid passing through section A (ma) is equal to the mass of the
fluid passing through section B (mb). In symbols, ma = mb.
However,

Va = AaΔxa = AavaΔt and Vb = AbΔxb = AbvbΔt

Where Aa and Ab are cross-sectional areas of pipe at sections A and B,

respectively; xa and xb are the distances traveled by the fluid at sections A and B,

respectively; and va and vb are the speeds of the flow of the fluid at sections A

and B, respectively. Since density and time interval are the same at both sections,

Aava = Abvb

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

This relation is called the continuity equation. The continuity equation

states that the same volume of fluid that enters the pipe in a given time interval
exits the pipe in the same time interval. Furthermore, it shows the inverse
relation between the speed of a fluid and the area. When the area of the tube is
large, the speed of the fluid is less. The velocity of fluid is greatest where the area
is least.

B. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s Equation is one of the powerful equation used when analyzing
fluid dynamics. It relates velocity, pressure, and elevation at points in a line of
flow. This can be derived using the work-energy theorem.
Using the work-energy theorem,
work done due to pressure difference + work done by gravity = change in kinetic energy
Daniel Bernoulli discovered that the sum of pressure energy, potential
energy, and kinetic energy for two points in an ideal flow is constant. Thus, we
can say that the Bernoulli’s equation is simply conservation of energy applied to
ideal fluid flow.
In equation form,
𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐
+ 𝒉𝟏 + = + 𝒉𝟐 +
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Each term has a dimension of height. In the language of hydraulics, each
term is referred to as head. The first term is called the pressure head, the second
term is the elevation head, and the third term is the velocity head. Note that if the
elevation of the flowing fluid does not change, then an increase in speed means a
decrease in pressure. Bernoulli’s equation does not hold in cases of turbulent
flow.

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

2. PIPES AND FITTINGS HEAD LOSS CALCULATION

Head losses in pipe has been introduced by using the Bernoulli’s principle
as in the previous discussion. Dramatically, head losses contribute to a great
factor in sizing up of pump in a certain pumping system since head loss is an
energy loss in the piping system that must be compensated in order to meet the
desired flow and pressure in the system. Due to the flow resistance of a piping
network brought about by pipe friction and fittings, actual flow in the fixture can
be interrupted. Mathematically, this can be calculated using the formula below:
hL = fLV2/2g – Friction Head Loss in pipes
hL = KV2/2g – Friction Head Loss in Fittings
V – Fluid velocity
f – Coefficient of friction in pipe dependent on Reynolds number
K – Coefficient in determining Head Loss in fittings (Table Shown below)
Several methods of determining the pipe friction coefficient (f) can be
used:
✓ Use of Moody Chart
The Moody chart gives the rough estimate of the pipe friction coefficient
for a certain pipe with known diameter, absolute surface friction and flow
characteristics involving the use of a nondimensional value called the Reynolds
number as a function of flow velocity and viscosity of the fluid used.
Methods are as follows:
1. Determine the Reynold’s number to determine the characteristics of
flow using one of the following equations:
Re = VD/v = ρVD/μ = γρVD/μg
V – fluid velocity (m/s, ft/s) ρ – Fluid Density (kg/m3, lb/ft3)
v – kinematic Viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s) μ – Absolute Viscosity (Pa-s)
D- Pipe Inner diameter (m, ft) γ – Specific Weight (N/m3)

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Recommended value for Absolute Roughness of some surfaces

2. Determine the Absolute roughness of the material surface to be used and
find r to follow the line for ε/D in the chart:
r = ε/D
3. Intersect the vertical line (Re) and curve line (ε/D) to determine the value
of friction factor in the left side of the moody chart.
4. Apply the equation below applying coefficient of friction f to find the total
friction loss in pipe.
hf = fLV2/2g
V – fluid velocity (m/s, ft/s) L – length of the pipe (m, ft)

✓ Use of Colebrook’s Equation

The Colebrook’s equation gives the accurate value of the pipe friction
coefficient for a certain pipe after several iterations and through the values of
diameter, absolute surface friction and flow characteristics involving the use of a
non-dimensional value called the Reynolds number as a function of flow velocity
and viscosity of the fluid used.

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Methods are as follows:

1. Determine the Reynold’s number to determine the characteristics of flow
using one of the following equations:
Re = VD/v = ρVD/μ = γρVD/μg
V – fluid velocity (m/s, ft/s) v – kinematic Viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)
D- Pipe Inner diameter (m, ft) ρ – Fluid Density (kg/m3, lb/ft3)
μ – Absolute Viscosity (Pa-s) γ – Specific Weight (N/m3)
2. Substitute the required parameters of the Colebrook’s equation. Assume
first for the value of f, find in the table above the value for absolute roughness ε,
and iterate the equation below:

The obtained value is the exact value of pipe friction coefficient and next
procedure can be followed immediately.
3. Apply the equation below applying coefficient of friction f to find the total
friction loss in pipe.
hf = fLV2/2g
V – fluid velocity (m/s, ft/s) L – length of the pipe (m, ft)

3. PUMP POWER SIZING CALCULATION

A pump is a mechanical device used to move a fluid by converting
mechanical energy to pressure energy called head. By following the Bernoulli’s
principle, we can easily apply the relation of obtaining the head created by a
moving fluid as:

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

𝑷𝒔 𝒗𝟐𝒔 𝑷𝒅 𝒗𝟐𝒅
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑻𝑫𝑯 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒉𝒍
𝒚 𝟐𝒈 𝒚 𝟐𝒈
The total dynamic head computed using the Bernoulli’s principle will be
applied to find the power imparted by the pump impeller in the fluid to be
conveyed following the equation below:
WP = γQ(TDH)
γ = Specific Weight of the fluid to be conveyed
Q = Volume flow rate of the fluid
Wp = Pump or the water power
TDH = Total dynamic head or the total resistance in head of fluid (m) of
the pumping network derived from the Bernoulli’s principle.

Sample representation of a Pumping System

4. PUMP LAWS AND CAVITATION

✓ Pump Laws / Affinity Laws
After defining the way of how to solve the power and the total dynamic
head needed by the pump in order to push or draw a water to or from a certain
location, we are now interested of what could be the possible effect in the
pumping characteristics if we increase or decrease the value of pump speed and
diameter. Presented below are the most commonly used pump scaling laws:

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Case 1: The pump configuration will not change, except for the impeller speed N:
𝑄2 𝑁2
= → Volumetric Flow – Impeller Speed relation
𝑄1 𝑁1

𝐻2 𝑁
= ( 2 )2 → Net Head – Impeller Speed relation
𝐻1 𝑁1

𝑊𝑃2 𝑁
= ( 2 )3 → Water Power – Impeller Speed relation
𝑊𝑃1 𝑁1

Case 2: The pump configuration will change (Impeller Diameter), Impeller speed
will remain unchanged:

𝑄2 𝐷
= ( 2 )3 → Volumetric Flow – Impeller diameter relation
𝑄1 𝐷1

𝐻2 𝐷
= ( 2 )2 → Net Head – Impeller diameter relation
𝐻1 𝐷1

𝑊𝑃2 𝐷
= ( 2 )5 → Water Power – Impeller diameter relation
𝑊𝑃1 𝐷1

✓ PUMP CAVITATION
Cavitation is a physical phenomenon that occurs in a liquid when it
experiences a drastic drop in pressure (as a vacuum created in the suction of the
pump) that causes the liquid to vaporize into small vapor bubbles. As the low
pressure returns to normal pressure levels, these bubbles implode as the vapor
changes phase back to a liquid and thus drastically decreases its volume. This
implosion causes noise and high levels of erosion where the imploding bubbles
contact the walls of a pipe, fitting, pump, or valve. The noise that develops
sounds similar to gravel flowing through the system in the area where the
cavitation is developing. Over time, the erosion results in excessive wear; this
eventually manifests itself as pinhole leaking.
The pressure at the suction side of a pump is most important because
there is the possibility that cavitation may occur. As water flows past the

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

impeller blades of a pump, local high-velocity flow zones produce low relative
pressures (Bernoulli Effect), and if these pressures reach the vapor pressure of
the liquid, then cavitation will occur. For a given type of pump operating at a
given speed and a given discharge, there will be certain pressure at the suction
side of the pump below which cavitation will occur. Pump manufacturers in
their testing procedures always determine this limiting pressure and include it
with their pump performance characteristics.
Meanwhile, to avoid cavitation, pump and pipe arrangement has been
designed to increase the suction head thus avoiding the formation of vapor that
could result to cavitation.
Minimum suction head to avoid cavitation can be calculated using the
formula below:
NPSHR = hP ± hS – hVP – hL
hP – Pressure (in head) acting at the surface of the fluid
hS – Suction head (+) or a suction lift (-)
hVP – Vapor pressure (in head) of the fluid or the vaporization pressure
existing at a certain temperature
hL – Friction head loss in the suction pipe
NPSH – Net positive suction head
The value of the NPSH must be always positive to reduce the risk of
cavitation. If it is stated in the pump, NPSH allowable must be always greater
than NPSHR.

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Sample Problems:
1. Water in the rural areas is often extracted from underground water
source whose free surface is 60m below the ground level. The water is
to be raised 5m above the ground by a pump. The diameter of the pipe
is 10cm at the inlet and 15cm at the exit. Neglecting any heat
interaction with the surroundings and frictional heating effect, what is
the necessary power input for the steady flow of water at the rate of
15L/s in kW?

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

2. Calculate the drive horsepower for pumping 1703 L/min cold water to
a tank suction at 127mm Hg vacuum, delivery at 5.3kg/cm2 gage, both
measured close to pump, efficiency of the pump is 0.65.

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

3. Water from a well is to be pumped to a height of 40m from the source.

The quantity of water to be delivered is 500L/s, through 480mm
diameter pipe. It is also desired to maintain a 100kpa pressure at the
summit. The frictional head losses from the suction and discharge of
the pump are equivalent to 2.0m. If the pump speed is 800 rpm,
determine the power needed by the pump in hp.

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

4. A pump is to deliver 80GPM of water at a density of 61.83lb/ft3 with a

discharge pressure of 150psig. Suction pressure indicates a 2 in hg
vacuum. The diameter of the suction and the discharge are 5in and 4in,
respectively. The pump has an efficiency of 70% while the motor
efficiency is 80%. Determine the:
a. Water horsepower of the pump
b. BHP of the pump motor
c. Power input to drive the motor

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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Problem Set #4 : Design of Water Distribution System

1. The diameter of the discharge pipe is 8 inches and that of the intake pipe is 10
inches. The pressure gage at discharge reads 32 psi, and vacuum gage at the intake
reads 12 in Hg. If the discharge flow rate = 4.0 ft3/sec of water and the break
horsepower is 49, find the efficiency. The intake and discharge are at the same
elevation.

2. The water from an underground water source which is 30 m underneath the

ground is to be raised to 10m over the ground by a pump. The diameter of the pipe
is 15 cm at the inlet and 20 cm at the exit. Neglecting any heat interaction with the
surroundings and frictional heating effect, what is the necessary power input for
the steady flow of water at the rate of 30 liters/ sec in kW?

3. Water flowing through a garden hose of diameter 2.77 cm fills a 25.0-L bucket
in 1.40 min. a) What is the speed of the water leaving the end of the hose? Answer
in m/s. b) A nozzle is now attached to the end of the hose. If the nozzle diameter
is one-third the diameter of the hose, what is the speed of the water leaving the
nozzle? Answer in m/s.

4. The suction pressure of a pump reads 2 in of mercury vacuum and discharge

pressure reads 130psi is use to deliver 100 gpm of water with specific volume of
0.0163 ft3/lb. Determine the pump work.

5. Calculate the drive horsepower for pumping 0.05 𝑚3 /𝑠 of water. The pipe used
has 6.35 cm radius at the inlet and 5.08 cm radius at the exit. The source of the
water is from the ground to a pool located at the second floor of the house 4m
above the ground. Pump efficiency is 0.05.

56
CHAPTER 4: BASIC AIR CONDITIONING

Chapter 4:
BASIC AIR CONDITIONING
Air conditioning is used throughout the world to counter the negative
effects caused by heat and humidity. Without air conditioning, people tire easily
and feel lethargic, resulting in low morale and productivity.
In order to provide comfortable environment, you need to have an
understanding of the principles and theory of air conditioning, be able to
recognize system components and controls, and understand how they work
within the system.
This chapter will provide you with information required to meet those
requirements.

CONTENT:
1. Principles of Air Conditioning
2. Purpose of Air Conditioning
3. Factors Influencing Human Comfort
4. Psychrometry of Air
5. Psychrometric Process

1. PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING

ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air Conditioning
Engineers) define air conditioning as a process of treating air so as to control
simultaneously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness & distribution to meet the
condition of a given space.
It is the process of conditioning the air in a space to maintain a
predetermined temperature-humidity relationship to meet comfort or technical
requirements. This warming and cooling of the air is uisually referred to as
winter and summer air conditioning.

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CHAPTER 4: BASIC AIR CONDITIONING

TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM COMMONLY MANUFACTURED:

1. Window Type Air Conditioners – small package type A/C units consist
of direct expansion refrigeration as cooling system, condenser fan, circulating
fan, and control system. It is understood to serve one space or many units
serving larger space.
2. Split Type Air Conditioners – consist of outdoor unit which are
typically condenser and compressor and the indoor unit that cools air before it is
supplied to the condition space. It is usually installed inside the condition space.
a. Single-split A/C units – consist of one indoor unit to match one outdoor
unit.
b. Multi-split A/C units – consist of two or more indoor units to match
one outdoor unit.
3. Roof Top Package A/C – larger package type A/C and are usually
installed outside the condition space typically on the roof top of the building
where it served. Components are:
a. Cooling/heating coil
b. Condenser coil
c. Compressor
d. Circulating fan
e. Condenser fan for air cooled condenser
f. Air intake porch, grilles, and filter
g. Supply air porch
h. Package controller and control panel built in the system
4. Chilled Water A/C units – consist of refrigeration circuit and chilled
water circuit. The chilled water A/C units are manufactured in small capacity, 3-
15 tons, while the large capacity units are made from 50 to 500 tons of
refrigeration.
a. The refrigeration circuit consist of simple vapor refrigeration
components and its system controller

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b. The chilled water circuit consist of package water chiller, chilled water
circulating pump, air handlers such as FCU and AHU, connecting chilled water
pipings and system controller.
5. Combined Hot Water and Chilled Water System – known as four-pipe
water system normally consist of hot water lines and the heating coils, cooled
water lines and the cooling coils, circulating pumps, air handlers, and controlling
system.

2. PURPOSE OF AIR CONDITIONING

1. Health and Human Comfort
The human body is amazingly adaptable organism. However, variation in
outdoor temperature, humidity, and cleanliness when beyond the normal
adaptability reults to discomfort. In this regard, it is necessary to provide
modified air conditioner to maintain healthy and comfortable human
environment.
2. Industrial Purpose and Special Air Conditioning/Ventilation
Examples for air conditioning services for industrial services are:
a. Data processing area for computer rooms
b. Textile Processing
c. Drying & Storing Farm Crops
d. Nuclear Facilities
e. Industial Exhaust System
f. Air Conditioning of wood and paper products facilities

3. FACTORS INFLUENCING HUMAN COMFORT

1. Human heat lost due to convection, evaporation, & radiation in human
bodies.
2. Insulating factor – discomfort due to improper clothing
3. Physiological factors – due to activity, age, and health

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4. Thermal comfort factor – due to varying air temperature and humidity

5. Noise beyond acceptable limit

4. PSYCHROMETRY OF AIR
Psychrometry is the study of properties of air and water vapor mixture
under varying temperatures and pressures. It is presented on psychrometric
chart.
Psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic
properties of moist air.
Psychrometric Properties:
1. Relative Humidity (RH)– is define as the ratio of the mole fraction of
water vapor in moist air to mole fraction of water vapor in saturated air.
– existing partial pressure of water vapor
divided by saturation pressure of pure water vapor at same temperature.
2. Humidity Ratio (w) – the mass of water interspersed in each kg dry of
air.
w = kg of W.V. / kg dry air
3. Dry Bulb Temperature - is the temperature of the air as measured by an
ordinary thermometer.
4. Wet Bulb Temperature – is thermodynamic adiabatic temperature in an
adiabatic saturation process, and measured by a wet bulb thermometer.
5. Dew Point Temperature – is the temperature at which air can be cooled
to its saturation before condensation begin.
6. Enthalpy (h) – the enthalpy of mixture of dry air and water vapor is the
enthalpy of dry air and the enthalpy of water vapor. Thus,
h = ha + hs; ha = Cpt
hs = Whg
h =Cpt + Whg
where: Cp = specific heat of air @ constant pressure

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Cp = 1.0062 KJ/Kg-K
t = temperature of air-vapor mixture, °C
hg = enthalpy of sat. steam @ air vapor mixture
7. Specific Volume – is a ratio of unit volume of dry air per unit weight of
dry air.
v = RaT/Pa; m3 / kg dry air
= RaT/(Pt – Ps)
= 0.287 T/(Pt – Ps)
5. PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESS
1. Sensible Heating or Cooling – a change in dry bulb temperature at
constant humidity ratio.
2. Humidification – an addition of water vapor
a. Adiabatic addition of moisture h=C
b. Addition of moisture with addition of heat
3. Cooling and Dehumidification Process – reduction of both dry bulb
temperature and humidity ratio
4. Chemical Dehumidification – the water vapor from air is adsorbed or
absorbed by hygroscopic material at constant enthalpy.
5. Mixing Process – in mixing process, two streams of air of different
condition are mixed to create another new condition.
m1 + m2 = m3; mass balance
m1h1 + m2h2 = m3h3; energy balance
m1W1 + m2W2 = m3W3; humidity ratio

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Sample Problems:
1. Calculate the specific volume of an air vapor mixture in m3/kg of dry
air when the following conditions prevail:
t = 30°C
W = 0.015 kg/kg
Pt = 90kPa

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2. An air vapor mixture has a dry bulb temperature of 30°C air and
humidity ratio of 0.015. Calculate at two barometric pressure 85kPa and
101kPa:
a. the enthalpy
b. the dew point temperature

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3. In an air conditioning unit, 3.5m3/sec of air at 27°C dry bulb

temperature, 50% RH and standard atmospheric pressure enters the
unit. The leaving condition of the air is 13°C dry bulb and 90% RH.
Using properties from psychrometric chart; (Solve using the chart and
by using the formula).
a. calculate the refrigeration capacity
b. determine the rate of water removal from the air in kg/sec.

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4. Two kilograms of air per sec, with a dry bulb temperature of 2°C, are
passed across a heating surface and a dry bulb temperature increased to
43°C. Determine:
a. the total heat removed in watts
b. the sensible heat removed in watts
c. the mass of water vapor condensed in grams per second
d. the latent heat removed in watts

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Problem Set #4 : Basic Air Conditioning

1. Sixty kilogram of air with enthalpy of 80 kJ/kg is mixed with another x air until
the mixture is 100 kg and 70 kJ/kg enthalpy. Find the enthalpy of x air before
mixing.

2. Calculate the specific volume of an air-vapor mixture in cubic meters per

kilogram of dry air when the following conditions prevail: t = 25℃, W = 0.015
kg/kg and Pt = 90000Pa.

3. A stream of outdoor air is mixed with a stream of return air in an air-

conditioning system that operates at 101000 Pa pressure. The flow rate of outdoor
air is 2kg/s, and its condition is 35℃ dry-bulb temperature and 25℃ wet-bulb
temperature. The flow rate of return air is 3kg/s, and its condition is 24℃ and 50%
RH. Determine the enthalpy and the humidity ratio of the mixture.

4. A room contains air at 20℃, 85 kPa and 50% RH. The partial pressure of air, the
specific humidity, and the enthalpy per unit mass of dry air are to be determined.

5. An air-vapor mixture hs a dry-bulb temperature of 30℃ and a humidity ratio of

0.0125 Calculate at two different barometric pressure, 65 and 101 kPa, the
enthalpy.

6. A room contains air at 20℃, 98 kPa and 85% RH. The partial pressure of air, the
specific humidity, and the enthalpy per unit mass of dry air are to be determined.

7. At 37 ℃ the saturation pressure (Ps) of water vapour is obtained from steam

tables a 6.2795 kPa. Since the relative humidity is 85%, the vapour pressure of
water in air (Pv) is Pv = 0.85 x Ps = 0.5 x 6.2795 = 5.337575 kPa. Calculate the
enthalpy.

8. A room contains air at 70℉, 14.6 psia and 85% RH. The partial pressure of air,
the specific humidity, and the enthalpy per unit mass of dry air are to
be determined.

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9. The air conditions at the intake of an air compressor are 28℃, 50% RH and 101
kPa. The air is compressed to 400 kPa, then sent to an intercooler. If condensation
of water vapor from the compressed air is to be prevented, what is the minimum
temperature to which the air can be cooled in the intercooler?

10. Consider a hot humid day 90°F and 90% RH. We want to condition the air to
70°F at about 50% RH. We do this by chilling the air far enough to condense out
enough moisture to dehumidify it: the goal is to have air with absolute humidity
not exceeding 0.008 lbs of moisture per pound of air (~50 to 55 grains per pound
of dry air). Show the processes on the psychrometric chart.

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CHAPTER 5: FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM IN BUILDINGS

Chapter 5:
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM IN BUILDINGS

The protection of building structures from the hazards of fire is one of the
utmost concern of the government. Hence, for a continued citizen awareness of
damages brought by fire to life and property, the month of march was declared as
fire prevention month in the Philippines.
Planners and builders have their own contribution in this campaign, by
making their plans and constructions conform to the fire code requirements. The
owner on the other hand, is much more concern of his investment protection.
However, despite the advancement in fire protection technology, fire is still
common occurrence in buildings of all types. Records showed that the loss of life
and damages to property is considerably enormous in every incident of fire.
Modern design and construction techniques, did not escape the blame for
allegedly having increased the potential of fire, especially in tall buildings attributed
to one of the following: (1) Light material construction methods do not offer inherent
protection against fire unlike the cement plaster or concrete, (2) Non-integrally
constructed floors and walls provide fuse for fire and smoke, (3) False ceiling
containing electrical and other services, are hidden locations where fire can start
unnoticed, (4) Punched-hole for installation of telephone and other related services,
violates the design structural integrity, (5) the central air conditioning system can
serve as passage for smoke (6) The use of plastic materials for trim and covering of
interior structures create potential ignition for fire and smoke, and (7) Furniture
style and materials including the interior designs could pose a great flammability
and could spread a fire quickly.

CONTENT:

1. Type of Building Construction in reference with Fire protection

2. Elements of Fire protection system in building
3. Fire Detection and Alarm system

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1. TYPES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN REFERENCE WITH FIRE

PROTECTION
There are five fundamental categories of building construction known
as types of building construction. Each type of building construction has fire-
resistive strengths and weaknesses—that is, some types burn much more
readily than others. The five building construction types are arranged in the
form of a scale based on the amount of combustible material used in their
construction.
➢ Fire-Resistive (Type I) Construction
Fire-resistive (Type I) construction, with its concrete and protected
steel walls, floors, and structural framework, was initially intended to confine
a fire by its method of construction— that is, by containing the fire with
noncombustible wall, ceiling, and floor assemblies so it is confined to one
floor or one space on a floor. However, fire does spread several floors in a
modem fire-resistive building through two paths: through ductwork in the
central heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system and by
flames extending vertically from window to window.
➢ Noncombustible (Type II) Construction
Noncombustible (Type II) construction is also built of noncombustible
steel or concrete walls, floors, and structural framework; however, the roof
covering is combustible, which can burn and spread fire. The roof covering
of a Type II building can be constructed of a combustible built-up roof
covering, a layered asphalt and felt paper covering, or an ethylene propylene
diene monomer (EPDM) or polyvinylchloride (PVC) thermoplastic
membrane. Combustible foams may be used as thermal insulation. When a
fire occurs inside a Type II building, flames can rise to the underside of the
steel roof deck, conduct heat through the metal, and ignite the combustible
roof covering. The asphalt, felt paper, and foam insulation may burn and
spread fire along the roof covering.

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➢ Ordinary (Type III) Construction

Ordinary (Type III) construction is built of noncombustible masonry-
bearing walls, but the floors, structural framework, and roof can be made of
wood or another combustible material. The major recurring fire spread
problem with Type III construction is concealed spaces and penetration.
These small voids, cavities, and openings through which smoke and fire can
spread are found behind the partition walls, floors, and ceilings. Wood studs,
floor joists, and suspended ceilings create concealed spaces. Penetrations are
created by small openings for utilities. These small openings around pipes
and wires allow fire to spread into concealed spaces. Flames can spread
vertically several stories or horizontally to adjoining occupancies through
concealed spaces. Fire spreads inside concealed spaces of a Type III building
by convection, the transfer of heat by motion of a liquid or gas. Heated fire
gases and flames in a concealed space can travel upwards several floors and
break out in an attic space, engulfing the entire building envelope.
➢ Heavy-Timber (Type IV) Construction
Heavy-timber (Type IV) construction is built of a structure that
consists of large timbers. In this type of construction, a wood column cannot
be less than 8 in thick in any dimension and a wood beam cannot be less than
6 in thick. The floor and roof decking can be thick wood planks. Exposed
timber beams, columns, and decks, if ignited in a fire, create large radiated
heat waves after the windows break during a blaze. If a fire in a heavy-timber
building is not extinguished by the initial firefighting attack, a tremendous
fire with flames shooting out of the windows will spread fire to adjoining
buildings by radiated heat. A fully involved type IV building requires large
water supply sources to protect nearby buildings.
➢ Wood-Frame (Type V) Construction
Wood-frame (Type V) construction is the most combustible of the five
types of building construction. A wood-frame building is the only one of the

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five types of construction that has combustible exterior walls. The interior
framing and exterior walls are typically constructed of slender repetitive
wood studs, joists, rafters, and trusses that burn very rapidly. Flames can
spread out a window and then along the outside wood walls in addition to
the interior fire spread. A Type five building is rapidly engulfed in flame and
is therefore reserved for small structures with small occupancies.

2. ELEMENTS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM IN BUILDINGS

➢ Classification of Fire according to Sources
As provided by the Fire code of the Philippines (R.A. 9514 s. 2008),
below are the classifications of fire according to source:
1. Class A Fires - Fires involving ordinary combustible materials such
as wood, cloth, rubber and plastics.
2. Class B Fires - Fires involving flammable liquids and gases.
3. Class C Fires - Fires involving energized electrical equipment.
4. Class D Fire - Fires involving combustible materials, such as
sodium, magnesium, potassium, and other similar materials.
5. Class K Fires - Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible
cooking media (vegetable or animal oils and fats).

➢ Classification of Fire Protection Methods

Although heat alone can prove deadly to occupants, toxic gases in
smoke cause the majority of deaths and injuries. About half of all fatalities
from fires are from carbon monoxide poisoning, and more than a third are
from cardiopulmonary complications. Fire is one of the greatest fears of any
homeowner, business owner, or director of an institution. Although the
prime concern is always loss of lives in a fire, more than half of all businesses
never reopen after the devastating effect of a fire.

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1. Passive Fire Protection - Passive fire protection in buildings

involves constructing walls, floors, ceilings, beams, columns, and shaft
enclosures so they can resist, control, and contain the damaging effects of a
fire. It is intended to entail the following:
o Provide structural and thermal integrity of floor, wall, and
ceiling assemblies during a fire for a specified time period
• use materials and construction assemblies that contain the
fire in a small area and confine the fire in the room or area
for a specific period of time
o Compartmentalize a room or space to control the fire spread
• separating a building into compartments so that if there is
a fire, the fire damage is confined to certain a room or
certain section of the building only such as firewalls, fire
separation and firestop
o Provide exiting systems and evacuation plans for occupants to
safely and rapidly evacuate the building
• provision of fire exit doors and fire escape
ladders/structures and provision of emergency plan.
2. Active Fire Protection - Active fire protection systems include
standpipe, sprinkler, and spray systems designed to extinguish the fire
outright or control the fire by delaying its damaging effects. Types of
firefighting media include water, foams, inert gases, and chemical powders.
Active fire protection systems are extremely effective in containing and
fighting a fire if they are designed and maintained so they work properly.
These systems require regular inspection, testing, and maintenance. Poor
maintenance leads to a false sense of security and lack of proper protection
when the system is needed under an emergency situation.

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o Stand Pipe Systems

A standpipe system is an internal piping network
connected to fire-hose stations that are used to rapidly suppress
a fire. Firefighters can use hoses connected to the standpipe
system or connect their hoses to valve outlets near the fire.
• Wet Stand Pipes - This system always has water in the
piping. The water in the system is always under pressure.
In some cases, a fire pump may be used to increase the
water pressure. The wet pipe system is the most commonly
used standpipe system. It is used in heated buildings where
there is no danger of the water in the piping freezing. Any
part of the standpipe system that is exposed to freezing
temperatures should be insulated. It is very important that
the water in the piping does not freeze. Frozen water may
prevent a standpipe system from working.
• Dry Stand Pipes – Dry stand pipes has no other special
construction as compared to wet stand pipes, the only
difference is dry stand pipes does not contain standing
water in the piping that eliminates the possibility of fitting
leaks and water freeze. Types of dry stand pipes are Dry
Standpipe with an Automatic Dry Pipe Valve, Dry Standpipe
with a Manual Control Valve, Dry Standpipe with No
Permanent Water Supply.

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Building fire house outlet connected to Stand pipe

o Sprinkler System
A conventional sprinkler system is fitted with automatic
devices designed to release water on a fire. These devices are
called sprinkler heads. A rise to a predetermined temperature
causes the sprinkler head to open. Water is then discharged in
the form of spray. When the sprinkler heads open, they are said
to have fused. The sprinkler heads are fitted at standard
intervals on the piping. If more than one head opens, the area
sprayed by each overlaps that of the sprinkler head next to it.
Types of automatic sprinkler systems are:
• Wet-Pipe Automatic Sprinkler Systems - Wet-pipe
automatic sprinkler systems have pressurized water in the
pipe and mains. Water is released when the sprinkler head
is activated. Because of the potential for freezing, this
system is suitable for buildings where the indoor ambient
temperature is not lower than about 40°F (5°C). Wet-pipe
sprinkler systems are the most common in use today. In wet
systems exposed to freezing temperatures, pipes containing
an antifreeze solution of water–glycerin or water–
propylene glycol are connected to a water supply.

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• Dry-Pipe Automatic Sprinkler Systems - Dry-pipe

automatic sprinkler systems have pipes filled with
compressed air or nitrogen. The pressure in these lines is
slightly above the water pressure, and this pressure
difference is what keeps the water out of the sprinkler lines.
When a sprinkler head is activated, the air will begin to be
released and the air pressure will drop. As air pressure
drops, water will begin to advance throughout the lines and
flow through the activated head(s). The dry-pipe type is
typically used in unheated buildings where there is danger
that the water in the pipes would freeze and burst the pipes.
• Preaction Automatic Sprinkler Systems - Preaction
automatic sprinkler systems are similar to dry-pipe except
that the water first fills the pipe as an alarm is set off,
providing an opportunity to extinguish the fire manually
before the sprinklers open. Water is stopped at feeders (in
the walls before the pipes supplying the sprinkler heads) by
a valve. This valve is electronically activated by a heat-
detecting device within the area, and a signal is sent to the
valve and the valve opens. Water will then flow to all heads,
but will only discharge through the activated heads. If there
is an accidental break of a sprinkler line, water will not
immediately discharge because the valve is holding back
the water flow and not the sprinkler heads (unlike the wet-
pipe or dry-pipe systems). The preaction sprinkler system
is often used where the use of sprinklers could cause
extensive material or equipment damage, such as in retail
stores and computer areas.

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• Deluge Automatic Sprinkler Systems - Deluge automatic

sprinkler systems allow all sprinkler heads to go off at the
same time. This system is very similar to the preaction
system, except all sprinkler heads are open. Once a heat-
detecting device activates the valve, water will flow from
all heads within the area. Deluge systems are generally
installed in hazardous areas where extremely rapid fire
spread is anticipated and that requires immediate
application of water.

A type of wet-pipe sprinkler system

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Water distribution line from a sprinkler head

Stand pipe connections for building emergency water supply

(Siamese connection, right)

o Alternative Fire Suppression Systems

Conventional sprinklers demand high water supply
rates and are associated with fixed large diameter pipe
networks around the area to be protected. The necessity for
large amounts of water has some inherent disadvantages: it
damages most of the building’s contents and interior finishes;

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flammable oils tend to float on the water’s surface and continue

to burn; it conducts electricity; and if it vaporizes into steam, it
may be harmful to the firefighters. Other methods may be
considered when these disadvantages are of major concern.
These alternative methods include the following.
• Water Mist Automatic Sprinkler Systems - Water mist
automatic sprinkler systems rely upon a fine spray of water
to suppress a fire. Water mist systems must produce a
directional mist or fog of fine water drops through a nozzle.
The optimum water droplet size ranges from 0.003 to 0.005in
(80 to 200µm), although larger droplet sizes can be used. The
nozzle design must produce a small droplet with an orifice
sufficiently large to avoid clogging from suspended
particulates that may be present in the water stream. The
droplets must be small enough to penetrate all areas behind
obstructions, yet large enough to penetrate to the surface of
the combusting fuel.
• Clean Agent Gas Fire Suppression Systems - Clean agent gas
fire suppression systems discharge as a gas on the surface of
combusting materials. A typical system consists of cylinders
of a liquid agent under high pressure, heat/smoke detectors,
and discharge nozzles connected to a network of pipes. See
the next figure. Large amounts of heat energy are absorbed
from the surface of the burning material, lowering the
surface temperature below the ignition point. Clean agent
gases can be released in a building space without leaving
residue. When released, they extinguish the fire rapidly but
do little harm to building occupants, firefighters, interior
contents, and equipment.

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Sample Plan of Clean Agent Gas Fire Suppression Systems

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Suppression Systems - Carbon

dioxide (CO2) fire suppression systems discharge a CO2 gas
that extinguishes fire by displacing oxygen or taking oxygen
away from the fire. The principal problem with CO2 is that it
must be used in fairly high concentrations and because high
CO2 concentrations deplete much of the oxygen in a space,
this type of system cannot be used with occupants or other
living beings present.
• Foam Fire Suppression Systems - Foam fire suppression
systems discharge a high volume of gas-filled bubbles that
rapidly fill a space. Foam masses are lighter than water and
flammable liquids, and they may be either air or chemical gas
bubbles. They float on the surface of burning liquids to
deplete oxygen and smother the fire.

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o Portable Fire Extinguisher

Portable fire extinguishers can be used to put out most
fires in their early stages. They are classified according to their
ability to handle specific classes and sizes of fires. Not all fuels
are the same, and if a fire extinguisher is used on the wrong
type of fuel, it can make matters worse. Labels on extinguishers
indicate the class and relative size of fire that they can be
expected to handle. Types of portable fire extinguisher are as
follows:
• Class A Extinguishers - Class A extinguishers are suitable for
use on fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper,
rubber, trash, and many plastics, where a quenching-cooling
effect is required. The numeral indicates the relative fire
extinguishing effectiveness of each unit. Class A
extinguishers are rated from 1-A to 40-A. Extinguishers rated
for Class A hazards are water, foam, and multipurpose dry
chemical types.
• Class B Extinguishers Class B extinguishers are suitable for
use on fires in flammable liquids, gases, and greases, where
an oxygen-exclusion or flame-interruption effect is essential.
Class B extinguishers are rated from 1-B to 640-B. (A
discussion follows.) Extinguishers rated for Class B hazards
are foam, Halon alternative, and CO2 and multipurpose dry
chemical.
(Note: The numbers indicate the level of effectiveness in
extinguishing fires, with 10 rated 10 times more effective than 1. A
1-A fire requires 1 1 ⁄4 gal (5 L) of water to extinguish. A 2-A fire
needs 2 1 ⁄2 gal of water (10 L) or twice that of the 1-A fire. So an
extinguisher rated 5- A will put out a fire five times as large as one

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rated 1-A. For Class B extinguishers, the numerical codes are even
more complicated, and generally this type of information is of most
use to professional firefighters.)
• Class C Extinguishers - Class C extinguishers are suitable for
use on fires involving energized electrical equipment and
wiring where the dielectric conductivity of the extinguishing
agent is of importance. For example, water-solution
extinguishers cannot be used on electrical fires because water
conducts electricity and the operator could receive a shock
from energized electrical equipment via the water.
• Class D Extinguishers - Class D extinguishers are suitable
for use on fires in combustible metals such as magnesium,
titanium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium. No numeral is
used for Class D extinguishers; the relative effectiveness of
these extinguishers for use on specific combustible metal
fires is detailed on the extinguisher nameplate
(Note: Other types of fire extinguisher includes an Air Pressurized
Water (APW) Extinguisher, CO2 Fire Extinguisher, Dry Chemical
Fire Extinguisher which includes combination of classes, e.i., “BC”,
“ABC” etc.)

A properly placed Fire Extinguisher with Label

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3. FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEM

Fire alarm systems detect products of combustion, such as smoke
(aerosol particulate), heat, and light, and provide early occupant notification
to allow the safe egress of the occupants.
In medium to large buildings and building complexes, an alarm
system includes all or some of the following:
➢ A system control unit
➢ A primary or main electrical power supply
➢ A secondary (stand-by) power supply, usually batteries or an
emergency generator
➢ Alarm-initiating devices such as automatic fire detectors, manual pull
stations, and/or sprinkler system flow devices, connected to initiating
circuits of the system control unit
➢ Alarm-indicating devices, such as bells or lights, connected to
initiating circuits of the system control unit
➢ Ancillary controls such as ventilation shutdown functions, connected
to output circuits of the system control unit
➢ Remote alarm indication to an external response location, such as the
fire department
➢ Control circuits to activate a fire protection system or smoke control
system
Fire detection includes all or some of the following:
➢ Smoke Detector - a sensing device that identifies products of
combustion in air.
➢ Fixed-temperature Heat Detectors - signal an alarm after the
temperature at the detector reaches a set value.
➢ Rate of rise Heat Detectors - Rate-of-rise heat detectors signal an
alarm when the temperature at the detector increases at a rate
exceeding a preset value.

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➢ Flame Detectors - Flame detectors optically sense high levels of either

infrared (IR) radiation or ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Combination
UV/IR detectors are also commercially available.
➢ Ionization Smoke Detectors - Ionization smoke detectors are
designed with a sensing chamber that has a radioactive element.
➢ Photoelectric Smoke Detectors - Photoelectric smoke detectors use a
light scattering or light obscuration principle. They contain a light
emitting diode (LED) that is adjusted to direct a narrow IR light across
the unit’s detection chamber.
➢ Air-Sampling Smoke Detectors - Air-sampling smoke detectors use a
similar approach to light obscuration detectors, however, a laser or
xenon tube is typically used as a light source.

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GROUP ACTIVITY:

1. In a group of 5, visit a City or Municipal Bureau of Fire Protection and conduct an

interview (minimum of 30mins. With proper documentation when necessary and if
will be allowed) with fire protection personnel with the following guide questions:

a) What are the duties and responsibilities of Bureau of Fire Protection and
personnel in the event of Building Fire Catastrophe?

b) What are the safety measures and precautions observed by a firefighter prior to
entering a building fire scenario?

c) In the past decades, what are the major causes of fire in building the Bureau of
Fire Protection encountered?

d) What are the rules and regulations being implemented by the BFP in building
construction to avoid such catastrophic event in the future?

84